Ilkhanate

Inhabitants. Estimate is more than Rayy in 1220 CE, significantly more on basis that Tabriz was likely the most populous city in Persia at this time.
Tabriz.
Prior to the Mongol conquest Rayy, in northern Iran, had about 80,000 in 1220 CE. ^[1]
Tabriz "developed into a great metropolis". ^[2] As the major trade center in Persia it therefore was likely the most populous city in Persia in the post-Mongol conquest era. Tabriz had a cistern for drinking water and baths with hot water. ^[3]
The population of Tabriz was larger than that of the later Ilkhan capital Sultaniya, which was also impressive. ^[4]
"Sultaniya was an important commercial centre, a ’great city’, as Clavijo reported on his arrival on 26 June 1404 ... Founded in about 1285 by Arghun, the sixth Ilkhanid ruler of Persia, who was attracted by its abundant pastures and used it as his summer capital, Sultaniya became the seat of empire under his son Mohammed Oljeytu Khudabanda in 1313. The city was expanded aggressively, the outer walls increasing from twelve thousand paces in circumference to thirty thousand. ... Oljeytu intended Sultaniya to become a fully functioning capital, no mere royal camp. He duly embarked on a terrific building spree, ordering his courtiers to design graceful palaces and gardens. The vizier Rashid al-din built an entire quarter of a thousand houses. Another, Tak al-din Ali Shah, built a lavish, ten-thousand-dinar palace called Paradise, its doors, walls and floors studded with pearls, gold, rubies, turquoise, emeralds and amber. A city of monuments made from baked brick, stone and wood sprang up on the desert plain, luxuriously decorated with bronze doors, inlaid window grilles, marble revetments and mosaic faience." ^[5]

[1]: (Chandler and Fox 2013, 232) Chandler, Tertius. Fox, Gerald. 2013. 3000 Years of Urban Growth. Elsevier.

[2]: (Morgan 2015, 69) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

[3]: (Houtsma et al. 1993, 586) Houtsma, M Th. Wensinck, A J. Gibb, H A R. Heffening, W. Levi-Provencal, E. 1993. First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. E.J. Brill. Leiden.

[4]: (Marozzi 2004, 135-136) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London.

[5]: (Marozzi 2004, 133-135) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London.

in squared kilometers. Estimate of Ilkhanate at its greatest extent.
The Ilkhanate emerged from the Mongol conquest of Iran, Iraq and Turkey. The armies of Hulegu had attacked and destroyed many of the great cites of the Middle East, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate. Local dynasties had to submit to Mongol rule. In 1300 the Mongols spilt up their empire into four semi-independent regions, one of these was the Ilkhanate. From then on it was a fairly autonomous polity, although its rulers acknowledged a higher authority in the Great Khan. The Ilkhanate saw the return of stability to the region. Over time the Ilkhanate absorbed influences from Persia and the Middle East, becoming less ’Mongol’. ^[1]

[1]: REUVEN AMITAI, ’IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history; Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, pp.134-148.

People.
McEvedy and Jones ^[1]
Iran: 3.5m
Afghanistan: 1.75m
"The problem in Persia is that land that has been neglected may well not be easy to bring back into cultivation. Agriculture was, in the absence of large rivers or adequate rainfall, very dependent on the qanat system of underground water channels. ... qanats require constant skilled maintenance if they are to continue to operate, many will have been ruined, not necessarily by deliberate destruction but simply through long-term neglect because the peasants had fled. ... Similarly in the case of Iraq. ... It is unlikely that Hulegu deliberately destroyed the agricultural potential of Iraq though here, too, much damage could inadvertently have been done simply through lack of proper maintenance of the irrigation canals." ^[2]

[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 153-155) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd.

[2]: (Morgan 2015, 79-80) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

levels.
1. Tabriz ^[1]
2. Cities
"Mostawfī distinguishes in his account of the revenues of the different provinces and districts between the revenues of certain towns and their surrounding districts (welāyāt) ... Among the towns and districts described in this way, all of which were situated on the main trade routes, were Baghdad, Kūfa, Wāseṭ, Ḥella, Isfahan, Solṭānīya, Qazvīn, Qom, Kāšān, Hamadān, Yazd, Tabrīz, Ojān, Ahar, Šūštar, Āva, Sāva, Zanjān, Marāḡa, and Shiraz." ^[2]
3. Towns
4. Villages
5. Hamlets

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.142.

[2]: Ann K. S. Lambton, ’ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 3)’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-5-part2-islamic

levels.
Until Ghazan the Reformer the Ilkhans were pagan ^[1] although Teguder had converted to Islam before 1284 CE. ^[2]
1. The Khan. After Ghazan’s formal conversion to Islam he adopted the title padishah-i Islam which "expressed independence within the Mongol tradition and claims to pre-eminence in the Islamic world" ^[3]
2. Islamic judges. They were regulated under Ghazan’s administrative reforms. ^[4]
3. Imams

[1]: (Marshall 1993, 228) Marshall, Robert. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press.

[2]: (Morgan 2015, 66) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

[3]: Beatrice Forbes Manz, ‘The Rule of the Infidels: The Mongols and the Islamic World’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 151.

[4]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.147.

levels.
"Noteworthy was the decimal chain of command, the grouping of soldiers in tens, hundreds, and thousands, up to an army division of 10,000 men (Mongolian tümän, Pers. tūmān), which was to have an enduring impact on the military organization of succeeding eastern Islamic powers, being adopted by, e.g., the Mughals in India." ^[1]
1. Khan.
The military retinue, governors, warriors holding iqtas and the tribes all owed military obligations to the Khan. ^[2]
2. Military retinue.Like the Seljuks and the Ottomans, the Khans had “a group of armed, mainly free men (the majority of them foreigners), who served on a voluntary basis and were attached personally to the leader. They were his closet companions, friends and servants; they commanded the troops in wars, while a select group of them served as his bodyguard. Their livelihood was secured by their masters, predominantly from the booty acquired during incursions and wars. The strength of these retinues ranged from a few dozen to 3,000 men. When the founders of the new states began to transform their personal might into territorial power, they relied heavily on their military retinues, delegating them to and settling them on the territories they controlled. In this Gefolgschaft-type of state, it is the military retinue to which the origins of the formal institutions of power can be traced back.” ^[3]
2. Chief hajeb or espahsalar (commander) (10,000s?)"For all these dynasties—whose administrative infrastructures tended in any case to be derived from, or at least strongly influenced by, those of the ʿAbbasid Caliphate ... The commander-in-chief of the actual troops was normally a Turk, and held the title of “chief ḥāǰeb” (ḥāǰeb-e bozorg, ḥāǰeb al-ḥoǰǰāb, etc.) or espahsālār, lesser commanders having the unqualified title of ḥāǰeb." ^[1]
3. hajeb (lesser commander) (1,000s?)
4. intermediate officer (100s?) inferred
5. iqta holders (10s?)Warriors holding iqtas. ^[4]
6. Soldiers- those men who had to fight through tribal obligations or recruited locally. ^[4]

[1]: (Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii

[2]: Fodor, Pal. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. P.193; Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp.555, 557.

[3]: Fodor, Pal. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. P.193.

[4]: Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp.555, 557.

levels.

1. Khan
2. Royal household and the high officials e.g. chief minster, tax officials. Later, some were granted land holdings to support them. ^[1]
_Central government_
"For all these dynasties - whose administrative infrastructures tended in any case to be derived from, or at least strongly influenced by, those of the ʿAbbasid Caliphate - there was a military affairs department (dīvān al-ǰayš, dīvān al-ʿarż/ʿāreż) in the central administration, headed by an official, normally a civilian, called the ṣāḥeb al-ǰayš or ʿāreż." ^[2]
2. wazir ^[3] Persian historian Rashid al-Din was chief minister to Ghazan. ^[4] According to Rashid al-Din, the Mongols assessed the wazir on his ability to extract revenue. ^[3]
3. divans - Departments of state.
3. ṣāḥeb-e dīvān (postal service?)"These stations were in the charge of the ṣāḥeb-e dīvān, who had nāʾebs in the provinces." ^[5]
4. nāʾebs
5. Station master"Each station was to be run by a station master and to keep twenty horses for the government couriers" ^[5]
6. Stable hand inferred
_Provincial government_
2. Regional governors.Members of the Khan’s military retinue were appointed as regional governors to administer conquered territory. ^[6]
Local tax-farmers. "Apart from the shortage of liquid funds, because the Mongols had no officials capable of running the fiscal administration at the local level, it was convenient to place the responsibility for the provincial tax administration on the tax-farmers; and so the tax farm or moqāṭaʿa became the dominant fiscal institution of the Il-khanate... The tax-farmers were mainly local people—merchants, landowners, members of the bureaucracy, and amirs temporarily resident in the district. It was rare for them to be members of the Mongol military classes, perhaps partly because local people could be more easily coerced by the central government. " ^[7]

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, pp.142-143.

[2]: (Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii

[3]: (Morgan 2015, 67) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

[4]: (Marshall 1993, 228) Marshall, Robert. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press.

[5]: (Floor 1990) Floor, Willem. 1990. ČĀPĀR. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/capar-or-capar-turk

[6]: Fodor, Pal. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. P.193.

[7]: Ann K. S. Lambton, ’ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 3)’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-5-part2

Originally the Ilkhanid army was a branch of the Mongol army, organised on a tribal basis. The Ilkhans did not adopt the slave-soldier system; instead maintain "large armies of mounted horse archers (supplemented by infantry and cavalry auxiliaries" from local rulers. ^[1]
After "the Ilkhanate was no longer expanding and the supply of plunder could not be relied upon" Ghazan the Reformer introduced the iqta system of land grants to pay soldiers. ^{[2] [3]}
However, it is uncertain "to what extent the distribution of iqtas was actually implemented, for this particular edict was issued only very shortly before Ghazan’s early death in 703/1304." ^[2] More so because our source for the Ilkhanate’s apparently successful use of the itqa system is Rashid al-Din who was Ghazan’s great minister and the individual responsible for implementing the policy. ^[4]
In any case, Ghazan’s reforms may have put the financing of the army on a better footing, so that eventually warriors were being allocated iqtas [grants of land holding] to provide revenues with which to equip themselves. ^[5]

[1]: Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p.557.

[2]: (Morgan 2015, 75) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

[3]: Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), P.555, 557.

[4]: (Morgan 2015, 75-76) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

[5]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.148

Originally the Ilkhanid army was a branch of the Mongol army, organised on a tribal basis. The Ilkhans did not adopt the slave-soldier system; instead maintain "large armies of mounted horse archers (supplemented by infantry and cavalry auxiliaries" from local rulers. ^[1]
After "the Ilkhanate was no longer expanding and the supply of plunder could not be relied upon" Ghazan the Reformer introduced the iqta system of land grants to pay soldiers. ^{[2] [3]}
However, it is uncertain "to what extent the distribution of iqtas was actually implemented, for this particular edict was issued only very shortly before Ghazan’s early death in 703/1304." ^[2] More so because our source for the Ilkhanate’s apparently successful use of the itqa system is Rashid al-Din who was Ghazan’s great minister and the individual responsible for implementing the policy. ^[4]
In any case, Ghazan’s reforms may have put the financing of the army on a better footing, so that eventually warriors were being allocated iqtas [grants of land holding] to provide revenues with which to equip themselves. ^[5]

[1]: Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p.557.

[2]: (Morgan 2015, 75) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

[3]: Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), P.555, 557.

[4]: (Morgan 2015, 75-76) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

[5]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.148

e.g. imams.
Buddhists. Nestorian and Jacobite Christians. ^[1]

[1]: (Morgan 2015, 64-66) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

original code: absent: 1256-1303 CE; disputed_present_absent: 1304-1335 CE Changed on the basis of this: There were full time officers and soldiers within the Khan’s military retinue and those warriors who held iqtas [land grants] in return for military service. ^[1]
absent
"the Ilkhan Ghazan decided to give a modest level of pay to low-ranking soliders, while the high-ranking Mongol officers remained unpaid." ^[2] In 1303 an officer captured by the Mamluks reportedly said: "The Mongol is the slave of his sovereign, He is never free. His sovereign is his benefactor: he does not serve him for money. Although I was the least of Ghazan’s servants I never needed anything." ^[2]
present
Senior warriors within the Khan’s retinue. ^[1]
There were full time officers and soldiers within the Khan’s military retinue and those warriors who held iqtas [land grants] in return for military service. ^[1] There were full time Muslim priests.

[1]: Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), P.555, 557.

[2]: (Turnball 2003, 11) Turnball, Stephen R. 2003. Mongol Warrior 1200-1350. Osprey Publishing.

e.g royal treasury. ^[1]

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.145.

Appointments were made by the Khan, it was not a meritocratic service. ^[1]

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, pp.142-143; Ann K. S. Lambton, ’ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS’ (part 2) http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-5-part2

e.g. chief minster, tax officials. ^[1] There were full time officials involved in administration at the royal court and regional governors as well. The bureaucracy’s main focus was on collecting revenues and providing writing services. Senior officials were granted land holdings to support their offices. Appointments were made by the Khan, it was not a meritocratic service. ^[2]

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, pp.142-143.

[2]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, pp.142-143; Ann K. S. Lambton, ’ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS’ (part 2) http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-5-part2

Appointments were made by the Khan, it was not a meritocratic service. ^[1]

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, pp.142-143; Ann K. S. Lambton, ’ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS’ (part 2) http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-5-part2

Islamic judges, qadis, who were regulated under Ghazan’s administrative reforms. ^{[1] [2]}

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.147.

[2]: (Morgan 2015, 75) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

Islamic law was acknowledged by the Khans, and Islamic judges were regulated under Ghazan’s administrative reforms. ^[1]

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.147.

The institutions that Islamic judges presided over. ^[1]

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.147.

General reference for Seljuk? - Safavid? time period: "The bāzār was usually, though not always, divided into a number of sūqs (markets) in which different crafts and occupations had separate quarters. At night, after members of the crafts and shopkeepers had shut their premises and retired to their homes, the gates of the bāzārs were locked and barred." ^[1] In Iraq, Ala al-Din Juwayni oversaw the construction of a new city al-Ma’man which was provided with a market. ^[2]

[1]: (Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii

[2]: (Gilli-Elewy 174) Gilli-Elewy, Hend in Fuess, Albrecht and Hartung, Jan-Peter. 2014. Court Cultures in the Muslim World: Seventh to Nineteenth centuries. Routledge.

qanats in Persia and irrigation canals in Iraq. however, under the Mongols many fell into disrepair and disuse. ^[1] Arch dams were constructed e.g. at Kibar (Kivar): "the dam is 85 ft. high and 180 ft. long at the crest, the thickness of which is between 15 and 16 1/2 ft." ^[2] A gravity dam was built at Sawa. ^[2]

[1]: (Morgan 2015, 79-80) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

[2]: (Bosworth et al. 1983, 868) Bosworth, CE. van Donzel, E. Lewis, B. Pellat, Ch. 1983. The Encyclopaedia of Islam. E.J. Brill

Cistern for drinking water in Tabriz. ^[1]

[1]: (Houtsma et al. 1993, 586) Houtsma, M Th. Wensinck, A J. Gibb, H A R. Heffening, W. Levi-Provencal, E. 1993. First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. E.J. Brill. Leiden.

unknown
"For all these dynasties—whose administrative infrastructures tended in any case to be derived from, or at least strongly influenced by, those of the ʿAbbasid Caliphate" the ṣāḥeb al-ǰayš or ʿāreż, among other duties, "organized weapon-training and equestrian games and exercises like polo, lance-thrusting at targets, etc.". [Bosworth 2001]

Repairs of roads. ^[1]

[1]: (Gilli-Elewy 174) Gilli-Elewy, Hend in Fuess, Albrecht and Hartung, Jan-Peter. 2014. Court Cultures in the Muslim World: Seventh to Nineteenth centuries. Routledge.

e.g. Basra.

Repairs of canals. ^[1] In Iraq, Ala al-Din Juwayni (Ilkhan official, governor of Baghdad) "built a canal from the Euphrates town of Anbar to Kufa and Najaf in an effort to promote agricultural production and allegedly led to the creation of 150 villages along the bank." ^[1]

[1]: (Gilli-Elewy 174) Gilli-Elewy, Hend in Fuess, Albrecht and Hartung, Jan-Peter. 2014. Court Cultures in the Muslim World: Seventh to Nineteenth centuries. Routledge.

It is not stated in the sources that the Ilkhans destroyed all the bridges in Persia and this would be unlikely due to the importance of bridges to trade. Ghazan tried to improve security on the roads ^[1] and may have built or maintained bridges.

[1]: (Morgan 2015, 75) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

e.g. the writings of Rašid al-Din one of the main sources for Mongolian history as well as the Il-Khans. ^[1] This period is seen as one of flourishing production of illustrated manuscripts sponsored by the court and senior officials. At first Baghdad was the centre of production, before it moved to Tabriz after the court converted to Islam. A Chinese influence is clearly seen on manuscript illustration at this time. ^[2]

[1]: REUVEN AMITAI, ’IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history

[2]: Stefano Carboni, ’IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration

e.g. Persian, Arabic. The administration used Persian writing. Arabic manuscripts survive as well ^[1] Both Persian and Arabic were in use, and a wide range of document types and scholarly subjects were produced.

[1]: REUVEN AMITAI, ’IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history; Stefano Carboni, ’IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration

e.g. the writings of Rašid al-Din one of the main sources for Mongolian history as well as the Il-Khans. ^[1] This period is seen as one of flourishing production of illustrated manuscripts sponsored by the court and senior officials. At first Baghdad was the centre of production, before it moved to Tabriz after the court converted to Islam. A Chinese influence is clearly seen on manuscript illustration at this time. ^[2]

[1]: REUVEN AMITAI, ’IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history

[2]: Stefano Carboni, ’IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration

e.g. "a translation from Arabic into Persian of a zoological text on the usefulness of organs and other body parts of animals (Manāfeʿ-e ḥayawān) ordered by Ḡāzān Khan" ^[1] Hulegu built an astronomical observatory for polymath Nasir al-Din Tusi. ^[2]

[1]: Stefano Carboni, ’IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration

[2]: (Morgan 2015, 66) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

e.g. Qu’ran. Öljeytü commissioned a "gigantic Koran" from fine artists. ^[1]

[1]: REUVEN AMITAI, ’IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history

After the official conversion of the court to Islam there was "a specific Il-khanid interest in patronizing works [illustrated manuscripts] that deal with different religions of the past and present, emphasizing the prominence of Islam above all the others and in particular of Shiʿite Islam" ^[1]

[1]: Stefano Carboni, ’IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration

In the 11th century and after "the genre of writing treatises on statecraft in Persian develops, such treatises usually containing advice on the organizing of armies and on the art of war." ^[1] Treatise on government finance written by the scholar Tusi. ^[2]

[1]: (Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii

[2]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.134

Philosopher and astronomer Nasir al-Din Tusi. ^[1]

[1]: (Pfeiffer 2006, 174) Pfeiffer, Judith in Woods, John E. Pfeiffer, Judith. Quinn, Sholeh Alysia. Tucker, Ernest eds. 2006. History and Historiography of Post-Mongol Central Asia and the Middle East: Studies in Honor of John E. Woods. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.

Tables of cities with their latitudes and longitudes used in astronomy. ^[1]

[1]: E.S. Kennedy, ‘The Exact Sceinces in Iran under the Saljuqs and Mongols’, in J.A. Boyle (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol 5, The Saljuq and Mongol Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), p.673.

The History of the Mongols (Tāriḵ-e ḡāzāni-e mobārak) written by Rašid al-Din, who was Gazan’s head administrator and eventually co-vizier. ^[1] Chronicler Abul Qasim Kashani. ^[2] Persian historian Rashid Al-Din. ^[3]

[1]: REUVEN AMITAI, ’IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history

[2]: (Marozzi 2004, 136) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London.

[3]: (Marshall 1993, 228) Marshall, Robert. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press.

"Poetry, painting and ceramics, but above all architecture, all flourished under the Mongols." ^[1]

[1]: (Marshall 1993, 229) Marshall, Robert. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press.

e.g. Abu Rayḥān Biruni’s Ketāb al-āṯār al-bāqia ʿan al-qorun al-ḵālia ( “The Chronology of Ancient Nations”) contains calendars. ^[1]

[1]: Stefano Carboni, ’IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration

e.g. gold and silver in use in the region. ^[1]

[1]: Fleet, Kate. “The Turkish Economy, 1071-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, 227-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.p.241.

Geikhatu’s minster Sadr al-Din issued paper money along Chinese lines the chao, following concerns about the lack of funds in the royal treasury. These paper certificates had Chinese character printed on them and the Muslim confession of faith. ^[1]

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, P.145.

Dinars. ^[1] Ghazan the Reformer reformed the coinage. ^[2] "the gold and silver coins and the measures (kila, gas) were standardised according to the standards of Tabriz". ^[3]

[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, P.147.

[2]: (Morgan 2015, 75) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.

[3]: (Houtsma et al. 1993, 586) Houtsma, M Th. Wensinck, A J. Gibb, H A R. Heffening, W. Levi-Provencal, E. 1993. First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. E.J. Brill. Leiden.

Through trade and through tribute, for example from the Seljuks who paid partly in cash. ^[1]

[1]: Melville, Charles. “Anatolia under the Mongols.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, 51-101. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.p.54, p.60

e.g. textiles, animals. Used in barter and tribute. ^[1] A variety of money was used in the Ilkhanate. Articles were used in barter. Coins existed alongside articles. These included gold and silver coins, coins minted by the Ilkhante and foreign coins acquired in commerce and through tribute from other rulers. Money leading associations show the existence of debt and credit among the population. The Ilkhanate was part of the Mongols extensive postal system [Yam system] that carried royal communications around the empire.

[1]: Fleet, Kate. “The Turkish Economy, 1071-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, 227-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.p.244

Post stations were erected at distances of one day’s journey between them. Marco Polo said that this was 25-30 miles distance. ^[1] The extensive Yam system was used to communicate royal orders and royal envoys across the empire. ^[2] Ḡāzān Khan established "special yāms exclusively for official couriers (īḷčī or yārāltū; cf. Doerfer, III, p. 12 and I, pp. 551-53) and making each one the responsibility of a grand amir. Stations were built along main arteries at a distance of three farsaḵs from one another and were required to have on hand fifteen well-nourished (farbeh) horses at all times. Two special couriers (peyk) were stationed at each yām; their function was to carry to the capital important reports about the provinces; such reports bore a special seal called tamḡā-ye peykī (seal of the messenger). A single courier could travel 30 farsaḵs in twenty-four hours, changing mounts frequently; the distance could be doubled if relays were used. Theoreti­cally an urgent message could reach Tabrīz from Khorasan in four days (Rašīd-al-Dīn, Jāmeʿ al-tawārīḵ, Baku, pp. 483-84; idem, Tārīḵ-eḡāzānī, pp. 274-75; cf. Spuler, Mongolen3, pp. 424-25)." ^[3]

[1]: David Morgan, The Mongols (Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd ed. 2007), p.91.

[2]: David Morgan, The Mongols (Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd ed. 2007), p.90-91.

[3]: (Floor 1990) Floor, Willem. 1990. ČĀPĀR. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/capar-or-capar-turk

"Although the Mongol postal service was a government operation, merchants and others also made use of it." However this practice was ended by Möngke (r.1251-1260 CE) who "gave clear orders that the couriers had to stay on their prescribed routes and execute their orders exactly." ^[1]

[1]: (Floor 1990) Floor, Willem. 1990. ČĀPĀR. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/capar-or-capar-turk

Mongols required non-fighting people to perform labour duties, including service in postal relays. ^[1]

[1]: Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005),p.83.

"Abaqa constructed a lengthy palisade" ^[1]

[1]: (Lane 2003) Lane, George E. 2003. Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance. Routledge.

Ghazan built a new wall around Tabriz. ^[1] The summer palace built by Hülegü’s son Abaqa near Lake Urmia had "massive oval walls protected by towers and accessed by a new gate". ^[2]

[1]: (Houtsma et al. 1993, 586) Houtsma, M Th. Wensinck, A J. Gibb, H A R. Heffening, W. Levi-Provencal, E. 1993. First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. E.J. Brill. Leiden.

[2]: Sheila S. Blair, ’IL-KHANIDS ii. Architecture’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-ii-architecture

Ilkhans would have encountered moats e.g. in Syria. Did they use them themselves? Were any already present in Persia that survived the Mongol destructions e.g. southern Persia?

The summer palace built by Hülegü’s son Abaqa near Lake Urmia had "massive oval walls protected by towers and accessed by a new gate". ^[1]

[1]: Sheila S. Blair, ’IL-KHANIDS ii. Architecture’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-ii-architecture

"ramparts of Sultaniyya" ^[1]

[1]: (Melville 1999, 34) Melville, Charles Peter. 1999. The fall of Amir Chupan and the decline of the Ilkhanate, 1327-1337: a decade of discord in Mongol Iran. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies.

Ditch dug by Mongol forces around Baghdad during the siege 1258 CE. ^[1]

[1]: (Carey 2006) Carey, Brian Todd. 2006. Warfare in the Medieval World. Pen and Sword.

The summer palace built by Hülegü’s son Abaqa near Lake Urmia had "massive oval walls protected by towers and accessed by a new gate". ^[1] Cannot find any reference to concentric walls.

[1]: Sheila S. Blair, ’IL-KHANIDS ii. Architecture’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-ii-architecture

Used for helmets. ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52.

Used for the scaled body armour. ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52.

present in preceding Mongol polity

present in preceding Mongol polity

Mangonels used in siege warfare. ^[1] Mongols recruited 1, 000 Chinese catapult operators in 1253. ^[2]

[1]: David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia, rev. and updated ed (London : Mechanicsburg, Pa: Greenhill Books ; Stackpole Books, 1999). p.296

[2]: Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005),p.83.

inferred from presence of composite bow?

inferred from presence of composite bow?

Depictions of Ilkanid/Mongol soldiers with javelins. ^[1]

[1]: David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia, rev. and updated ed (London : Mechanicsburg, Pa: Greenhill Books ; Stackpole Books, 1999). P.246.

Often said that Chinggis "used gunpowder in siege warfare, sapping and mining operations, during his western campaigns”. ^[1] Raphael disputes the evidence for this and in any case the description are not of the use of gunpowder artillery. ^[2]

[1]: Bira, Sh. “THE MONGOLS AND THEIR STATE IN THE TWELFTH TO THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century. Part I The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by C. E. Bosworth, Muhammad S. Asimov, and Yar Muhammad Khan, 248-64. Paris: Unesco, 1998. p.259.

[2]: Raphael, Kate. “Mongol Siege Warfare on the Banks of the Euphrates and the Question of Gunpowder (1260-1312).” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, 19, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 355-70.

“Large framed mounted crossbows" used in sieges. Crossbowmen may have come into Iran in this period through the Mongols. ^[1]

[1]: David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia, rev. and updated ed (London : Mechanicsburg, Pa: Greenhill Books ; Stackpole Books, 1999). P.221, p.296 .

The main weapon of the Mongol cavalry. ^[1]

[1]: Hugh Kennedy, ’Mongols or Moghuls’ in The Oxford Companion to Military History eds. Richard Holmes, Charles Singleton, and Dr Spencer Jones (Oxford University Press, 2001)

new world weapon

Mongol soldiers used maces. ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52.

Ilkanid/Mongol soliders had sabres. ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52.

Depictions of Ilkanid/Mongol soldiers with spears ^[1] Cavalry had lances. ^[2]

[1]: David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia, rev. and updated ed (London : Mechanicsburg, Pa: Greenhill Books ; Stackpole Books, 1999). P.243

[2]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52.

Depictions of Ilkanid/Mongol soldiers with hooked ’spears’ for pulling riders from their horses. ^[1]

[1]: David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia, rev. and updated ed (London : Mechanicsburg, Pa: Greenhill Books ; Stackpole Books, 1999). P.243

Depictions of Ilkanid/Mongol soldiers with daggers. ^[1]

[1]: David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia, rev. and updated ed (London : Mechanicsburg, Pa: Greenhill Books ; Stackpole Books, 1999). P.243

Depictions of Ilkanid/Mongol soldiers with axes. ^[1]

[1]: David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia, rev. and updated ed (London : Mechanicsburg, Pa: Greenhill Books ; Stackpole Books, 1999). P.243

As used by Mongol cavalry, the main fighting force. ^[1] As the Ilkhanid forces had emerged from the Mongols they fought in classic style of Steppe warfare. The core of the army was mounted cavalry, whose main weapon was the bow. Javelins and a variety of hand weapons were also used. Siege weapons used included large crossbows, mangonels and incendiary devices. Although some soldiers had metal armour, such as chain mail, other were more lightly equipped with leather and heavy padding.

[1]: Bira, Sh. “THE MONGOLS AND THEIR STATE IN THE TWELFTH TO THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century. Part I The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by C. E. Bosworth, Muhammad S. Asimov, and Yar Muhammad Khan, 248-64. Paris: Unesco, 1998. p.259.

Pack animal? Donkeys were present. The 8th Ilkhan was "originally given the name Kharbandeh or ’Donkey herder’ following Mongol tradition of naming a person for the first thing they see at birth, which out of respect to his Muslim subjects was changed to Khodabandeh or ’Servant of God’".;George Lane. 2018. A Short History Of The Mongols. I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. London.;

Pack animal?

e.g. Willow-wood shields. ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 53.

Willow-wood shields were carried by some soldiers. Tortoise shell shields used assaults on fortifications. ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52.

Iron scaled body armour worn by some soldiers. ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52.

No reference to plate armour. Plate armour more typical for heavy cavalry which carried lances rather than horsemen with bows. However, some Mongol cavalry carried lances. ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52.

Arm defences made of flaps of metal armour. P.243 ^[1]

[1]: David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia, rev. and updated ed (London : Mechanicsburg, Pa: Greenhill Books ; Stackpole Books, 1999). P.241

Helmets had flaps made of leather. Some Mongol armour was made of hide, which "consisted of six layers tightly sewn together and shaped, after being softened by boiling,to fit the body." ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52-53.

Full-length lamellar cuirass of central Asian style shown in Ilk-Kanid manuscripts. ^[1]

[1]: David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia, rev. and updated ed (London : Mechanicsburg, Pa: Greenhill Books ; Stackpole Books, 1999). P.241

Made of steel and leather. ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52.

Attached to helmets as neck protection only. ^[1]

[1]: David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia, rev. and updated ed (London : Mechanicsburg, Pa: Greenhill Books ; Stackpole Books, 1999). P.241

No reference to plate armour. Plate armour more typical for heavy cavalry which carried lances rather than horsemen with bows. However, some Mongol cavalry carried lances. ^[1]

[1]: Martin, H. Desmond. “The Mongol Army.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1 (April 1, 1943): 52.

"The story is recounted by Bar Hebraeus (tr. Budge, p. 486), that 900 Franks came to Iraq in order to build a fleet to harass Muslim shipping, apparently in the Indian Ocean." ^[1]

[1]: REUVEN AMITAI, ’IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history