After the gradual decline of the Ghana Empire, the power vacuum left in the Sudanese region was filled with several smaller successor states, including the Sosso Kingdom.
[1]
In the early 13th century CE, several Malinke chiefdoms from the Upper Niger region united against the Sosso and slowly aggregated into what would become the Mali Empire.
[2]
This polity, also known as the Mandingo Empire,
[3]
was the largest of the West African empires, and flourished from the early 13th to the late 14th/early 15th century, at which point it started to decline.
[4]
[5]
The apogee of the Mali Empire corresponds to the reign of Musa I of the Keita dynasty, the mansa (emperor) who reigned over 24 cities and their surrounding territories from 1312 to 1337.
[6]
His empire extended from the Atlantic to Gao and the Niger Inland Delta, and from the southern Sahara to the tropical forest belt.
[3]
Musa I is also famed for his patronage of Islam in Mali and for his lavish distribution of gold when he set off on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325.
[7]
Population and political organization
The kings of the Keita dynasty sat at the apex of a confederation incorporating smaller kingdoms such as Ghana and Mema.
[8]
At its height, the empire comprised 12 provinces made up of smaller, village-centred clan units.
[9]
The mansa (emperor) was thus a ’chief of chiefs’, assuming the mantle of a supreme patriarch, and he could dispense justice personally.
[10]
He received advice from the griot, chosen from the Kouyate clan, who was also his spokesman and the tutor of princes.
[10]
The aristocracy formed around the Malinke warrior class,
[11]
including an elite corps of cavalry.
[12]
The empire maintained a strong army, with garrisons stationed in the main towns.
[13]
The merchant class, known as Dyula or Wangara,
[14]
formed settlements at the margins of the forest regions, such Kankan in modern-day Guinea, Bobo Dioulasso in modern Ivory Coast, and Begho in modern Ghana.
[15]
The cities of Mali were cosmopolitan, inhabited by people of every occupation and from every province of the empire,
[16]
and prospering from their participation in Trans-Saharan trade networks and the export of gold, ivory, salt and slaves.
[17]
Their characteristic mudbrick architecture, known as banco, can still be admired today.
[18]
This distinctive architectural style is one of many signs of Mali’s legacy in the region, as its language, laws and customs spread through West Africa. In the 15th century, however, a long period of gradual decline began. Timbuktu was captured by the Tuareg in 1433,
[19]
and a few decades of internal political struggles made it difficult for the emperors to maintain control over such a large region, leading to the contraction of the empire’s territory.
[20]
The empire was densely populated, with a reported 400 towns in the region and a compact net of villages near the trading city of Jenné.
[21]
When the Andalusi diplomat Leo Africanus visited Niani in the 16th century, he described a thriving city of ’six thousand hearths’.
[22]
[1]: (Conrad 2005, 33) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.
[2]: (Conrad 2005, 31) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.
[3]: (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books.
[4]: (MacDonald et al. 2011, 52) K. C. MacDonald, S. Camara, S. Canós, N. Gestrich, and D. Keita. 2011. ’Sorotomo: A Forgotten Malian Capital?’ Archaeology International 13: 52-64. http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315.
[5]: (Lapidus 2012, 592) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[6]: (Conrad 2010, 45) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.
[7]: (Niane 1984, 148) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. ’Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion’, in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO.
[8]: (Niane 1984, 158-60) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. ’Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion’, in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO.
[9]: (Niane 1984, 161) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. ’Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion’, in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO.
[10]: (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. ’Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion’, in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO.
[11]: (Niane 1975, 36) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine.
[12]: (Niane 1984, 162) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. ’Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion’, in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO.
[13]: (Niane 1984, 164) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. ’Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion’, in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO.
[14]: (Davidson 1998, 42) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850. Routledge: London.
[15]: (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 64) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[16]: (Niane 1984, 145) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. ’Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion’, in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO.
[17]: (Conrad 2005, 42) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.
[18]: (Niane 1984, 150) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. ’Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion’, in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO.
[19]: (Ly-Tall 1984, 174) Madina Ly-Tall. 1984. ’The decline of the Mali empire’ in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 172-86. Paris: UNESCO.
[20]: (Conrad 2005, 46) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.
[21]: (Niane 1984, 156) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. ’Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion’, in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO.
[22]: (Davidson 1998, 43) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850. Routledge: London.
| alliance with [---] |
| Mande |
| Mande States |
| [1,700,000 to 1,900,000] km2 |
| continuity |
| UNCLEAR: [continuity] | |
| Succeeding: Jolof Empire (se_jolof_emp) [None] |
| unitary state | |
| confederated state |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| Year Range | Mali Empire (ml_mali_emp) was in: |
|---|---|
| (1235 CE 1410 CE) | Niger Inland Delta |
[1]
Capital Niani in the core region of Kangaba. This was located near the Niger river - according to map, very near the source.
[2]
Capital city referred to as Mali.
[3]
same place as Niani?
"Sorotomo is the first major settlement within Mali’s core territory to be dated conclusively to the period of the historical empire. Niani, Mali’s speculative first capital, has only furnished C14 dates from before or after the key 13th to 15th-century period. This indicates that, at best, it was a late imperial seat of power. The issue of ancient Mali’s capital has thus been a matter of much debate - and is as yet unresolved. There is currently general agreement among historians that Mali’s first centre(s) of power would have been located in the so-called ’Pays Manding’, c.200km south-east of Sorotomo. There is, however, substantial historical evidence suggesting a rapid shift of power towards the north-east during the empire’s apogee."
[4]
[1]: (Niane 1984, 136)
[2]: (Davidson 1998, 40) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Diop 1987, 93) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[4]: (MacDonald et al 2011) MacDonald, K. Camara, S. Canos, S. Gestrich, N. Keita, D. 2011. Sorotomo: A Forgotten Malian Capital? Archaeology International. 13. pp.52-64. http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315
"The Keita dynasty ruled, with some interruptions, from 1230 to 1390." [1] Keita dynasty of Mali [2] Malinke. "The kingdom of Mali was founded by a local cheiftain, Sunjata (1230-55), of the Keita dynasty." [1] Mandingo Empire. [3] [4]
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 592)
[2]: (Roland and Atmore 2001, 66)
[3]: (Niane 1984, 119)
[4]: (Diop 1987, 93) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
"The Keita dynasty ruled, with some interruptions, from 1230 to 1390." [1] Keita dynasty of Mali [2] Malinke. "The kingdom of Mali was founded by a local cheiftain, Sunjata (1230-55), of the Keita dynasty." [1] Mandingo Empire. [3] [4]
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 592)
[2]: (Roland and Atmore 2001, 66)
[3]: (Niane 1984, 119)
[4]: (Diop 1987, 93) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
"Most modern syntheses place the floruit of Mali between 1235 and 1450."
[1]
Core region of the Mali Empire was the region of Kangaba (south of the Ghana empire region) whose traders "enjoyed positions of privilege" within the preceding Ghana empire.
[2]
"From the early thirteenth to the end of the sixteenth centuries"
[3]
"In the first half of the 13th century, the Malinke chiefdoms of the Upper Niger began to join together into a new state"
[4]
"The Keita dynasty ruled, with some interruptions, from 1230 to 1390."
[5]
"By the end of the fourteenth century the Malian Empire was in decline." "As the the trade routes changed" in favour of Timbuktu and Jenne "local chieftains became independent, and this reduced Mali once again to a petty chieftaincy."
[5]
Victory of Sundiata in 1235 CE over Soso/Soussou.
[6]
The unification of provinces of Do, Kiri and Banko made the Keita chief supreme authority.
[7]
Timbuktu captured by Tuareg in 1433 CE.
[8]
Fulanis - Futa Kingdom - conquered western Mali possessions early 16th Century CE. Mansa Mahmüd IV defeated at Jenne, 1599 CE.
[9]
[1]: (MacDonald et al 2011) MacDonald, K. Camara, S. Canos, S. Gestrich, N. Keita, D. 2011. Sorotomo: A Forgotten Malian Capital? Archaeology International. 13. pp.52-64. http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315
[2]: (Davidson 1998, 38) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Lapidus 2012, 591)
[4]: (Conrad 2010, 39)
[5]: (Lapidus 2012, 592)
[6]: (Niane 1984, 118, 130)
[7]: (Niane 1984, 160)
[8]: (Ly-tall 1984, 174)
[9]: (Ly-tall 1984, 181-84)
alliance relationships with trading berber nomadic groups?
km squared. For this estimate I have used the approximate territorial extent of the Mali Empire at its largest.
Sosso Kingdom? "Mali had its origin among Malinke (Mande) peoples living between the Senegal and the Niger rivers." [1]
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 591)
“La chronologie des moyennes des règnes nous donne 1349-1358 et se raapproche de celle d’Amadou (1322-1338) qui semble être la plus probable. Ce résultat nous amène à formular l’hypothèse selon laquelle la formation du Dyolof en tant qu’Empire daterait seulement de la fin du XIII- début XIV siècle, en relation avec le décline de l’empire du Mali dont l’hégémonie s’étendait plus ou moins jusqu’à l’océan Atlantique.” [1]
[1]: (Barry and Amin 1985, 318) Barry, Boubacar and Amin, Samir. 1985. Le Royaume du Waalo: le Sénégal avant le Conquête. Paris: Karthala. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Amir/titleCreatorYear/items/7FSQKPU9/item-list
mid-14th century onwards? "Arabic became important both for the diffusion of religion and for communications and trade." [1] mid-14th century onwards? Arabic "was used for official correspondence in the Ghana Empire before the end of the twelfth century and in Mali in the mid-fourteenth century." [1]
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 592)
mid-14th century onwards? "Arabic became important both for the diffusion of religion and for communications and trade." [1] mid-14th century onwards? Arabic "was used for official correspondence in the Ghana Empire before the end of the twelfth century and in Mali in the mid-fourteenth century." [1]
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 592)
Inhabitants.
Within the Mande-speaking heartland the basic building-block of government was the kafu, a community of anything from 1000 to 15,000 people living in or near a mud-walled town and ruled by a hereditary dynast called a fama."
[1]
Walata was a commercial city within the Mali Empire
[2]
Capital Niani, now lost, described in 16th century by Moroccan Leo Africanus as of ’six thousand hearths’ while its inhabitants were ’the most civilised, intelligent and respected’ in the Western Sudan.
[3]
[1]: (Roland and Atmore 2001, 62)
[2]: (Conrad 2010, 51)
[3]: (Davidson 1998, 43) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
in squared kilometers
1337 CE
[1]
Map with largest extent of the Mali Empire.
[2]
expanded into Inland Delta, Gao, and eastern Songhai beginning 14th century.
[3]
by mid-14th century mansa’s effective rule limited to Mande homelands.
[4]
"The boundaries of the Empire of Mali stretched from Kaoga (Gao) all the way to the Atlantic and from the Sahara to the tropical forest."
[5]
[1]: (Davidson 2011, 131)
[2]: (Roland and Atmore 2001, 58)
[3]: (Conrad 2010, 49-50)
[4]: (Roland and Atmore 2001, 67)
[5]: (Diop 1987, 93) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
People.
40-50 million
[1]
-- check (is reference correct? was it 4-5 million?). Reference checked, it was stated. However, it might be a typographical error. Population of Mali in 1960 was 5 million. No references in literature to massive population crash or genocide in the region between middle ages and 1960.
McEvedy and Jones have the region of "The Sahel States" (Mauritania, Mali, Niger and Chad) at 2 million in 1000 CE, rising slowly to 3 million in 1500 CE.
[2]
Sahel states = Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad 2m by AD 1000
"Before the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry the population of the area of the present-day Sahel states is unlikely to have exceeded 50,000: once pastoralism and agriculture had become well-established the population can hardly have been less than half a million. The chronology of the transition is as yet totally obscure, but there is no reason to postulate anything above the 50,000 line before 3000 BC or place the achievement of the half million later than 1000 BC. From this latter point a low rate of increase is all that is needed to bring the total to 1m by AD 1 and 2m by AD 1000."
[3]
[1]: (Niane 1984, 156)
[2]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 239) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London.
[3]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 238) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London.
levels. Settlement hierarchy refers to the capital, important trading cities, mud-walled towns (“the basic building-block of government was the kafu, a community of anything from 1000 to 15,000 people living in or near a mud-walled town” ruled by a fama.), outlying villages who pay occasional tribute to the fama.
[1]
The Mali empire was based upon a center-periphery political administration, in turn divided into three geopolitical sectors: provinces, districts, and village communities. The peripheral areas were composed of the conquered people of the tributary states and were ruled indirectly.
[2]
1. Capital town e.g. Niani
2. Commercial town e.g. Walata3. Basic mud-walled small town called a kafu4. Smaller settlements/villages
[1]: (62-64) Oliver, R.A. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press.
[2]: (59) Williams, R. 1990. Hierarchical Structures and Social Value: The Creation of Black and Irish Identities in the United States. Cambridge University Press
levels.
1. King
The ruler was a "quasi-divine figure"
[1]
"After Islam became the royal cult, rulers built mosques and adopted Islamic law, and the king and the entire court took part in public prayers held on the great Islamic festivals."
[2]
2. Someone who helped the king become a "quasi-divine figure" inferred level
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 591)
[2]: (Lapidus 2012, 592)
levels.
Later Songhay Empire: Askia Muhammad had a full time general called dyini-koy or balama.
[1]
1. King
In Mali and Songhai "the king appinted the generals was himself commander-in-chief of the army and personally directed military operations"
[2]
2. Generals
King of Mali had two generals, one responsible for the Mossi border, other northern desert border."
[2]
2. Imperial councilthere was an "imperial council"
[3]
late 14th century government characterised by rule of powerful government officials and a sidelined monarch
[3]
3. Vassal kings / Mande ChiefsIbn Battuta witnessed a ceremony in which both the Mansa and the lesser king had their own personal guards of honor.
[4]
Oral tradition "Sunjata Epic" says Mali Empire founded by Sunjata Keita. Initially there was a Mande Chiefdom in Farakoro. The chief had the title maghan. There were diviners "whose job it was to predict the future." The chiefdom was conquered by Susu. Sunjata "organized the soldiers of all the Mande chiefdoms into a powerful army. They went to war against Susu." The unified Mande chiefdoms formed the basis of the Mali Empire.
[5]
"In each kingdom, each nation, the army was divided into several corps assigned to the defense of different provinces, although under the command of the civil authority. Thus, each provincial governor had at his disposal a part of this army which he could assign tasks under the orders of a general whose powers were purely military."
[2]
4. Individual soldier
[1]: (Davidson 1998, 168) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
[2]: (Diop 1987, 115) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[3]: (Conrad 2010, 56)
[4]: (Conrad 2010, 52-54)
[5]: (Conrad 2010, 42-44)
levels.
1. King of kings (mansa)
king had title Mansa
[1]
"As in other African empires, the supreme ruler was a king of kings."
[2]
The ruler "bore the military title of mansa, conqueror."
[2]
"The mansas adopted the Ghanaian and Sudanic concepts of kingship to institutionalize their power."
[2]
"The rulers surrounded themselves with a bodyguard, servants, and elaborate ceremonies."
[2]
_Central government_
2. Head of the imperial council or one of the officials of the imperial councilthere was an "imperial council"
[3]
late 14th century government characterised by rule of powerful government officials and a sidelined monarch
[3]
3. Government officialsAfter his pilgrimage to Cairo and Mecca "Mansa Musa returned to Mali with Arab and Berber adventurers to serve in his administration."
[4]
Santigui (master of the treasury)
[5]
4. Scribes"court circle included clerics and lawyers literate in Arabic"
[6]
4. State farms official"Client clans, castes of dependent craftsmen, and people allied by marriage or by past service supported the ruler. Slaves and serfs worked in agricultural settlements to provide produce for the court, the army, and the administration."
[2]
royal slaves worked in "settled colonies" in the inland delta region. "each had to produce a quota of grain for collection by boat at the appointed season."
[6]
_Mande chiefdoms_
2. Chief (fama) of a kafu (or kafts)"Mande-speaking ethnic core"
[7]
"Mande-speaking peoples lived in family and village units, the head of the family being both priest and chieftain. A group of villages in turn formed a kafts, or kafu, a community of 1,000 to 15,000 people living around a mud-walled town and ruled by a hereditary chieftain called a fama."
[2]
"Within the Mande-speaking heartland the basic building-block of government was the kafu, a community of anything from 1000 to 15,000 people living in or near a mud-walled town and ruled by a hereditary dynast called a fama."
[7]
Mema was a province in the Mali Empire
[8]
the paramount ruler "bore the military title of mansa, "conquerer", which underlined the reality that his dominion might expand or contract according to the range of his armed forces. Where the mansa’s soldiers were no longer seen, there the kafus would soon resume their independence under their traditional famas."
[7]
Oral tradition "Sunjata Epic" says Mali Empire founded by Sunjata Keita. Initially there was a Mande Chiefdom in Farakoro. The chief had the title maghan. Sunjata "organized the soldiers of all the Mande chiefdoms into a powerful army. They went to war against Susu." The unified Mande chiefdoms formed the basis of the Mali Empire.
[9]
3. Village headman"Mande-speaking peoples lived in family and village units, the head of the family being both priest and chieftain. A group of villages in turn formed a kafts, or kafu, a community of 1,000 to 15,000 people living around a mud-walled town and ruled by a hereditary chieftain alled a fama."
[2]
_Vassal kingdoms_
2. Vassal king or chief"Outside the Mande-speaking nucleus, the relationship with subordinate rulers was even more essentially based upon the regular or occasional payment of tribute."
[7]
Mid-13th century: "the Wolof and the Fulbe recognised its paramountcy" and gave tribute
[7]
ruler of Mali received tribute from lesser kings and chiefs.
[10]
Mansa Musa reigned 1312-1337 CE. Ibn Kathir (c1300-c1374 CE) sad he ruled over 24 other kings.
[11]
Al-Umari said Musa had "conquered 24 cities, each with its surrounding district with villages and estates" and that he had a palace
[12]
"In Mali, as in other African empires, the supreme ruler was essentially a paramount, a king of kings, the degree of whose authority varied greatly from one part of his dominions to another, according to the accessibility of each to the imperial armies and tax collectors."
[7]
3. District
4. Villages
[1]: (Conrad 2010, 44)
[2]: (Lapidus 2012, 591)
[3]: (Conrad 2010, 56)
[4]: (Lapidus 2012, 592)
[5]: (Niane 1984, 160-61)
[6]: (Roland and Atmore 2001, 63)
[7]: (Roland and Atmore 2001, 62)
[8]: (Conrad 2010, 57)
[9]: (Conrad 2010, 42-44)
[10]: (Conrad 2010, 51)
[11]: (Conrad 2010, 45)
[12]: (Conrad 2010, 45 cite: Levtzion, N and Hopkins J F P. Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History)
Manda Moussa I’s pilgrimage story mentions an imperial escort of 8700 men.
[1]
This is unconfirmed by historical/archaeological evidence, but hints at the existence of a professional army. Later Songhay Empire: Askia Muhammed Toure (r.1493-1529 CE) "created a professional full-time army"
[2]
before Askia Muhammad of Songhay Empire "Chiefs, kings and emperors of earlier times had relied on simply ’calling up’ their subjects, their vassals, or their allies. ... But these were temporary armies. They were amateur armies. They served for a campaign or a war, and then everyone went home again until the next one."
[3]
Distinction between people and army during Songhai period: "beginning with the reign of Askia Mohammad ... Instead of mass conscription, a permanent army was created; civilians who were not part of it could go about their business."
[4]
[1]: (Niane 1975, 37)
[2]: (Conrad 2010, 66)
[3]: (Davidson 1998, 168) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
[4]: (Diop 1987, 116) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
Manda Moussa I’s pilgrimage story mentions an imperial escort of 8700 men.
[1]
This is unconfirmed by historical/archaeological evidence, but hints at the existence of a professional army. Later Songhay Empire: Askia Muhammad had a full time general called dyini-koy or balama.
[2]
"commanders"
[3]
At a later time Askia Muhammed Toure (r.1493-1529 CE) "created a professional full-time army"
[4]
before Askia Muhammad of Songhay Empire "Chiefs, kings and emperors of earlier times had relied on simply ’calling up’ their subjects, their vassals, or their allies. ... But these were temporary armies. They were amateur armies. They served for a campaign or a war, and then everyone went home again until the next one."
[2]
King of Mali had two generals, one responsible for the Mossi border, other northern desert border."
[5]
[1]: (Niane 1975, 37)
[2]: (Davidson 1998, 168) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Conrad 2010, 46)
[4]: (Conrad 2010, 66)
[5]: (Diop 1987, 115-116) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
late 14th century government characterised by rules of powerful government officials and a "puppet" monarch. [1] We know that under the Songhai Askias the bureaucracy became very well developed but it is possible more rudimentary aspects of the following description preexisted under the earlier Empires. During the Songhai period, each high official was directly appointed by the king [2] , was given a "distinctive uniform and insignia" which were worn at royal audiences, and they sat together in a highly-formalised assembly. [3] For the Mali Empire specifically we have references to the following officials: the hari-farma managed fishing on the Niger river. [4] The sao-farma managed the forests. [5] The babili-farma was minister of agriculture. [4] The khalissi-farma was minister of finance. [4] Reference for the later period Songhai state to prisons at Kanato, Kabara (near Timbuktu) and elsewhere [6] where there was widespread use of "notarized documents" such as for an inventory of goods belonging to a prison inmate. [7]
[1]: (Conrad 2010, 56)
[2]: (Diop 1987, 108) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[3]: (Diop 1987, 78) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[4]: (Davidson 1998, 43) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
[5]: (Davidson 1998, 43)Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
[6]: (Diop 1987, 126) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[7]: (Diop 1987, 127) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
"Mali rulers enforced customary law when it suited them and preserved ancient ceremonials." Some of the ruling classes and merchant classes were Muslim, everyone else pagan.
[1]
"It was customary for rulers of Western Sudan kingdoms to hold what were called audiences, during which ordinary citizens could submit complaints and legal disputes."
[2]
They were held in public and one was witnessed by Ibn Battuta on his 1352-1353 visit.
[2]
The cadi was a Muslim judge appointed by the king who "handled mainly common-law misdemeanors, disputes between citizens, or between citizens and foreigners."
[3]
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 592)
[2]: (Conrad 2010, 52)
[3]: (Diop 1987, 124) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
"Mali rulers enforced customary law when it suited them and preserved ancient ceremonials." Some of the ruling classes and merchant classes were Muslim, everyone else pagan.
[1]
"It was customary for rulers of Western Sudan kingdoms to hold what were called audiences, during which ordinary citizens could submit complaints and legal disputes."
[2]
They were held in public and one was witnessed by Ibn Battuta on his 1352-1353 visit.
[2]
Judges and legal experts.
[3]
Islamic law. Judges chosen by Mansa. Mansa ultimate legal authority.
[4]
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 592)
[2]: (Conrad 2010, 52)
[3]: (Niane 1984, 152)
[4]: (Niane 1984, 160)
In the Songhai period state farms "were spread right across the empire, to supply the government and the garrisons, but the largest concentration was still to be found in the well-watered inland delta" [1] -- basic institution likely inherited from the preceding Mali Empire?
[1]: (Roland and Atmore 2001, 69)
Gold mining (?) from Bambuk and Bure on the upper Niger.
Classic Arabic of Koran. "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [1] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events." [2] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao. [3]
[1]: (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
[3]: (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [1] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events." [2] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao. [3]
[1]: (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
[3]: (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
al-Maghili was "a North African who wrote a book of advice about new methods of government for the benefit of King Muhammad Rumfa of the Hausa state of Kano in about 1490. He called his book The Duties of Kings." [1]
[1]: (Davidson 1998, 154) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
They had writing and so it was likely used to assist organization.
"no trace of a die or mint has been found south of the desert." [1] Currency "consisted of salt, cowries, or gold in either dust or pieces (of foreign or local mintage)." [2] Currency included blocks of salt of different sizes. [2] Currency "consisted of salt, cowries, or gold in either dust or pieces (of foreign or local mintage)." [2] According to Leo Africanus cowries used as currency for trading came from the Indian Ocean, via Persia. [3] According to al Bakri (11th century) ’The dinars they used were of pure gold and were called sola [bald] because they bore no imprints.’ ... Thus these documents allow us to be sure of the use in Black Africa of imprinted gold coins, without, however, being able to know whether such imprints were effiges of local emperors or kings, or to know whether there was any generalized imperial currency minited apart from the mitkal standard." [4]
[1]: (Devisse 1988, 387) Devisse, J "Trade and Trade Routes in West Africa" in El Fasi, M and Hrbek, I. eds. 1988. General History of Africa III: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. Heinemann. California.http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001842/184282eo.pdf
[2]: (Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[3]: (Diop 1987, 134) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[4]: (Diop 1987, 135) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
Some coins imported from Arabic polities? Cosmopolitan commerce centers: Timbuktu, Djenne, Biru, Soo, Ndob, Pekes and some others. [1] Currency "consisted of salt, cowries, or gold in either dust or pieces (of foreign or local mintage)." [2]
[1]: (Diop 1987, 132-133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[2]: (Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
Barter "at the periphery of the African kingdoms, some backwards tribes, such as the Lem-Lem in Southwest Ghana, perhaps on the banks of the present-day Faleme River, had been carrying on barter trade since the Carthaginian period." [1] This was where, without any direct contact, Carthaginian and Arab traders exchanged their goods for gold dust. However, this simple form of economy was not characteristic of the economies of the polities of these times. [2]
[1]: (Diop 1987, 130) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[2]: (Diop 1987, 131) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
mud-walled towns [1] Djenne had been "fortified by a system of ramparts, with a variable number of guarded gates. A fortified city was called a tata." [2]
[1]: (Roland and Atmore 2001, 62)
[2]: (Diop 1987, 121) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
Iron Age from 600 BCE in West Africa (e.g. Benue valley in Nigeria and upper Niger River) "the development and spread of the basic technologies of metal production and the forging and smithing of metal tools, notably in iron." [1] "Iron-headed hoes, probably invented some time after iron-pointed spears." [2] "Iron also brought, from about 600 BC onwards, a new source of military power." [3]
[1]: (Davidson 1998, 8) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
[2]: (Davidson 1998, 12) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Davidson 1998, 13) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
swords. [1] The weapons used by the empire’s army included iron-tipped spears, daggers, and swords. Wooden objects used for defense included battle clubs. [2]
[1]: (Conrad 2010, 46)Conrad, D. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Infobase Publishing.
[2]: (24) Wolny, P. 2013. Discovering the Empire of Mali. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.
Knights: "The princes of Black Africa who could afford to outfitted themselves in complete or partial armor like that of the knights of the Western Middle Ages." [1] "coat of mail and iron breastplate, helmet, boots, javelin ... all of it." [2] However, due to climate complete knightly armour not as common as in Europe and in fact Songhai Askia Bano died of suffocation. [2] 1000-1650 CE period: "body armor was rare. Among the cavalry empires of the Sahel and sudan, quilted horse and body armor were common but plate was rarely used." [3]
[1]: (Diop 1987, 116) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[2]: (Diop 1987, 117) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[3]: (Nolan 2006, 27) Cathal J Nolan. 2006. The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization. Volume 1 A - K. Greenwood Press. Westport.
Knights: "The princes of Black Africa who could afford to outfitted themselves in complete or partial armor like that of the knights of the Western Middle Ages." [1] "coat of mail and iron breastplate, helmet, boots, javelin ... all of it." [2] However, due to climate complete knightly armour not as common as in Europe and in fact Songhai Askia Bano died of suffocation. [2]
[1]: (Diop 1987, 116) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[2]: (Diop 1987, 117) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
"The Tuaregs wore puffed trousers, a tunic, a turban, and a litham." [1] 1000-1650 CE period: "body armor was rare. Among the cavalry empires of the Sahel and sudan, quilted horse and body armor were common but plate was rarely used." [2]
[1]: (Diop 1987, 118) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[2]: (Nolan 2006, 27) Cathal J Nolan. 2006. The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization. Volume 1 A - K. Greenwood Press. Westport.
Knights: "The princes of Black Africa who could afford to outfitted themselves in complete or partial armor like that of the knights of the Western Middle Ages." [1] "coat of mail and iron breastplate, helmet, boots, javelin ... all of it." [2] However, due to climate complete knightly armour not as common as in Europe and in fact Songhai Askia Bano died of suffocation. [2]
[1]: (Diop 1987, 116) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[2]: (Diop 1987, 117) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
Knights: "The princes of Black Africa who could afford to outfitted themselves in complete or partial armor like that of the knights of the Western Middle Ages." [1] "coat of mail and iron breastplate, helmet, boots, javelin ... all of it." [2] However, due to climate complete knightly armour not as common as in Europe and in fact Songhai Askia Bano died of suffocation. [2]
[1]: (Diop 1987, 116) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[2]: (Diop 1987, 117) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
reference to an iron breastplate on Songhai askia 1588 CE. [1] Knights: "The princes of Black Africa who could afford to outfitted themselves in complete or partial armor like that of the knights of the Western Middle Ages." [2] "coat of mail and iron breastplate, helmet, boots, javelin ... all of it." [1] However, due to climate complete knightly armour not as common as in Europe and in fact Songhai Askia Bano died of suffocation. [1] 1000-1650 CE period: "body armor was rare. Among the cavalry empires of the Sahel and sudan, quilted horse and body armor were common but plate was rarely used." [3]
[1]: (Diop 1987, 117) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[2]: (Diop 1987, 116) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.
[3]: (Nolan 2006, 27) Cathal J Nolan. 2006. The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization. Volume 1 A - K. Greenwood Press. Westport.