Home Region:  North China (East Asia)

Jin

780 BCE 404 BCE

D G SC WF EC HS CC EQ 2020  cn_jin_spring_and_autumn / CnJinSA

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Preceding Entity: Add one more here.
1122 BCE 771 BCE Western Zhou (cn_western_zhou_dyn)    [elite replacement]

Succeeding Entity:
No Polity found. Add one here.

The Spring and Autumn period was a period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty in which strong vassal states competed for dominance. [1] When King You of Zhou was killed by an allied force of Quan Rong barbarians and the state of Shen, King Ping moved the capital to Luoyang in 770 BCE and founded the Eastern Zhou dynasty. [2] The weak Eastern Zhou state was responsible for diplomacy and rituals, while governmental authority lay in the hands of large vassal states. [1] There were 15 major vassal states in the Spring and Autumn period, but by the mid-7th century BCE the region was dominated by the Qi, Jin, Qin, and Chu states. [3] The period is marked by constant warfare between different states. [4]
The Spring and Autumn period takes its name from the Confucian book Chunqiu, which chronicles events from 722 to 429 BCE. [1] During this time, the moral values of Confucius helped bring China into the ’Axial Age’. [2] The use of bronze agricultural tools became more widespread in China and there is evidence of the use of steel and iron in the middle and late Spring and Autumn period. [4] Coinage appeared in this period, and there are some indications that individuals could own land. [5]
The Jin state dominated the Spring and Autumn period from 636 to 628 BCE. Duke Xian of Jin (676-651 BCE) conquered 16 small states in modern Shanxi. [3] His son, Duke Wen, was given the title of ba (’senior’ or ’hegemon’) [6] by the Zhou king after defeating the encroaching state of Chu in 632 BCE. [3]
The Jin state covered an estimated 160,000 square kilometres. The state was located in modern Shanxi, [7] and extended east and north from the Yellow River. [8]
Population and political organization
The multi-state Spring and Autumn system changed the feudal structure of China. In the Western Zhou period, the political elite was made up of kings, feudal lords, and hereditary ministers. [4] In the Spring and Autumn period, a class of knights and warriors became the political ruling class. [4] Intellectuals served as both government officials and ’cultural carriers’. [9] States became more centralized as the central government continued to weaken. [4]
In the ba system, first institutionalized in 651 BCE, the Zhou king bestowed the title of ba on the ruler of the vassal state that represented the Zhou court in war. [4] [10] However, this system of political organization began to weaken in the 6th century BCE. [4] [10]
Substantiated estimates for the population of the Jin state are lacking.

[1]: (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Spring and Autumn Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period. Accessed June 5, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P.

[2]: (Hsu 1999, 545) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW.

[3]: (Hsu 1999, 559) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW.

[4]: (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9.

[5]: (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9.

[6]: (Lewis 2000, 365) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2000. “The City-State in Spring-and-Autumn China.” In A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures: An Investigation Conducted by the Copenhagen Polis Centre, edited by Mogens Herman Hansen. Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DXXZV8CS.

[7]: (Theobald 2010) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “The Feudal State of China.” Chinaknowledge.de http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-jin.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8735F2AW.

[8]: (Eno 2010) Eno, Robert. 2010. Spring and Autumn China. Indiana University, History G380, Class Text Readings. http://www.iub.edu/~g380/1.7-Spring_Autumn_Narrative-2010.pdf Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/32FGZ2UI.

[9]: (Hsu 1999, 549) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW.

[10]: (Hsu 1999, 562) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW.

General Variables
Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Hierarchical Complexity
Professions
Bureaucracy Characteristics
Law
Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Transport Infrastructure
Special-purpose Sites
Information / Writing System
Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Information / Money
Information / Postal System
Information / Measurement System
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Religion Variables Coding in Progress.
Human Sacrifice Coding in Progress.
Crisis Consequences Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range Jin (cn_jin_spring_and_autumn) was in:
 (794 BCE 489 BCE)   Middle Yellow River Valley
Home NGA: Middle Yellow River Valley

General Variables
Identity and Location
Utm Zone:
50 S
[-780, -404]

Original Name:
Jin
[-780, -404]

Capital:
Jiang
[-780, -404]

Alternative Name:
Chin
[-780, -404]

Chunqiu translates as ‘Springs and Autumns’, used to denote period of multistate competition after fall of Zhou hegemony; the Zuo zhuan mentions 148 ‘states’ that were founded by Zhou royal lineage at break-up of Western Zhou kingdom; 15 major states (Qi, Jin, Qin, Chu, Lu, Cao, Zheng, Song, Xu, Chen, Wey, Yan, Cai, Wu, Yue) [1]

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 547)

Alternative Name:
Tang
[-780, -404]

Chunqiu translates as ‘Springs and Autumns’, used to denote period of multistate competition after fall of Zhou hegemony; the Zuo zhuan mentions 148 ‘states’ that were founded by Zhou royal lineage at break-up of Western Zhou kingdom; 15 major states (Qi, Jin, Qin, Chu, Lu, Cao, Zheng, Song, Xu, Chen, Wey, Yan, Cai, Wu, Yue) [1]

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 547)

Alternative Name:
Chunqiu
[-780, -404]

Chunqiu translates as ‘Springs and Autumns’, used to denote period of multistate competition after fall of Zhou hegemony; the Zuo zhuan mentions 148 ‘states’ that were founded by Zhou royal lineage at break-up of Western Zhou kingdom; 15 major states (Qi, Jin, Qin, Chu, Lu, Cao, Zheng, Song, Xu, Chen, Wey, Yan, Cai, Wu, Yue) [1]

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 547)


Temporal Bounds
Political and Cultural Relations
Suprapolity Relations:
alliance with [---]
[-780, -404]

Alliance: Ba system - Ba was title assumed at different times by different lineage heads of different states to signify their leadership over the other splinter Zhou kingdoms; for instance, Zheng Zhuang Gong of Zheng is said to have first taken the status (although the term Ba was not yet in use) in 707 bce after defeating armies of Chen, Wey, and Cai. Qi under Huan Gong then supplanted Zheng as the Ba hegemon in the early 7th c bce [1] . “at these conferences the attending delegates usually swore their support for the Zhou feudal structure as spelled out in formal agreements.” [2]
vassalage: numerous ‘barbarian’ tribes (Man, Yi, Rang, Di); namely, groups not directly associated with the Zhou ruling families which served as subservient garrison states as “part of the Zhou feudal network.” [3]

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 552)

[2]: (Hsu 1999, 556)

[3]: (Hsu 1999, 549)

Suprapolity Relations:
cn_western_zhou_dyn alliance with cn_jin_spring_and_autumn
[-1122, -771]

alliance
"inscription documents a joint military campaign between the state of Jin and the Zhou court against a people called Suyi". [1]

[1]: (Feng 2006, 86) Feng, Li. 2006. Landscape and Power in Early China: The Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045-771 BC. Cambridge University Press.

Suprapolity Relations:
vassalage to [---]
[-780, -404]

Alliance: Ba system - Ba was title assumed at different times by different lineage heads of different states to signify their leadership over the other splinter Zhou kingdoms; for instance, Zheng Zhuang Gong of Zheng is said to have first taken the status (although the term Ba was not yet in use) in 707 bce after defeating armies of Chen, Wey, and Cai. Qi under Huan Gong then supplanted Zheng as the Ba hegemon in the early 7th c bce [1] . “at these conferences the attending delegates usually swore their support for the Zhou feudal structure as spelled out in formal agreements.” [2]
vassalage: numerous ‘barbarian’ tribes (Man, Yi, Rang, Di); namely, groups not directly associated with the Zhou ruling families which served as subservient garrison states as “part of the Zhou feudal network.” [3]

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 552)

[2]: (Hsu 1999, 556)

[3]: (Hsu 1999, 549)


Supracultural Entity:
China
[-780, -404]

Faulkenhausen notes that the material culture of all of the Spring Autumn period states is remarkably consistent, following Western Zhou traditions. Especially notable in the assemblages of goods from elite burials in the various states [1] “In a milieu where adherence to codified rules of ritual consumption and behavior was central to political and religious activity at any level, it is legitimate to argue that such archaeologically observable phenomena as the use of more or less uniform sets of ritual paraphernalia, and the adoption of largely comparable burial customs throughout a wide area, may reflect an underlying shared system of politicoreligious values, as well as homologies in the social organization of elites.” [2]

[1]: (Faulkenhausen 1999, 510)

[2]: (Faulkenhausen 1999, 544)


Succeeding Entity:
Zhao
[-780, -404]

during the Warring States period

Succeeding Entity:
Wei
[-780, -404]

during the Warring States period

Succeeding Entity:
Qin
[-780, -404]

during the Warring States period


Scale of Supracultural Interaction:
9,000,000 km2
[-780, -404]

km. Approximate scale of modern country of China (which covers roughly same area as ‘cultural zone’ of early imperial period).


Relationship to Preceding Entity:
elite migration
[-780, -404]

Zhou dynasty broken up into several independent kingdoms, mainly ruled by former enfeoffed nobles of Zhou period


Preceding Entity:
1122 BCE 771 BCE Western Zhou (cn_western_zhou_dyn)    [elite replacement]  
 

Zhou dynasty broken up into several independent kingdoms, mainly ruled by former enfeoffed nobles of Zhou period


Degree of Centralization:
loose
[-780, -404]

though was proto-centralization process in most Spring Autumn states over course of this period [1]

[1]: (Hsu 1999)


Language
Linguistic Family:
Sino-Tibetan
[-780, -404]

Language:
Chinese
[-780, -404]

Religion
Religion Genus:
Ancient East Asian Religion
[-780, -404]

Religion Family:
Chinese Folk Religion
[-780, -404]


Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Polity Territory:
160,000 km2
[-780, -404]

km^2
size of State of Jin by 5th c. bce
Hsu: “An expansion of territory is a characteristic of all major states, and the four most powerful states of the Spring and Autumn period — Qi, Jin, Chu, and Qin - all expanded dramatically. Qi Huan Gong annexed 35 neighboring states to become the first ba. Jin Xian Gong took 17 states and subjugated 38, paving the way for Jin to lead the Zhou world for generations. Qin Mu Gong fUS-^ (659—621 B.C.) combined 12 other states to extend its territory in the west. During the reign of King Zhuang of Chu (613-591 B.C.), Chu annexed no fewer than 26 states, many of which were former important Zhou states, and thus became the main threat to the Zhou 
world.’ Of 148 states that appear in the chronicles of the Spring and Autumn period," the number extinguished by these four major powers adds up to 1*” [1]

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 567)


Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
4
[-780, -404]

1. Capital city2. town3. feudal estates4. village


Military Level:
5
[-780, -404]

The following inferred from what has been inferred from contemporary polities:
1. Ruler
2. Minister of War3. GeneralsElite families in charge of chariot forces
4. Officer level5. Individual soldier


Administrative Level:
4
[-780, -404]

1. Ruler2. Court officials (Chancellor, Secretaries, etc)3. Provincial / commandery governors; military generals; local elite lineages4. town heads
NB: unclear exactly how much administrative hierarchy there was at the local (town, village, etc) level, but the number 4 based on states during this period having short chains-of-command and less state penetration into the local levels relative to later periods after the ‘centralizing’ reforms of the Qi, Chu, and Qin (DH)


Professions
Professional Soldier:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred present for contemporary polities [1] .

[1]: (Blakeley 1999, 10) Blakeley, Barry B. in Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. 1999. eds. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.


Professional Priesthood:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred present for contemporary polities [1] .

[1]: (Blakeley 1999, 10) Blakeley, Barry B. in Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. 1999. eds. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.


Professional Military Officer:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred present for contemporary polities [1] .

[1]: (Blakeley 1999, 10) Blakeley, Barry B. in Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. 1999. eds. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.


Bureaucracy Characteristics
Specialized Government Building:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred from presence of administrative system of states- "During the Spring and Autumn Period, the powerful states such as Qin and Chu set up a new administrative system of provinces and counties in each of the places they conquered through wars of annexation. In general, counties were based in the center of the state, while provinces were based in the outlying areas. The governorships of the provinces and counties were no longer hereditary positions. Rather governors were appointed and dismissed directly by the kings or lords. These governors in the provinces and counties comprised the first bureaucracy in Chinese history." [1]

[1]: (Zhang 2015, 144) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.


Merit Promotion:
Present
[-780, -404]

"In respect to selecting officials, the appointment of capable and talented people emerged as a trend in the Spring and Autumn Period." [1]
"During the Spring and Autumn Period, the powerful states such as Qin and Chu set up a new administrative system of provinces and counties in each of the places they conquered through wars of annexation. In general, counties were based in the center of the state, while provinces were based in the outlying areas. The governorships of the provinces and counties were no longer hereditary positions. Rather governors were appointed and dismissed directly by the kings or lords. These governors in the provinces and counties comprised the first bureaucracy in Chinese history." [2]

[1]: (Zhang 2015, 143) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.

[2]: (Zhang 2015, 144) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.


Full Time Bureaucrat:
Present
[-780, -404]

"During the Spring and Autumn Period, the powerful states such as Qin and Chu set up a new administrative system of provinces and counties ... These governors in the provinces and counties comprised the first bureaucracy in Chinese history." [1]
"in terms of administration, aristocratic politics was transformed into bureaucratic politics as the hereditary seigniors were replaced by professional bureaucrats." [1]

[1]: (Zhang 2015, 144) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.


Examination System:
Absent
[-780, -404]

"Before the Northern Sung, the principal means of entry into the social and political elite was by official recommendation or kinship relations." [1]

[1]: (Elmam 2000, 5) Elman, B. 2000. A cultural history of civil examinations in late imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press.


Law
Judge:
Present
[-780, -404]

"In the late Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods, several inscriptions record decisions in legal cases, most commonly disputes over land." [1] - who made the decisions in legal cases?

[1]: (Lewis 2009, 228) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2009. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Harvard University Press.


Formal Legal Code:
Present
[-780, -404]

"In the late Spring and Autumn Period, the legal system had reached a turning point - provisions of punishments changed into a systematic code, which came to be recorded on two occasions: the State of Zhen had the penal code prepared by Zi Chan inscribed onto bamboo tablets (536 BC); the State of Jin had the penal code prepared by Zhao Yang inscribed onto tripods (513 BC)." [1]

[1]: (Zhang 2015, 143) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.


Court:
Present
[-780, -404]

"In the late Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods, several inscriptions record decisions in legal cases, most commonly disputes over land." [1] - where were trials held for legal cases?
"Court" for trials existed in Spring and Autumn period (reference not specific to Chu). [2]

[1]: (Lewis 2009, 228) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2009. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Harvard University Press.

[2]: (Brooks and Brooks) Brooks, E, Bruce. Brooks, A, Taeko. 2015. The Emergence of China: From Confucius to the Empire. Warring States Project.


Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Market:
Present
[-780, -404]

"During the Western Zhou Dynasty, handicrafts and commerce came under government monopoly, and a system was instituted whereby craftsmen and merchants ceased to be household retainers and became government subjects." [1] "It was not until the Western Zhou period (1027-771 bc) that professional merchants emerged, mainly to serve feudal aristocrats by supplying them with the desired commodities. Only in the Spring and Autumn (770-403 BC) and the Warring States period (403-211 BC), when agricultural technology was much improved, did households retain sufficient surpluses that professional merchants found it profitable to serve the ordinary people (Sa 1966:29)" [2] "During the Zhou dynasty (1134-256 BC) onward, merchants’ guilds based on family relationships came into being in China (Chuan 1978)." [3] However, before the Sui and Tang, "merchants could open stores only in restricted locations, and merchant guilds were localized." [2]

[1]: (Yu 1997, 190) Yu, Weichao. 1997. A Journey Into China’s Antiquity: Palaeolithic Age, Low Neolithic Age, Upper Neolithic Age, Xia Dynasty, Shang Dynasty, Western Zhou Dynasty, Spring and Autumn Period. Morning Glory Press.

[2]: (Lin 2014, 9-10) Lin, Man-houng in Chow, Gregory C and Perkins, Dwight H. eds. 2014. Routledge Handbook of the Chinese Economy. Business & Economics.

[3]: (Lin 2014, 10) Lin, Man-houng in Chow, Gregory C and Perkins, Dwight H. eds. 2014. Routledge Handbook of the Chinese Economy. Business & Economics.


Irrigation System:
Present
[-780, -404]

Developed in Yellow River basin after Shang. [1]

[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1979, 172)


Food Storage Site:
Present
[-780, -404]

"The basic wealth of the Spring and Autumn states was thus in grain, and grain was stored by the state as a hedge against famine. On two occasions, grain was transferred between states for famine relief ... These interstate transactions show that states had considerable storage capacity, as well as substantial transport capacity, for food supplies." [1]

[1]: (Brooks and Brooks) Brooks, E, Bruce. Brooks, A, Taeko. 2015. The Emergence of China: From Confucius to the Empire. Warring States Project.


Transport Infrastructure
Road:
Present
[-780, -404]

Administration existed to manage roads. "As early as the Shang period, roads were controlled by a special official, and in the Zhou period, traffic had reached such proportions that regulations were introduced for particularly crowded crossroads and reckless driving was prohibited. ... they are said to have put roads into five categories: pedestrian roads for people and pack animals, roads for handcarts, roads for single carts, roads on which two carts could pass, and main roads wide enough to take three vehicles abreast." [1]

[1]: (Lindqvist 2009) Lindqvist, Cecilia. 2009. China: Empire of Living Symbols. Da Capo Press.


Canal:
Present
[-780, -404]

Present for Western Zhou [1]

[1]: (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, [1])


Bridge:
Present
[-780, -404]

"As early as the Shang period, roads were controlled by a special official, and in the Zhou period, traffic had reached such proportions that regulations were introduced for particularly crowded crossroads and reckless driving was prohibited." [1] Must have been stone or wooden bridges over rivers and streams.

[1]: (Lindqvist 2009) Lindqvist, Cecilia. 2009. China: Empire of Living Symbols. Da Capo Press.


Special-purpose Sites
Mines or Quarry:
Unknown
[-780, -404]

Information / Writing System
Written Record:
Present
[-780, -404]

[1] However, Spring and Autumn polities wrote on perishable materials such as silk [2] , which means that texts are less likely to be preserved.

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 569)

[2]: (Cook and Major 1999, viii) Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. eds. 1999. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.


Script:
Present
[-780, -404]

[1] However, Spring and Autumn polities wrote on perishable materials such as silk [2] , which means that texts are less likely to be preserved.

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 569)

[2]: (Cook and Major 1999, viii) Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. eds. 1999. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.


Phonetic Alphabetic Writing:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Ancient Chinese language.


Nonwritten Record:
Present
[-780, -404]

Presence of written records, administration etc.


Non Phonetic Writing:
Present
[-780, -404]

Ancient Chinese language.


Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Scientific Literature:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred from the fact immediately preceding polities produced scientific literature [1] However, Spring and Autumn polities wrote on perishable materials such as silk [2] , which means that texts are less likely to be preserved

[1]: (? 1996, 4519) Mathematical Reviews. Volume 96. Volume 1996. American Mathematical Society.

[2]: (Cook and Major 1999, viii) Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. eds. 1999. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.


Sacred Text:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Does not seem to have been part of Ancient Chinese religious system in general to have sacrilized texts, not including collected sayings of wise men and sages (Confucius, etc.), since these seem to be more philosophical than ‘word of god’ type works.


Religious Literature:
Present
[-780, -404]

religious and political philosophy, esp. Confucianism, developed in this period [1]

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 545)


Practical Literature:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred from the fact that immediately preceding polities had produced practical literature, e.g. Shanghsu (Book of Documents), Yi Zhoushu (Zhou documents). [1] However, Spring and Autumn polities wrote on perishable materials such as silk [2] , which means that texts are less likely to be preserved

[1]: (Keay 2009, 54)

[2]: (Cook and Major 1999, viii) Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. eds. 1999. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.


Philosophy:
Present
[-780, -404]

religious and political philosophy, esp. Confucianism, developed in this period [1]

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 545)


Lists Tables and Classification:
Present
[-780, -404]

"During the Spring and Autumn Period, the powerful states such as Qin and Chu set up a new administrative system of provinces and counties ... These governors in the provinces and counties comprised the first bureaucracy in Chinese history." [1]

[1]: (Zhang 2015, 144) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.


History:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred from the fact that immediately preceding polities wrote abbreviated histories on vessels: "The Shi Qiang pan (Figure 23) is one of the most important Western Zhou bronze vessels due to its 270 character long inscription. In two columns, it provides an outline of the first seven Western Zhou kings with a similar account of four generations from the Wei family [65]." [1] However, Spring and Autumn polities wrote on perishable materials such as silk [2] , which means that texts are less likely to be preserved

[1]: (Bavarian 2005) Bavarian, Behzad. July 2005. Unearthing Technology’s Influence on the Ancient Chinese Dynasties through Metallurgical Investigations, California State University. Northridge. http://library.csun.edu/docs/bavarian.pdf

[2]: (Cook and Major 1999, viii) Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. eds. 1999. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.


Fiction:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred from the fact that immediately preceding polities produced poetry [1] . However, Spring and Autumn polities wrote on perishable materials such as silk [2] , which means that texts are less likely to be preserved
Money

[1]: (Keay 2009, 54)

[2]: (Cook and Major 1999, viii) Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. eds. 1999. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.


Calendar:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred from the fact that contemporary polities wrote on perishable materials such as silk [1] , though this does mean that texts are less likely to be preserved, and that they had ritual calendars [2] .

[1]: (Cook and Major 1999, viii) Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. eds. 1999. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.

[2]: (Shaughnessy 1999, 343) Shaughnessy "Western Zhou History" in Loewe, Michael. Shaughnessy, Edward L. 2009. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press.


Information / Money
Token:
Present
[-780, -404]

Cowrie shells, tortoise shells used as currency in all Spring Autumn states from Western Zhou period [1] [2]

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 581)

[2]: (Bodde 1986, 60)


Precious Metal:
Present
[-780, -404]

[1]

[1]: (Hsu 1999, 581)


Paper Currency:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Would not be invented for another couple thousand years.


Indigenous Coin:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Not until Warring States Period at the earliest: "The earliest minted form of currency was the bu, a coin cast of bronze in the form of a miniature double-pronged digging stick or hoe, complete with hollow socket. They are particularly densely concentrated in the vicinity of the Eastern Zhou capital of Luoyang and in the states of Han, Zhao, and Wei." [1]

[1]: (Higham 2009, 83) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.


Foreign Coin:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Inferred absent. Coinage invented in Anatolia around time of the Spring and Autumn Period but such coins, even if they reached China, more likely would have been prized for precious metal content.


Article:
Present
[-780, -404]

Coded as present in preceding Late Shang polity.


Information / Postal System
Postal Station:
Present
[-780, -404]

From the Shang period roads considered important enough to be "controlled by a special official" [1] but references to post usually begin with the Qin’s First Emperor who "constructed post roads across his empire". [2] However, Confucius (551-479 BCE) said: "News of good deeds travels faster than the mail" [3] which strongly implies a postal system was present at his time. One may infer from the importance of roads a basic postal system existed earlier.

[1]: (Lindqvist 2009) Lindqvist, Cecilia. 2009. China: Empire of Living Symbols. Da Capo Press.

[2]: ( ? 2003, 391) ? in Mokyr, Joel ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, Volume 2. Oxford University Press

[3]: (Postal Museum Chunghwa Post Co. 2010, [2])


General Postal Service:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Unlikely literacy high enough for a general postal service to be necessary.


Courier:
Present
[-780, -404]

Basic system of messaging must have been present for the Jin government, as it probably was for the Chu.


Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
Stone Walls Non Mortared:
Present
[-780, -404]

Stone walls present in the Neolithic period [1] However most walls made of stamped earth during this period. [2]

[1]: (Feinman, Gary and Liye, Xie. North China Workshop 2016)

[2]: (Falkenhausen 1999)


Settlements in a Defensive Position:
Present
[-780, -404]

e.g. Qin built fortifications in seventh c bce along Yellow River to defend against raids by northern Di tribes [1]

[1]: (Li 2013, 164)


Modern Fortification:
Absent
[-780, -404]

No gunpowder at this time.
Other technologies
Canals used for military transport [1]

[1]: (Lorge, 2012, 84)


Moat:
Present
[-780, -404]

Evidence of a moat at the Yan state capital during the preceding Western Zhou period. [1] There was some siege warfare so it is possible some Chu towns had moat defenses. There would have been no lack of water nearby to fill the moat.

[1]: (Littlewood 2008, 212) Littlewood, Mark. Littlewood, Misty. 2008. Gateways to Beijing. Genesis Books.


Fortified Camp:
Unknown
[-780, -404]

Earth Rampart:
Present
[-780, -404]

"The number of cities with earth fortifications grew rapidly near the end of the Western Zhou." [1]

[1]: (Cooke 2010, 62) Cooke, Tim. 2010. The New Cultural Atlas of China. Marshall Cavendish.


Ditch:
Present
[-780, -404]

Used against Ch’u by Tsin in Battle of Yen-ling 575 bce. [1]

[1]: (Peers 2013, 25)


Complex Fortification:
Present
[-780, -404]

e.g. Yancheng in Wujin, “an irregularly shaped site some 850 m in diameter, surrounded by three roughly concentric tiers of walls and moats and accessible only by boat.” [1]

[1]: (Falkenhausen 1999, 526)


Long Wall:
absent
[-780, -404]

Military use of Metals
Steel:
Present
[-780, -404]

"During the Spring & Autumn period, China developed steel and iron-made weaponry, and as the raw iron castings technique was widely practiced - and the ‘folded hundred times steel’ casting method was on the rise, along with various polishing techniques for steel - Chinese steel weapons were very much on the ascendant." [1]

[1]: (Hangang undated) Hangang, Cao. A Study of Chinese Weapons Cast During Pre-Qin and Han Periods in the Central Plains of China. Retrieved December 2015: http://www.arscives.com/historysteel/cn.article.htm

Steel:
Absent
[-780, -404]

"During the Spring & Autumn period, China developed steel and iron-made weaponry, and as the raw iron castings technique was widely practiced - and the ‘folded hundred times steel’ casting method was on the rise, along with various polishing techniques for steel - Chinese steel weapons were very much on the ascendant." [1]

[1]: (Hangang undated) Hangang, Cao. A Study of Chinese Weapons Cast During Pre-Qin and Han Periods in the Central Plains of China. Retrieved December 2015: http://www.arscives.com/historysteel/cn.article.htm


Iron:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Iron introduced from Central Asia in roughly 500 bce. Mainly used in agricultural tools, but adapted to swords and other military pieces in Chu and then the other kingdoms by the later 4th c bce. [1] [2]

[1]: (Tin-bor Hui 2005, 96)

[2]: (Lewis 1999b, 624)


Copper:
Present
[-780, -404]

Required for bronze.


Bronze:
Present
[-780, -404]

[1]

[1]: (Peers 2013, 16)


Projectiles
Tension Siege Engine:
Present
[-780, -404]

"Han era scholars identify what seems to be an early Spring and Autumn period catapult called Hui used by the King of Zhou against the Duke of Zheng in 707 B.C." [1] siege-warfare in this period seems to have not involved specialized equipment / technology, more brute force and trickery by besieging armies [2]

[1]: http://www.grandhistorian.com/chinesesiegewarfare/index-english12122007.html

[2]: (Tin-bor Hui 2005)


Sling Siege Engine:
Absent
[-780, -404]

first known use of gravity powered siege engine was under Byzantines, just under two thousand years after this period.


Sling:
Present
[-780, -404]

Known from the Zhou period, when: "The conscripted foot soldiers wore sheepskin jackets and used slings and bows with bronze-tipped arrows." [1]

[1]: (Meyer 1994, 132) Milton Walter Meyer. 1994. China: A Concise History. Second Edition, Revised. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Lanham.


Self Bow:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred from previous polity. Perhaps actually absent for warfare - if the more powerful composite bow is the weapon referred to in the sources.


Javelin:
Present
[-780, -404]

Inferred from previous polity.


Handheld Firearm:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Gunpowder not present until a later period.


Gunpowder Siege Artillery:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Gunpowder not present until a later period.


Crossbow:
Absent
[-780, -404]

"Crossbows first appeared in Chu in the early fifth century BC and were in general use in the fourth century BC." [1] From 340 BCE. [2]

[1]: (Tin-bor Hui 2005, n139 95) Tin-bor Hui, Victoria. 2005. War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press.

[2]: (Meyer 1994, 132) Milton Walter Meyer. 1994. China: A Concise History. Second Edition, Revised. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Lanham.


Composite Bow:
Present
[-780, -404]

[1]

[1]: (Gernet 1982, 66)


Atlatl:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Unlikely, New World weapon.


Handheld weapons
War Club:
Present
[-780, -404]

The preceding Western Zhou had the spalling hammer. [1]

[1]: (Hong 1992, 89) Hong, Yang. 1992. Weapons in Ancient China. Science Press.


Sword:
Present
[-780, -404]

adapted from steppe regions in sixth c bce [1] "Yang Hong (1980: 116) traces the bronze sword back to certain bronze daggers of the Western Zhou period... It was not until the Eastern Zhou period that the bronze sword became a common weapon." [2] In the Shang period, there were bronze swords [3] and a sword has been found as early as the Erligang Culture. [4]

[1]: (Gernet 1982, 66)

[2]: (Wagner 1993, 191) Wagner, Donald B. 1993. Iron and Steel in Ancient China. BRILL.

[3]: (Bavarian 2005) Bavarian, Behzad. July 2005. Unearthing Technology’s Influence on the Ancient Chinese Dynasties through Metallurgical Investigations, California State University. Northridge. http://library.csun.edu/docs/bavarian.pdf

[4]: (Thorp 2013, 110) Thorp, Robert L. 2013. China in the Early Bronze Age: Shang Civilization. University of Pennsylvania Press.


Spear:
Present
[-780, -404]

"A spear was also one of the combat weapons in the Western Zhou period, but it was not the principal one" [1]

[1]: (Hong 1992, 77) Hong, Yang. 1992. Weapons in Ancient China. Science Press.


Polearm:
Present
[-780, -404]

makeshift- dagger-axes mounted on 18 foot long shafts [1] Standard equipment for Western Zhou soldier included the dagger-axe. [2]

[1]: (Peers 2013, 16)

[2]: (Hong 1992, 88) Hong, Yang. 1992. Weapons in Ancient China. Science Press.


Dagger:
Present
[-780, -404]

Daggers [1]

[1]: (Peers 2013, 16)


Battle Axe:
Present
[-780, -404]

Battle axes. [1]

[1]: (Peers 2013, 16)


Animals used in warfare
Horse:
Present
[-780, -404]

Good conditions for horse-breeding in the Zhou homeland. [1] The Zhou used chariots in battle drawn by four horses [2]

[1]: (Gernet 1996, 51)

[2]: (Peers 2013, 8)


Donkey:
Present
[-780, -404]

Used as pack animals. [1]

[1]: (North China Workshop 2016)


Dog:
Absent
[-780, -404]

Never used in warfare. [1]

[1]: (North China Workshop 2016)


Armor
Wood Bark Etc:
Present
[-780, -404]

Wood used as armour, e.g. for shields, unlikely to have been preserved.


Shield:
Present
[-780, -404]

Standard equipment for a soldier under the preceding Western Zhou included the shield. [1]

[1]: (Hong 1992, 88) Hong, Yang. 1992. Weapons in Ancient China. Science Press.


Scaled Armor:
Absent
[-780, -404]

"Mounted warfare in Chinese armies began in the sixth century BCE, while the increasing projectile power of composite bows and especially the crossbow from the fifth century BCE led to the rise of heavy armour." [1]

[1]: (Günergun and Raina 2010, 65) Günergun, Feza. Raina, Dhruv. 2010. Science between Europe and Asia: Historical Studies on the Transmission, Adoption and Adaptation of Knowledge. Springer Science & Business Media


Plate Armor:
Present
[-780, -404]

Traditional view: "Mounted warfare in Chinese armies began in the sixth century BCE, while the increasing projectile power of composite bows and especially the crossbow from the fifth century BCE led to the rise of heavy armour." [1] However, there is evidence heavy armour existed in the preceding Western Zhou: "... suit has yet been unearthed, but a bronze breastplate and two bronze backplates have been found in a Western Zhou ..." [2]

[1]: (Günergun and Raina 2010, 65) Günergun, Feza. Raina, Dhruv. 2010. Science between Europe and Asia: Historical Studies on the Transmission, Adoption and Adaptation of Knowledge. Springer Science & Business Media

[2]: (Hong 1992, 84) Hong, Yang. 1992. Weapons in Ancient China. Science Press.


Limb Protection:
Present
[-780, -404]

In the preceding Western Zhou period protective armour equipment existed in addition to helmets and shields. [1]

[1]: (Hong 1992, 89) Hong, Yang. 1992. Weapons in Ancient China. Science Press.


Leather Cloth:
Present
[-780, -404]

"Crew and horses could be armoured with tough rhinoceros hide, either in the form of scales swen onto a cloth backing, or made into one-piece sleeveless coats like the leather ’buff coats’ of seventeenth century Europe" [1] Inferred from Zhou/Shang: there is no evidence that the Zhou were armed differently than the Shang (evidence of helmets, shields, and leather armor used in the Shang). [2]

[1]: (Peers 2013, 16)

[2]: (Peers 2013, 10)


Laminar Armor:
Present
[-780, -404]

In the preceding Western Zhou period "more flexible corsets began to be fabricated by employing lamellar construction techniques that linked small leather panels together with hempen cord." [1]

[1]: (Peers 2011, 441)


Helmet:
Present
[-780, -404]

bronze helmets, reserved for the aristocracy [1]

[1]: (Peers 2013, 16)


Chainmail:
Absent
[-780, -404]

"Mounted warfare in Chinese armies began in the sixth century BCE, while the increasing projectile power of composite bows and especially the crossbow from the fifth century BCE led to the rise of heavy armour." [1]

[1]: (Günergun and Raina 2010, 65) Günergun, Feza. Raina, Dhruv. 2010. Science between Europe and Asia: Historical Studies on the Transmission, Adoption and Adaptation of Knowledge. Springer Science & Business Media


Breastplate:
Present
[-780, -404]

Traditional view: "Mounted warfare in Chinese armies began in the sixth century BCE, while the increasing projectile power of composite bows and especially the crossbow from the fifth century BCE led to the rise of heavy armour." [1] However, there is evidence heavy armour existed in the preceding Western Zhou: "... suit has yet been unearthed, but a bronze breastplate and two bronze backplates have been found in a Western Zhou ..." [2]

[1]: (Günergun and Raina 2010, 65) Günergun, Feza. Raina, Dhruv. 2010. Science between Europe and Asia: Historical Studies on the Transmission, Adoption and Adaptation of Knowledge. Springer Science & Business Media

[2]: (Hong 1992, 84) Hong, Yang. 1992. Weapons in Ancient China. Science Press.


Naval technology
Specialized Military Vessel:
Unknown
[-780, -404]

Small Vessels Canoes Etc:
Present
[-780, -404]

[1]

[1]: (Falkenhausen 1999, 526)


Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service:
Unknown
[-780, -404]


Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Luxury Goods
[-780, -404]
Luxury Precious Metal: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Jin
Consumption by Ruler: Present

‘‘‘ gold, bronze “The person buried in the tomb... The jade ornaments on the upper part of their body were disturbed, but the ones on the lower half are in better condition. They also discovered accessories like a circular jade pendant, a large jade dagger-axe, a big jade disc, finger rings, a jade platform, a golden waist belt, and other decorative items... It seems that bronze items and other things buried with them might have been taken away, as only a small piece of a bronze tripod leg was found... The individual in the tomb marked as m1 is believed to be possibly Duke Wen of Jin, a well-known figure in the history of the state of Jin…(墓主人……上身的玉组佩被扰乱,但下半身的玉组佩保存相对完好,还发现有璜组佩、大玉戈、大玉璧、扳指、踏玉、金腰带等饰件……随葬的铜器等可能均被搬走,仅仅见到一小段铜鼎的断足……m1的墓主人可能是晋国历史上著名的晋文侯……) ” [Ji 2014, p. 155] ’’’ “Gold is produced from the east side of Ru River and Han River. (金起于汝、汉之右。)” [Guan 2019] note: Ru River is at the border of the State of Jin. ‘" “The person buried in the tomb... The jade ornaments on the upper part of their body were disturbed, but the ones on the lower half are in better condition. They also discovered accessories like a circular jade pendant, a large jade dagger-axe, a big jade disc, finger rings, a jade platform, a golden waist belt, and other decorative items... It seems that bronze items and other things buried with them might have been taken away, as only a small piece of a bronze tripod leg was found... The individual in the tomb marked as m1 is believed to be possibly Duke Wen of Jin, a well-known figure in the history of the state of Jin…(墓主人……上身的玉组佩被扰乱,但下半身的玉组佩保存相对完好,还发现有璜组佩、大玉戈、大玉璧、扳指、踏玉、金腰带等饰件……随葬的铜器等可能均被搬走,仅仅见到一小段铜鼎的断足……m1的墓主人可能是晋国历史上著名的晋文侯……) ” [Ji 2014, p. 155]


[-780, -404]
Luxury Spices Incense And Dyes: Inferred Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Jin
Consumption by Ruler: Inferred Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present
Consumption by Common People: Inferred Absent

‘" "During the Spring and Autumn as well as the Warring States periods in ancient China, historical records showed the utilization of incense. The incense used during that time were sourced locally and included aromatic woods and herbs like lan, hui, jiao, gui, xiao, zhi, and mao. These incense were found in various ways of use, from being burned as offerings to deities, being worn, added to soups, used in ointments, and even for making wine. The practice of using censers to burn incense for room purification was prevalent during the Warring States period and extended into the Han dynasty… (春秋战国时期,我国已有使用香料的历史记载。当时所使用的香料都是本土的香木、香草,主要有兰、蕙、椒、桂、萧、芷、茅等。使用香料的方法包括焚烧以祀神、佩带、煮汤、熬膏、制酒。战国时期就有用熏炉焚香净室的习俗,这种方式一直延续到汉代……)" [Wang_Ma_Li 2013, p. 70] ’" "During the Spring and Autumn as well as the Warring States periods in ancient China, historical records showed the utilization of incense. The incense used during that time were sourced locally and included aromatic woods and herbs like lan, hui, jiao, gui, xiao, zhi, and mao. These incense were found in various ways of use, from being burned as offerings to deities, being worn, added to soups, used in ointments, and even for making wine. The practice of using censers to burn incense for room purification was prevalent during the Warring States period and extended into the Han dynasty… (春秋战国时期,我国已有使用香料的历史记载。当时所使用的香料都是本土的香木、香草,主要有兰、蕙、椒、桂、萧、芷、茅等。使用香料的方法包括焚烧以祀神、佩带、煮汤、熬膏、制酒。战国时期就有用熏炉焚香净室的习俗,这种方式一直延续到汉代……)" [Wang_Ma_Li 2013, p. 70] ‘" "From the pre-Qin period to the Qin dynasty, the range of incense primarily comprised local herbs... The use of incense was mainly confined to ritual contexts and wasn't commonly incorporated into daily activities. It was only during the Western Han dynasty that the extensive use of incense in everyday life became more widespread.(先秦至秦的香料品种多为本土香草……用香范围也多在祭祀领域,日用并不常见。大规模的生活用香,迟至西汉才开始。)” [Wang_Ma_Li 2014, p. 65]


[-780, -404]
Luxury Manufactured Goods: Uncoded
Consumption by Ruler: Present

“Using seashells as beads has a rich history... These seashells were collected from coastal regions and transported over long distances inland, which increased the value of the beads... At the burial site of the Duke of Jin during the Western Zhou period in Shanxi, natural seashell beads were found on the set of ornaments…(贝壳作为珠子的历史很长……贝壳产自沿海,通过对内陆的长途贩运,增加了珠子本身的价值……山西晋侯墓地出土的西周组佩上就系有天然贝壳珠……)” [Zhu 2010, pp. 83-84]


[-780, -404]
Luxury Glass Goods: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: foreign
Consumption by Ruler: Inferred Present
Consumption by Elite: Present
Consumption by Common People: Inferred Absent

“During this era (referring to the late Spring and Autumn period), a notable presence of glass products imported from Western Asia emerged. One of the most significant items was the "dragonfly-eye bead," a colloquial term used in modern archaeological discussions, while in the Western context, they are referred to as "eye beads"... In the book "Zhao Qing's Tomb of the Jin State in Taiyuan" (published in 1996), when analyzing the dating of Zhao Qing's tomb, it is noted that the M270 tomb in Changzhi Fenshui Ridge corresponds to the mid-Spring and Autumn period... Among the tombs from this timeframe, the tomb of Zhao Qing from the Jin State in Taiyuan stands out for unearthing the largest number of dragonfly eye beads – a total of thirteen. (这个时期(指春秋晚期)还有颇多的西亚进口的玻璃制品出现,其中最主要的就算是蜻蜓眼珠了:“蜻蜓眼珠”是近代文物界的俗称,西方称为眼珠(eyebeads)……在《太原晋国赵卿墓》(1996年出版)一书对赵卿墓进行断代时提到长治分水岭m270墓属春秋中期……这个时期出土蜻蜓眼珠最多的墓葬,为太原晋国赵卿墓,共十三枚。)” [Kwan 2001, pp. 17-22] “During the early period, the dragonfly eye beads not only shared similar compositions with Western counterparts but also displayed a distinctive pattern not native to China and absent from other objects: these particular dragonfly eye pattern beads were commonly discovered in the Mediterranean and Western Asia regions in the past, showcasing various designs... It's evident that there's a strong connection between the dragonfly eye beads from China's late Spring and Autumn period and those from Western Asia. It's highly plausible that these early dragonfly eye beads were imported from foreign sources.(早期的蜻蜓眼珠除了成分与西方配方相同之外,所谓的蜻蜓眼纹本物亦非中国固有纹饰,也不见于其他器物之上:这类蜻蜓眼纹珠过去在地中海及西亚地区出土甚多,并且款式多样……不难从当中见到中国春秋晚期蜻蜓眼珠与西亚眼珠的紧密关系,这些早期蜻蜓眼珠是外国进口物的可能性是很高的。)”( [Kwan 2001, pp. 17-18] “Back in the late Spring and Autumn period, these dragonfly-eye beads were brought in from West Asia, which required a long journey. They were really valuable and rare, and therefore were initially only accessible to those of noble status… As time went on into the Warring States period, China started making its own dragonfly-eye beads. But in the beginning, their production was limited by technology and remained exclusive to the people with higher social status… (春秋末蜻蜓眼珠属进口品,从西亚输入,路途遥远,珍贵难得,价值十分高昂,故此最起初只为士级以上所能拥有……战国以后虽出现了中国自产的蜻蜓眼珠,但在起初的技术及产量都有限的情况下,加上受到诸侯所辖管,蜻蜓眼珠仍只保留在社会上较高身份的一层。)” [Kwan 2001, p. 26]


[-780, -404]
Luxury Food: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Jin
Consumption by Ruler: Inferred Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present
Consumption by Common People: Inferred Absent

‘’' “During the Pre-Qin period, meat was a delicacy reserved for the noble class, and regular people rarely got to taste it. The "Book of Rites - Regulations of the Kings" states: "Feudal lords shouldn't kill cattle without reason, high officials shouldn't kill sheep without reason, intellectuals shouldn't kill dogs or pigs without reason, and common people shouldn't eat rare delicacies without reason."(先秦时期,肉食是贵族阶层才能享受的食物,一般平民是难得吃到的。《礼记·王制》:“诸侯无故不杀牛,大夫无故不杀羊,士无故不杀犬豕,庶人无故不食珍。”) [Xu 2004, pp. 6-7] “(Duke Ling of Jin) had a chef executed because the chef cooked bear's paws that were not well-prepared.”(宰夫胹熊蹯不熟,杀之。) [Zuo 2022] "The most delicious fish include the catfish from Dongting Lake and the flatfish from the East China Sea. (鱼之美者:洞庭之鱄,东海之鲕。)” [Lü 2014]


[-780, -404]
Luxury Fabrics: Inferred Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Jin
Consumption by Ruler: Inferred Present
Consumption by Common People: Inferred Absent

‘" silk “The complexity of the relationship between agricultural laborers and the ruling classes is suggested by the Hu ding bronze inscription (dated to 899 BCE), which has been the focus of spirited debate. Hu, a diviner in the Royal Household, submitted a grievance to a high official, Jing Shu, accusing another noble, Xiaofu, of failing to make good on his promised exchange of five bondservants in return for horses and silk. Jing Shu negotiated a settlement in which Hu agreed to pay a hundred measures of bronze metal in lieu of the original payment in horses and silk. The five bondservants over whom Hu assumed overlordship remained on the lands which they previously tilled; thus the produce of the land was transferred to Hu as well. Apparently the bondservants remained in close proximity to Xiaofu, who is told that he must allow the bondservants “to live in the village (yi) in which they have lived, and farm the land which they have farmed.” At the same time Jing Shu enjoined Hu not to stir up animosity between the bondservants and their former master, Xiaofu. The bondservants are also described as “the king’s men” (wangren), suggesting that they had been members of the royal retinue before having been bestowed on Xiaofu. Their status as “the king’s men” probably limited the authority that their new master Hu exercised over them, but in what way remains uncertain. At the conclusion of the transaction Hu provided a feast of mutton and wine along with gifts of silk to the five bondservants to signify his new status as their lord. … The “Seventh Month” song depicts rural women spinning silk yarn and weaving and dyeing silk fabrics for the use of their lord; no doubt they also made hemp clothes for their own families. Bronze ritual vessels exhibit remarkable homogeneity in design and decoration across the Zhou ecumene, suggesting that metallurgical knowledge was widely shared. Pottery artifacts, in contrast, display marked regional variation.” [von_Glahn 2016, pp. 35-36] “The “Seventh Month” song depicts rural women spinning silk yarn and weaving and dyeing silk fabrics for the use of their lord... ” [von_Glahn 2016, pp. 35-36] “The “Seventh Month” song depicts rural women spinning silk yarn and weaving and dyeing silk fabrics for the use of their lord; no doubt they also made hemp clothes for their own families. Bronze ritual vessels exhibit remarkable homogeneity in design and decoration across the Zhou ecumene, suggesting that metallurgical knowledge was widely shared. Pottery artifacts, in contrast, display marked regional variation...Markets did not exist in the Western Zhou. All of the exchanges recorded in bronze inscriptions consisted of personal transactions between aristocratic lineages. ” [von_Glahn 2016, pp. 35-36], [von_Glahn 2016, p. 39]


[-780, -404]
Luxury Drink/Alcohol: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Jin
Consumption by Ruler: Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present

“Looking at the brewing ingredients, there are primarily three types of alcoholic drinks: "Jiu," made by fermenting steamed millet, which we now call "huangjiu" or yellow wine, commonly enjoyed in everyday life; "Li," created by fermenting overnight-steamed rice, which is what we refer to as sweet wine today. This was often reserved for more formal occasions and used by the nobility. For instance, in the historical record "Zuo Zhuan, Year 18 of Duke Zhuang," it's mentioned: "Duke Guo and Duke Huan of Jin offered their respects to the king. The king served them 'Li' wine and asked them to toast."... Then there's the alcoholic beverage known as "Chang," produced from steamed black millet, which is essentially what we now call spiced white liquor. "Chang" was considered a premium brew, mainly used by the royal family to reward deserving subjects. For example, in the historical account "Zuo Zhuan, Year 28 of Duke Xi," it's recorded: "Duke Wen of Jin presented the captives from Chu to the king... On the day of Jiyu, the king enjoyed 'li' wine and asked Duke Wen of Jin to toast. The king instructed the Yin family, Wang Zihu, and the Inner Historian Shuxingfu to appoint Duke Wen of Jin as a Marquis. He bestowed upon him... a gourd of 'chang' wine and three hundred armored soldiers."(从酿造原料来看的话,酒主要有三种:用黍蒸饭酿成的叫酒,就是后世所谓的黄酒,这是人们日常饮用的酒;用稻蒸饭经一宿而酿成的叫醴,就是后世所谓的甜酒,这是贵族们在较隆重的场合使用的酒,如《左传·庄公十八年》:“虢公、晋侯朝王。王飨醴,命之宥”……用秬蒸饭酿成的酒水叫鬯,即后世加有香料的白酒,因鬯是佳酿,主要是王室用来赏赐有功劳的臣下,如《左传·僖公二十八年》:晋文公“献楚俘于王……己酉,王享醴,命晋侯宥。王命尹氏及王子虎、内史叔兴父策命晋侯为侯伯,赐之……秬鬯一卣,虎贲三百人。”) [Xu 2004, pp. 10-11] “During the Western Zhou period, both the making and use of alcohol were subject to a rather strict system of management... Even within the highest administrative circles of the Zhou dynasty, there was a designated role called the "Director of Liquor," responsible for overseeing liquor production and consumption within the royal court... Moving into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, the culture of drinking became more relaxed, as people began to break away from the various formalities of the Zhou dynasty's customs... During this time, the liquor industry underwent a shift towards a more market-oriented approach... This shift was evident in the emergence of wine shops... According to the text "Han Feizi": "In the state of Song, there are individuals who make liquor. The prices are quite reasonable, and when they have guests, they are very attentive. They offer a variety of liquor, and their banners are prominently displayed." (西周时期,酿酒和用酒都具备了比较严格的管理体制……周天子的最高行政机构之内,还专门设有“酒正”一个官职,负责王朝的酿酒与用酒。……春秋战国时期的饮酒生活已经很放松,人们冲破了周王朝礼制的种种束缚……春秋战国时期的酿酒业已经推向市场……其标志便是酒肆的兴起……《韩非子·外储说右上》记述说:宋人有酤酒者,升概甚平,遇客甚谨,为酒甚类,悬帜甚高。) [Wang 2010, p. 28], [Wang 2010, pp. 32-33] “During the Zhou Dynasty, drinking alcohol was accompanied by a focus on pairing it with food... Every meal included quality liquor and delectable dishes, a privilege likely reserved for the royal family and the elites due to their resources. (周人饮酒,讲究酒与食物的组合……每餐旨酒嘉肴齐备,恐怕只有王室及贵族阶层才有能力享用。)” [Wang 2010, pp. 27-28]


[-780, -404]
Luxury Precious Stone: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Jin
Consumption by Ruler: Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present
Consumption by Common People: Inferred Absent

jade, tremolite, agate, fluorite “The person buried in the tomb... The jade ornaments on the upper part of their body were disturbed, but the ones on the lower half are in better condition. They also discovered accessories like a circular jade pendant, a large jade dagger-axe, a big jade disc, finger rings, a jade platform, a golden waist belt, and other decorative items... It seems that bronze items and other things buried with them might have been taken away, as only a small piece of a bronze tripod leg was found... The individual in the tomb marked as m1 is believed to be possibly Duke Wen of Jin, a well-known figure in the history of the state of Jin…(墓主人……上身的玉组佩被扰乱,但下半身的玉组佩保存相对完好,还发现有璜组佩、大玉戈、大玉璧、扳指、踏玉、金腰带等饰件……随葬的铜器等可能均被搬走,仅仅见到一小段铜鼎的断足……m1的墓主人可能是晋国历史上著名的晋文侯……) ” [Ji 2014, p. 155] “In the burial site of the Duke of Jin from the Western Zhou Dynasty in Quwo, Shanxi, a collection of jade ornaments was discovered… This collection includes items like jade circular pendants, pendants with a hairpin design, jade shell ornaments, jade heng ornaments, jade tubes, and a variety of beads and tubes. The materials used for these ornaments range from translucent tremolite jade and local jade materials to red agate, fluorite, and even man-made faience beads. (山西曲沃西周晋侯墓地玉组佩……有玉璜、玉圭形佩、束绢形佩、玉贝、玉珩、玉管和各种珠子、管子,材质包括透闪石玉、地方玉料、红色玛瑙、萤石和人工烧造的费昂斯珠。)” [Zhu 2010, p. 95] ’" "Based on current data, it's evident that before the Han Dynasty, most of the jade materials were obtained from local sources. Ancient China had a much wider range of regions where jade was produced compared to today. These areas spanned from Heilongjiang in the north to the Pearl River Basin in the south, and from the Jiaodong Peninsula in the east to Tibet and Xinjiang in the west. Virtually all these places had deposits of jade. Nephrite was the predominant material used for crafting jade items in ancient China. (现有资料表明,汉以前玉材绝大部分是就地取材,我国古代的产玉地,要比现在广得多,北起黑龙江,南至珠江流域,东自胶东半岛,西迄西藏、新疆。几乎都有玉矿分布。软玉是我国古代主要使用的玉器材质。)" [Ji 2014, p. 239] ‘" “In the burial site of the Duke of Jin from the Western Zhou Dynasty in Quwo, Shanxi, a collection of jade ornaments was discovered… This collection includes items like jade circular pendants, pendants with a hairpin design, jade shell ornaments, jade heng ornaments, jade tubes, and a variety of beads and tubes. The materials used for these ornaments range from translucent tremolite jade and local jade materials to red agate, fluorite, and even man-made faience beads. (山西曲沃西周晋侯墓地玉组佩……有玉璜、玉圭形佩、束绢形佩、玉贝、玉珩、玉管和各种珠子、管子,材质包括透闪石玉、地方玉料、红色玛瑙、萤石和人工烧造的费昂斯珠。)” [Zhu 2010, p. 95] “In the ancient times when decorations held sacred and powerful meanings, ordinary people hardly had the chance to even glimpse these lavish items. Such ornaments were mainly owned by the noble and ruling classes, as well as those with religious authority… Starting from the Jin Dynasty, a cultural movement among intellectuals in the Jiangnan region began to rise, and decorative items also started showing up in the hands of everyday people… Back in the Western Zhou period, precious stones and jade were exclusively reserved for the elite. (在装饰品神圣化、权力化的上古时代,民间几乎没有一窥豹斑的权利,这些装饰品全部集中在贵族和王权、神权阶层手里……两晋以后,江南的士人文化开始兴起,装饰品也出现在民间……在西周,珠玉只属于权贵。)” [Zhu 2010, pp. 97-98]



Human Sacrifice Data
Human Sacrifice is the deliberate and ritualized killing of a person to please or placate supernatural entities (including gods, spirits, and ancestors) or gain other supernatural benefits.
Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions
Coding in Progress.