Carolingian Empire I

The polity was largely de-urbanized and the two biggest cities (Rome and Paris) had a relatively low population level. " It is estimated that the population of Paris was 20,000-30,000 by the 8th century." ^[1]

[1]: (Kibler 1995, 1316)

kilometers square
Lombardie774 + Duche Spanish March; 778 Bavaria 787 Papal States; 800 Saxony 777to797: 3 separate rebellions, if anything 777 Breton 770s DB will check Septomania (next to spanish marches) 759
The Alps is the border between Lombardia and Bavaria

The Gaul part of the kingdom counted around 811 CE 5,000,000 inhabitants.

The Gaul part of the kingdom counted around 811 CE 5,000,000 inhabitants.

1. Large town
"no town surpassed 10,000 inhabitants between the 8th century and the year 1000." ^[1]
2. Small town
3. Hamlet90% population lived in rural settlements ^[2]
All urban settlements had very low population levels.

[1]: (Percy Jr 1995, 1739-1740 CE)

[2]: (Percy Jr 1995)

Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France
1. Pope
Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. ^[1]
2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." ^[2]
"The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." ^[2]
3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops ^[1]
3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." ^[2]
4. Deacon"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." ^[3]
4. Deaconess (diakonissa)"The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." ^[3]
5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." ^[4]
6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." ^[4]
7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." ^[4]

[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)

[2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[3]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[4]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

levels.
Here too the two structures of the kingdom result in a different military hierarchy.
For the area under direct rule, the structure is: King, vassals (dukes, marquises, lords, barons), sub-vassals (notables/nobles, lords, knights), infantrymen/cavalry
For the area under indirect rule, the structure is: King, Counts/sub-kings, vassals, sub-vassals, infantrymen/cavalry

1. King
_Court institution_
Philip II (1180-1223 CE) had "a small group of close counsellers who held offices with particular, if not always specialized, functions. Philip also employed royal agents in the demesne, and outside, to carry on the routine work of government and to enforce the changes which he introduced./ We speak of departments, and we know of the existence of a chancery and a chamber, but we should be mistaken to see these as entirely separated organizations. Household departments do not emerge until the reign of St Louis, but they were in the process of formation in Philip’s time. The close counsellors and the clerks could still move from one area of the administration to another, and often did.../ Central government was organized under a few major officials: the chancellor, the seneschal, the butler, the chamberlain and the constable. These originated as household officials with specific functions. By the beginning of the twelfth century these offices had been taken over by leading magnates. Under Philip, one or two magnates held such titles ... But the trend was to pass office, and sometimes title, to more humble men and their professional staff, for example marshals assisting the constables." ^[1]
2.3.4.
_Neustria and Austrasia_
2. Subkingdom / areas were ruled by an Archbishopdirectly appointed by the king and non-hereditary position
Usually this extra level filled in as ’subkingdoms’ and these positions were often held by family members, e.g. Italy, Acquitania, and Bavaria.
2. Missi Dominici/Vasi Dominici3. Notables/lords/mayors/vicars.DB: How do ’comes/count’ fit into this story? Are they relevant?
4. PagiDB: How do ’pagus’ fit into this story? Are they relevant?

[1]: (Bradbury 2013, 249) Jim Bradbury. 2015. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. Routledge.

absent but with the exception of bodyguards

Mints.

“Turning now to consider where coin was produced across the Frankish regions in the course of the ninth century, Figure 12.5 shows the mints striking Charlemagne’s Monogram coinage, Figure 12.1 those producing Louis the Pious’s second type, and Figure 12.6 all those known to have been active between 840 and 864. The mints of the two short-lived Portrait coinages have not been mapped, nor is it possible to plot the mints striking Louis the Pious’s Christiana religio coinage, since it is not known how many there were, let alone where they were all located. A comparison of Figures 12.1, 12.5 and 12.6 shows a measure of continuity over the 70 years between 794 and 864, in terms of both the most prolific mints and the regions where coinage must have been scarce. Dorestad and Melle remained by far the most important mints throughout the period, and the Italian mints of Milan and Pavia also maintained significant economic roles. In the west, Bourges, Tours and Toulouse all appear to have been consistently productive, albeit on a considerably smaller scale than Dorestad and Melle. Louis the Pious clearly sought to expand the empire-wide network of mints, and very probably did so further when minting the Christiana religio type, but several regions evidently remained poorly monetised throughout: Brittany and Lower Normandy in the west; Frisia north and east of Dorestad (although the emporium’s massive output may well have made up for that); and the area east of the Rhine and north of Italy (even if the unidentified Alaboteshain, Aldunheim and Stottenburg were located in this region, they are all characterised by an absence of provenanced finds). […] If we then compare a map of mints striking after 864 these trends continue, with the contrast between the economically thriving west and the monetarily impoverished south and east becoming even more pronounced. A plethora of mints sprang up between the Loire and the Rhine, first in the West Frankish kingdom and then in Lotharingia as well, while in the eastern kingdom and Provence only a few coins were struck at a very limited number of mints." ^[1]

[1]: (Coupland 2014, 277-279) Coupland, S. 2014. The Use of Coin in the Carolingian Empire in the Ninth Century. In Naismith, Allen and Screen (eds) Early Medieval Monetary History: Studies in Memory of Mark Blackburn pp. 257-293. Ashgate. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C47XJWW8/library

In the Carolingian era, the lands under Frankish control grew considerably and an administrative system was developed in order to govern this large territory. ^[1] One official position that first appeared in this period was the missus dominicus (king’s representative), who could be sent out from the court to inspect the counties and pass on the king’s decrees. ^[2] However, it is not clear how this or other administrative positions were obtained.

[1]: (Chazelle 1995, 329-30) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.

[2]: (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.

In the Carolingian era, the lands under Frankish control grew considerably and an administrative system was developed in order to govern this large territory. ^[1] One official position that first appeared in this period was the missus dominicus (king’s representative), who could be sent out from the court to inspect the counties and pass on the king’s decrees. ^[2] However, it is not clear whether this or other administrative positions were full-time.

[1]: (Chazelle 1995, 329-30) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.

[2]: (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.

In the Carolingian era, the lands under Frankish control grew considerably and an administrative system was developed in order to govern this large territory. ^[1] One official position that first appeared in this period was the missus dominicus (king’s representative), who could be sent out from the court to inspect the counties and pass on the king’s decrees. ^[2] However, it is not clear how this or other administrative positions were obtained.

[1]: (Chazelle 1995, 329-30) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.

[2]: (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.

"During the Lombard and Carolingian periods, only the profession of notary survived in Italy, in the courts of bishops or counts. Along with the rediscovery of Roman law and the rise of canon law, the figure of the lawyer reappeared during the 12th-13th centuries, when, too, the profession of notary spread from Italy as it obtained from the pope, emperor or princes the privilege of certifying writs as authentic." ^[1]

[1]: Jean-Louis Halpérin. Panorama historique des métiers du droit en France et à l’étranger. Annales des Mines - Enjeux Numériques, 2018, Les métiers du droit au défi du numérique, 3. halshs-03282138. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VMZMGQK2/library

DB: can you provide details here in a short descriptive paragraph? DH: later period has inferred absent here -- | any clear indication of a change between periods?

King ruled by decree. His laws were often recorded in documents called capitularies but after division of Empire in 843 CE they were only found in West Francia and then not beyond 877 CE. ^[1]

[1]: (Chazelle 1995, 330, 318)

There were definitely court buildings, but these were probably used for other purposes.

although there were some private initiatives

Water channels used for fresh water in Early Medieval Francia. Squatriti mentions an aqueduct built for Le Mans by Bishop Aldric: "From the fourth century onward, in fact, water evergetism in the peninsular survived by assuming new forms. Much as was the case in ninth-century Le Mans, in late antique Italy bishops replaced secular builders of aqueducts. Indeed, by Aldric’s day, Italy had developed a distinguished tradition of episcopal involvement in urban water supply. ^[1]

[1]: (Squatriti 2002, 13) Paolo Squatriti. 2002. Water and Society in Early Medieval Italy, AD 400-1000. Cambridge University Press.

The following quotes suggest that there is not much evidence for the use and construction of canals in this polity at this time, with the partial exception of Charlemagne’s failed Fossa Carolina project. However, the fact that Charlemagne could conceive of such a project and attempt suggests that perhaps smaller canals existed.

“Even more grandiose—if failed—the Fossa Carolina project, a canal connecting the Danube and Rhine rivers, underscores Charles’ vision of the eastwar extension of his empire (Figures 13.1 and 13.2). […] With or without canals and major bridges, the rivers of northern Europe offered comfortable travel for people and cheaper transport for bulk goods. Charlemagne and his family sailed down the Rhine, Frisian merchants were towed up it, and countless lesser streams bore boats. Such traffic stmulated the growth of small riverbank settlements, the portus.” ^[1]

“During the Early to High Medieval period (cf. Table S1) the entire region between Denmark and Italy was controlled by powerful elites which were extraordinarily mobile, building up itinerant kingships and huge economic networks controlled by religious institutions [5]–[8]. Freund [9] highlights the important role of Central European river valleys for the communication networks of these groups. The basic work of Eckholdt [10] features methodological problems. Here, the role of the small rivers seems to be underrepresented [11]. until now there is poor knowledge about the location of inland ports, the explicit medieval navigability of the rivers and the bridging of watersheds between these rivers and their catchment areas [12]. So far there is mainly evidence for small and simple constructed medieval inland ports and hythes [13], [14].” ^[2]

“At the time when the Grand Canal of China was completed, water-transport in Europe was still in a primitive state. Few canals had been constructed, and rivers were chiefly used as a source of power for water-mills. On many rivers each mill had its weir, to provide an adequate head of water for the mill-wheel, and these weirs were a serious obstacle to navigation. In the later Middle Ages, however, important developments took place in the Netherlands, as we shall see, while throughout the more commercially active countries of Europe improvements were made in the rivers by building stanches in the weirs and also at intervals along the river, between the mills, to reduce the gradient and increase the depth of water in the shallow places [3]. […] The early history of stanches is obscure, but it is practically certain that they were in existence on a number of rivers in Flanders,1 Germany, England, France, and Italy before the end of the thirteenth century. A reference to the winch for a stanch on the Thames at Marlow occurs in 1306.” ^[3]

[1]: (McCormick 2001: 399-400) McCormick, M. 2001. Origins of the European economy: communications and commerce, A.D. 300-900. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/MCCORMICK/titleCreatorYear/items/NMB5X3WI/item-list

[2]: (Zielhofer et al. 2014: 1) Zielhofer, C. et al. 2014. Charlemagne’s Summit Canal: An Early Medieval Hydro-Engineering Project for Passing the Central European Watershed. PLOS ONE 9(9): 1-20Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W2ES4DCA/library

[3]: (Skempton 2017, 4-5) Skempton, A.W. 2017. Canals and river navigations before 1750. In M. Chrimes (ed) Canals and river navigations before 1750 pp. 2-34. Routledge. Seshat URLhttps://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/369SZUSX/library

"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward." ^[1]

[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177)

These works were mostly editions of classical authors

For example, the works of Saint Augustine. DB: is ’Josephus Scottus’ another good example?

Rule books, manuals.

These works were mostly editions of classical authors

These works were mostly editions of classical authors. DB: are Einhard’s ’Life of Charlemagne’ and Paul the Deacon good examples? Can you add additional examples?

These works were mostly editions of classical authors, although there were also some new poems and fables. DB: can you provide examples?

“The history of paper money in France is usually associated with the figure of John Law who, with the support of the Regent, Philippe, duc d’Orléans, between 1716 and 1720, carried out financial experiments to sustain the French currency on the international money market, boost economic activity and restructure the war debt accumulated in the course of Louis XIV’s wars. However, as John Law acknowledged, France had already used paper money, and the dire memory of this earlier monetary experience featured high among the arguments of those, in government, who initially opposed the Scot’s proposal to establish a bank and issue notes. ‘The public’, John Law observed in December 1715, ‘is against the bank because of the billets de monnoye [mint bills], of the caisse des emprunts, etc., which have brought great prejudice to commerce and individuals’ (Harsin 1934, II, p. 274).

“That first introduction of fiat money in the kingdom took place on the initiative of Michel Chamillart (1652-1721) who held both the posts of contrôleur général des finances (1699- 1708) and secrétaire d’État de la guerre (1701-1709). The decision to issue paper money as legal tender is certainly Chamillart’s most original and dramatic (if largely forgotten) contribution to the history of France, as it led to the first experience of fiat money inflation.” ^[1]

[1]: (Felix 2018: 43) Felix, J. 2018. ‘The most difficult financial matter that has ever presented itself’: paper money and the financing of warfare under Louis XIV. Financial History Review 25(1): 43-70. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/URTP9U5H/library

The majority of the coins were made of silver. There were also some gold coins. "240 silver pence equalled one pound of silver." ^[1]

[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller, Johannes. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.)

At least in the Early Carolingian period the most common foreign coins in use were Byzantine and Arab coins.

Payment in kind likely widespread among commoners.

Royal postal system founded by Louis XI (1461-1483 CE) in 1464 CE. Network of stations and horses. Not for public use. ^[1]

[1]: (Potter 1998, 27) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/potter/titleCreatorYear/items/DVCUX6RX/item-list

Royal postal system founded by Louis XI (1461-1483 CE) in 1464 CE. Network of stations and horses. Not for public use. ^[1]

[1]: (Potter 1998, 27) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/potter/titleCreatorYear/items/DVCUX6RX/item-list

Likely only for the wealthy.

General reference for Western Europe 11th and 12th centuries CE: fortifications typically consisted of earth ramparts and timber palisades which were generally surrounded by dry ditches (rather than water-filled for a moat). In the early 12th century CE stone began to replace earth-and-timber defences for walls and for castles (previously often wooden). ^[1] Since palisades are a very ancient form of fortification we could code inferred present for the period earlier than the 12th century (when it is known they were still used). David Baker says present. ^[2]

[1]: (Jones 1999, 171-172) Richard L C Jones. Fortifications and Sieges in Western Europe, c.800-1450. Maurice Keen. ed. 1999. Medieval Warfare: A History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

David Baker says present. ^[1] Carolingian castles "used the standard building techniques employed by all since the Romans ... built in stone with crenellation ... round and square tower construction, and interior battlements, often built of wood." ^[2]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

[2]: (Butt 2002, 38) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.

David Baker says present. ^[1] "Forts and Castles Castles were not terribly common in the Carolingian age. The great age of castle construction was the eleventh and twelfth centuries during the social, economic, and political revolution that strengthened the aristocracy and handed control of the lands to its members. Castles became essential to maintain this inequitable structure, but in the Carolingian age there were some castles and heavily defended towns that required siege methods to overcome." ^[2]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

[2]: (Butt 2002, 38) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.

David Baker says absent. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

A monastery in a region of recently pacified Saxons had "an encircling moat and a strong wall, which extended to the River Weser. Towers fortified the four corners and gate towers secured the entrance into the monastery precinct. The site was originally the location of a Roman castelllum." ^[1]

[1]: (Schutz 2004, 354) Herbert Schutz. 2004. The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900. BRILL. Leiden.

David Baker says present. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

General reference for Western Europe 11th and 12th centuries CE: fortifications typically consisted of earth ramparts and timber palisades which were generally surrounded by dry ditches (rather than water-filled for a moat). In the early 12th century CE stone began to replace earth-and-timber defences for walls and for castles (previously often wooden). ^[1] Since earth ramparts are a very ancient form of fortification we could code inferred present for the period earlier than the 12th century (when it is known they were still used). David Baker says present. ^[2]

[1]: (Jones 1999, 171-172) Richard L C Jones. Fortifications and Sieges in Western Europe, c.800-1450. Maurice Keen. ed. 1999. Medieval Warfare: A History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

General reference for Western Europe 11th and 12th centuries CE: fortifications typically consisted of earth ramparts and timber palisades which were generally surrounded by dry ditches (rather than water-filled for a moat). In the early 12th century CE stone began to replace earth-and-timber defences for walls and for castles (previously often wooden). ^[1] Since ditches are a very ancient form of fortification we could code inferred present for the period earlier than the 12th century (when it is known they were still used).

[1]: (Jones 1999, 171-172) Richard L C Jones. Fortifications and Sieges in Western Europe, c.800-1450. Maurice Keen. ed. 1999. Medieval Warfare: A History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

David Baker says absent. ^[1] "Forts and Castles Castles were not terribly common in the Carolingian age. The great age of castle construction was the eleventh and twelfth centuries during the social, economic, and political revolution that strengthened the aristocracy and handed control of the lands to its members. Castles became essential to maintain this inequitable structure, but in the Carolingian age there were some castles and heavily defended towns that required siege methods to overcome." ^[2] Carolingians built both Roman and Saxon style fortresses. ^[2]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

[2]: (Butt 2002, 38) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.

Writing in the 14th century, Ibn Hudhayl "described Frankish swords as mudakkar with ’steel edges on an iron body, unlike those of India.’" ^[1] "The carbon content of Western blades is much lower, but their hardness can be increased by quenching (an easier process when only thin bands of steel along the edges are involved). Despite the evident superiority of crucible steels, Western blades offered a useful combination of properties, at presumably a much lower price, than Oriental ones, and there are references to their being exported to Muslim lands, for examples, Saracen pirates demanded 150 Carolingian swords as part of the ransom for Archbishop Rotland of Arles in 869." ^[2]

[1]: (Williams 2012, 35) Alan Williams. 2012. The Sword and the Crucible: A History of the Metallurgy of European Swords Up to the 16th Century. BRILL. Leiden.

[2]: (Williams 2012, 36) Alan Williams. 2012. The Sword and the Crucible: A History of the Metallurgy of European Swords Up to the 16th Century. BRILL. Leiden.

Bronze, leather and iron were used to make helmets. ^[1]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

Bronze, leather and iron were used to make helmets. ^[1]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

Bronze, leather and iron were used to make helmets. ^[1]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

David Baker says present. ^[1] Torsion catapults. ^[2]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

[2]: (Butt 2002, 38-39) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.

First use of the counter-weight trebuchet 1165 CE at Byzantine siege of Zevgminon. ^[1]

[1]: (Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

David Baker says present. ^[1] Carolingian period: "Carolingian military organization was based primarily on that of their Merovingian predecessors, who had built on later Roman institutions ... Archers and slingers fighting on foot supported the battle line." ^[2]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

[2]: (Bachrach 2001, x) Barnard S Bachrach. 2001. Early Carolingian Warfare: Prelude to Empire. University of Pennsylvania Press. Philadelphia.

"The bow was first used by the Franks in the 4th century but did not become a required arm of the Frankish infantry until the time of Charlemagne." ^[1] Cart-drivers given bow and arrow. ^[2] Wooden staffs were banned and bows were encouraged instead. ^[3] "The early Frankish bow was a very long (five- to six-foot) yew bow. By the ninth century, a shorter bow was more typical. Unlike the late Roman double-convex bow, which was very much like modern bows, the Frankish bow was straight and flat..." ^[4]

[1]: (De Vries in Kibler et al 1995, 114)

[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 13) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[3]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[4]: (Butt 2002, 43) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.

David Baker says present. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

David Baker says present. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

"The bow was first used by the Franks in the 4th century but did not become a required arm of the Frankish infantry until the time of Charlemagne. These early archers generally were equipped with a short bow of simple wood construction. But in the following centuries bows were improved by the addition of horn, sinew, and glue in a composite construction complete with angled ears to give more pull to the bowstring." ^[1]

[1]: (De Vries in Kibler et al 1995, 114)

New World weapon.

Wooden staffs were banned and bows were encouraged instead. ^[1]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

Used by cavalry. ^[1] Short sword ^[2] used by infantry.

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 13) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[2]: (Butt 2002, 40) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.

Used by cavalry, though initially not with a charge. ^[1] Poor men used as infantry carried shield and spear. ^[1]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 13) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

Not common as not usually listed as a weapon.

Not common as not usually listed as a weapon.

Axes were an infantry weapon. ^[1] "The seax was a cross between an ax and a short sword. It was single edged, made of iron, and was used for hacking rather than piercing." ^[2]

[1]: (Butt 2002, 42) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.

[2]: (Butt 2002, 43) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.

Cavalry. Artists included the stirrup in their drawings of Carolingian cavalry from the late ninth century CE. ^[1]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

David Baker says absent. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

David Baker says present. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

David Baker says present. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

David Baker says absent. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

Poor men used as infantry carried shield and spear. ^[1] ET: Presumably this shield would have to have been made out of wood?

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 13) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

Is a large round shield being carried by cavalry in the period art on this page (the authors used it to demonstrate the presence of the stirrup)? ^[1] Poor men used as infantry carried shield and spear. ^[2]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 13) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

The few who could afford it used body armour. ^[1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." ^[2] David Baker says present. ^[3]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[3]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

The few who could afford it used body armour. ^[1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." ^[2] David Baker says absent. ^[3] c1250-1330 CE: "development of weapons capable of piercing mail: the gradual introduction of pieces of plate (at first of whalebone, horn, and boiled leather, as well as of the iron and steel that ultimately prevailed) to cover an ever larger part of the mail). By 1330, every part of the body of a knight was normally protected by one or several plates... By 1410, the various pieces of plate, including a breastplate and backplate instead of the earlier coat of plates, were all connected by straps and rivets in an articulated suit, or ’harness,’ of polished steel." ^[4] David Baker says absent. ^[3]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[3]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

[4]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

The few who could afford it used body armour. ^[1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." ^[2] David Baker says present. ^[3]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[3]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

Bronze, leather and iron. ^[1]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

The few who could afford it used body armour. ^[1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." ^[2] David Baker says absent. ^[3]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[3]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

Bronze, leather and iron were used to make helmets but only the wealthy had them. ^[1]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

The few who could afford it used body armour. ^[1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." ^[2] Wealthy expected to use mail armour. ^[3] David Baker says present. ^[4]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[3]: (Butt 2002, 40) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.

[4]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

The few who could afford it used body armour. ^[1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." ^[2] c1250-1330 CE: "development of weapons capable of piercing mail: the gradual introduction of pieces of plate (at first of whalebone, horn, and boiled leather, as well as of the iron and steel that ultimately prevailed) to cover an ever larger part of the mail). By 1330, every part of the body of a knight was normally protected by one or several plates... By 1410, the various pieces of plate, including a breastplate and backplate instead of the earlier coat of plates, were all connected by straps and rivets in an articulated suit, or ’harness,’ of polished steel." ^[3] David Baker says present. ^[4]

[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[3]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[4]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

For example galleys. The navy was very small. The Mediterranean Sea was dominated by the Arabs and the Byzantines. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

David Baker says present. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.

David Baker says present. ^[1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.