Home Region: West Africa (Africa)

Later Wagadu Empire

1078 CE 1203 CE

D G SC WF CC

EQ 2020 mr_wagadu_3 / MrWagdL

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

[continuity; Ghana I] [continuity] Update here

Succeeding Entity:

No Polity found. Add one here.

General Description

The Kingdom of Ghana was the first documented empire of West Africa. Its dominant people, a northern Mande group known as the Soninke, called it ’Wagadu’, ^[1] and Berber traders from the Sahara referred to it as ’Awkar’. ^[2] The polity reached its peak in the mid-11th century: ^[3] ^[4] at this stage, its influence extended east and north from the Senegal River into modern Mauritania and Mali ^[5] and it was encroaching on the Niger Inland Delta. ^[6] ^[7] However, from the late 11th century CE the Ghana Empire began to decline due to a combination of environmental, social and political factors. As the desert expanded into previously productive agricultural land, ^[8] the Sosso people took control of a large region above the Upper Niger River ^[9] and the city of Walata grew in influence, taking over as the main southern terminus of the trans-Saharan trade. ^[8] The empire of Ghana officially converted to Islam in 1075‒77 CE to foster political and commercial ties with Almoravid newcomers, ^[10] while traditional religion retained its prominence in the hinterland and among the non-elite classes. ^[11] The consensus within modern scholarship is that the relationship between the Soninke and the Almoravids was generally cordial and fruitful, that the Wagadu capital had been host to an important Muslim community in the centuries before the Almoravids arrived, and that the Wagadu conversion to Islam was in fact a gradual affair. ^[12] Ghana recovered part of its power in the 12th century. ^[9] Ultimately, however, the shift in the regional balance of power led many of the Soninke to relocate to more prosperous areas, ^[13] contributing to the spread of Islam in other areas of the Sudan. ^[12]
Population and political organization
The Wagadu empire comprised four provinces administered by a central government. ^[14] The king exerted direct authority over his kingdom; he was also head of the traditional religion and was revered as a god. ^[15] Wagadu society was highly hierarchical, distinguishing between the elite warrior class and the rest of the population: professional artisans including smiths, weavers, dyers and shoemakers; farmers and herders; and slaves. ^[15] These groups were further subdivided along clan lines. ^[16]
This period was a prosperous one for the Sudanese region, which produced millet, maize, yam, groundnuts, cotton, indigo and other crops. ^[17] Linked into a thriving exchange sphere that stretched north to North Africa and the Mediterranean, ^[17] the Sudanese population exported gold, slaves, hides, and ivory and imported copper, silver beads, dried fruit and cloth. ^[17] All exports and imports were taxed by the centralized state. ^[16] Trading outposts in Awdhagust and other Saharan towns facilitated fruitful exchange with Berbers and other groups from further afield. ^[18]
Population estimates are difficult to obtain for ancient Ghana. However, it is worth noting that its capital, the thriving trading city of Kumbi Saleh, covered 250 hectares and had a population of 15,000-20,000 people at its peak. ^[19] Archaeological investigations at the site have revealed two-storey stone buildings which may have contained stores on the ground floor, narrow streets with densely packed houses, a mosque, and extensive cemeteries. ^[19]

[1]: (Conrad 2010, 23) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.

[2]: (Davidson 1998, 26) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge.

[3]: (Davidson 1998, 34) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge.

[4]: (Conrad 2010, 33) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.

[5]: (Conrad 2005, 19) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.

[6]: (Niane 1975, n.p.) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine.

[7]: (Simonis 2010, 36) Francis Simonis. 2010. L’Afrique soudanaise au Moyen Age: Le temps des grands empires (Ghana, Mali, Songhaï). Aix-Marseille: CRDP de l’Académie d’Aix-Marseille.

[8]: (Conrad 2010, 39) David C. Conrad, 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.

[9]: (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.

[10]: (Al-Zuhri c. 1130-1155 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 24-25) Nehemia Levtzion and Jay Spaulding, eds. 2003. Medieval West Africa: Views from Arab Scholars and Merchants. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener.

[11]: (Lapidus 2012, 590) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[12]: (El Fasi and Hrbek 1980, 100) Mohammed El Fasi and Ivan Hrbek. 1980. ’Étapes du développement de l’Islam et de sa diffusion en Afrique’ in Histoire Générale de l’Afrique, Vol. 3: L’Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle, edited by M. El Fasi, 81-116. Paris: UNESCO.

[13]: (Conrad 2005, 31) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.

[14]: (Conrad 2005, 18) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.

[15]: (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine.

[16]: (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine.

[17]: (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[18]: (Meideros 1980, 160) Francois de Meideros. 1980. ’Les peuples du Soudan: Mouvements de populations’, in Histoire Générale de l’Afrique, Vol. 3: L’Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle, edited by M. El Fasi, 143-64. Paris: UNESCO.

[19]: (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London: Penguin Books.

General Variables

Identity and Location

2 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

7 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

1 Occupational Complexity

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

2 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

1 Mnemonic Device

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

2 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

2 Plate Armor

2 Limb Protection

2 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

2 Helmet

2 Chainmail

2 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

1 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3) was in:
(1100 CE 1202 CE)	Niger Inland Delta

Home NGA: Niger Inland Delta

General Variables

Identity and Location Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	30 P	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Utm Zone	30 Q	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Original Name	Ghana Empire II	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Capital	Kumbi Saleh	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Alternative Name	Wagadu Late Period	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Alternative Name	Ghana	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Alternative Name	Kingdom of Ghana	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Alternative Name	Ghana Empire	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Alternative Name	Awkar	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Alternative Name	Janawa	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Alternative Name	Aoukar	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Temporal Bounds Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Duration	[1078 CE ➜ 1203 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Supracultural Entity	Mande	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Succeeding Entity	Mali Empire	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Preceding Entity	continuity; Ghana I [continuity] Update here
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Language Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	NO_VALUE_ON_WIKI	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Language	Mande	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Religion Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	[15,000 to 20,000] people	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Polity Territory	[350,000 to 400,000] km²	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Polity Population	[1,000,000 to 1,500,000] people	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	4	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Religious Level	3	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Military Level	[3 to 4]	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Administrative Level	4	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Professions Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Absent	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Absent Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Occupational Complexity	Uncoded Undecided	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Merit Promotion	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Absent Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Examination System	Absent Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Law Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Judge	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Court	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Absent Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Port	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Canal	Absent Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Bridge	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Information / Writing System Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Script	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Absent Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Mnemonic Device	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Sacred Text	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Religious Literature	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Practical Literature	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Philosophy	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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History	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Fiction	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Calendar	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Information / Money Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Precious Metal	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Paper Currency	Absent Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Foreign Coin	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Article	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Information / Postal System Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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General Postal Service	Absent Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Courier	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Information / Measurement System Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Moat	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Fortified Camp	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Earth Rampart	Absent Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Ditch	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Complex Fortification	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Military use of Metals Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Iron	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Copper	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Bronze	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Projectiles Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Sling	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Self Bow	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Javelin	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Crossbow	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Composite Bow	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Atlatl	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Handheld weapons Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Sword	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Spear	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Polearm	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Dagger	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Battle Axe	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Animals used in warfare Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Elephant	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Donkey	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Dog	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Camel	Present Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Armor Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Shield	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Scaled Armor	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Plate Armor	Present Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Plate Armor	Absent Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Limb Protection	Present Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Limb Protection	Absent Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Leather Cloth	Present Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Leather Cloth	Absent Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Helmet	Present Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Helmet	Absent Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Chainmail	Present Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Chainmail	Absent Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Breastplate	Present Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Breastplate	Absent Uncertain	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Naval technology Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Absent Inferred	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Unknown Suspected	1078 CE 1203 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Human Sacrifice Later Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More