The Nayaks of Thanjavur originally ruled the Tamil Nadu region of Thanjavur on behalf of the Vijayanagara kings. After the decline of the Vijayanagara, the Nayaks of Thanjavur became independent rulers sometime in the 1530s CE. The Nayaks of Thanjavur had their capital in the city of Thanjavur and the major commercial port was at Nagaputtinam. [1] [2] The Nayaks of Thanjavur had valuable trade connections with the Dutch and the British in which they imposed taxes on the import and export of foreign goods. Trade agreements between the Nayaks of Thanjavur and the Dutch and British were recorded on various inscriptions giving insight into the particulars of these arrangements. .” [3] [2] The rule of the Nayaks of Thanjavur lasted until the 1670s when the Nayaks of Maduri overthrow the last Thanjavur nayak. The rule over Thanjavur by the Nayaks of Maduri was brief, and they were eventually succeeded by the Maratha rulers. [4]
[1]: (Chakravarthy 2016, 78) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection
[2]: (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 457) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection
[3]: (Menon 2001, 303) Menon. A.G. 2001. ‘Copper Plates to Silver Plates: Cholas, Dutch and Buddhism’ In Fruits of Inspiration: Studies in Honour of Prof. J.G. de Caparis. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FU8TFSTT/collection
[4]: (Sorokhaibam 2013, 4-5) Sorokhaibam, Jeenet. 2013. Chhatrapati Shivaji: The Maratha Warrior and his Campaigns. New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MJ4PW3NS/collection
| Marathas |
| continuity |
| Succeeding: Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom (in_thanjavur_maratha_k) [None] | |
| UNCLEAR: [continuity] |
| Year Range | Nayaks of Thanjavur (in_thanjavur_nayaks) was in: |
|---|
Also known as Tanjore. “In the Vijaynagar times, Thanjavur was ruled on its behalf by the Nayak dynasty from 1532 to 1676 AD. The Nayaks were closely connected to the Vijaynagar kings, and Raghunatha Nayak and Vijayaraghava Nayak did much to put Thanjavur on the cultural map.” [1]
[1]: (Chakravarthy 2016, 78) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection
“Thus, the dynasty of the nayaka of Thanjavur began with Sevappa Nayak in 1532 (ruled 1532 -80) and reached its zenith with Raghunatha Nayak (1600-34).” [1]
[1]: (Lieban 2018, 53) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection
“In 1535 AD, Vijayanagara emperor Achyuta Devaraya established the Thanjavur Nayak rule.” [1] “The rule or the Thanjavur Nayaks lasted until 1673 when Chokkanatha Nayak the ruler of Madurai invaded Thanjavur and killed the ruler Vijayraghava. Chokkanatha placed his brother Alagiri on the throne of Thanjavur, but within a year the latter threw off his allegiance, and Chokkanatha was forced to recognise the independence of Thanjavur. A son of Vijayrahava induced the Bijapur Sultan to help him get back the Thanjavur throne. In 1675 the Sultan of Bijapur sent a force commanded by the Maratha general Venkoji to recapture the kingdom from the new invader. Venkoji defeated Alagiri with ease, and occupied Thanjavur. He did not, however, place his protégé on the throne as instructed by the Bijapur Sultan, but seized the kingdom and made himself king. Thus began the rule of the Marathas over Thanjavur.” [2] “In the Vijaynagar times, Thanjavur was ruled on its behalf by the Nayak dynasty from 1532 to 1676 AD. The Nayaks were closely connected to the Vijaynagar kings, and Raghunatha Nayak and Vijayaraghava Nayak did much to put Thanjavur on the cultural map.” [3]
[1]: (Perumal 2012, 164) Peruman, P. 2012. ‘The Sanskrit Manuscripts in Tamilnadu’ In Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India. Edited by Saraju Rath. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BCDS4MF3/collection
[2]: (Sorokhaibam 2013, 4-5) Sorokhaibam, Jeenet. 2013. Chhatrapati Shivaji: The Maratha Warrior and his Campaigns. New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MJ4PW3NS/collection
[3]: (Chakravarthy 2016, 78) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection
“The rule or the Thanjavur Nayaks lasted until 1673 when Chokkanatha Nayak the ruler of Madurai invaded Thanjavur and killed the ruler Vijayraghava. Chokkanatha placed his brother Alagiri on the throne of Thanjavur, but within a year the latter threw off his allegiance, and Chokkanatha was forced to recognise the independence of Thanjavur. A son of Vijayrahava induced the Bijapur Sultan to help him get back the Thanjavur throne. In 1675 the Sultan of Bijapur sent a force commanded by the Maratha general Venkoji to recapture the kingdom from the new invader. Venkoji defeated Alagiri with ease, and occupied Thanjavur. He did not, however, place his protégé on the throne as instructed by the Bijapur Sultan, but seized the kingdom and made himself king. Thus began the rule of the Marathas over Thanjavur.” [1]
[1]: (Sorokhaibam 2013, 4-5) Sorokhaibam, Jeenet. 2013. Chhatrapati Shivaji: The Maratha Warrior and his Campaigns. New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MJ4PW3NS/collection
The Nayaks already ruled over Tamil Nadu during the Vijayanagara period.
“The rule or the Thanjavur Nayaks lasted until 1673 when Chokkanatha Nayak the ruler of Madurai invaded Thanjavur and killed the ruler Vijayraghava. Chokkanatha placed his brother Alagiri on the throne of Thanjavur, but within a year the latter threw off his allegiance, and Chokkanatha was forced to recognise the independence of Thanjavur. A son of Vijayrahava induced the Bijapur Sultan to help him get back the Thanjavur throne. In 1675 the Sultan of Bijapur sent a force commanded by the Maratha general Venkoji to recapture the kingdom from the new invader. Venkoji defeated Alagiri with ease, and occupied Thanjavur. He did not, however, place his protégé on the throne as instructed by the Bijapur Sultan, but seized the kingdom and made himself king. Thus began the rule of the Marathas over Thanjavur.” [1]
[1]: (Sorokhaibam 2013, 4-5) Sorokhaibam, Jeenet. 2013. Chhatrapati Shivaji: The Maratha Warrior and his Campaigns. New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MJ4PW3NS/collection
(Relationship): The Nayaks already ruled over Tamil Nadu during the Vijayanagara period.
(Entity): “The kingdom of Bijapur, less powerful than Golconda, controlled key southern ports of Cuddalore, Porto Novo, and Puducheary (Pondicherry). Further south the disintegration of the Vijayanagar Empire allowed the rise of formerly subordinate nayaks (military rulers) and small sultanates to power: south of Madras, the nayaks of Thanjavur, the thevar of Ramnad, and the nayak of Madura all claimed succession from Vijayanagar.”
[1]
[1]: (Amrith 2013, 48) Amrith, Sunil S. 2013. Crossing the Bay of Bengal. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/IN3HWE4E/collection
“Telugu was the court language of the Nayaks, and in the Martha period, the favoured language for music.” [1]
[1]: (Chakravarthy 2016, 80) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection
“Five temples attached to the Devasthanam in Thanjavur palace are dedicated to Krsna. They are (1) Navanita Krsna (2) Bhuloga Krsna (3)Mannarswami (4) Madanagopalaswami (5)Venugopalaswami. All of them seem to have come up during the rule of the Nayaks of Thanjavur and the Mahrattas from the 16th century onwards.” [1] “The rule of the nayaka in Thanjavur came to an end in the second half of the seventeenth century. Vijayaraghava Nayak (1634-73), son of Raghunatha Nayak, was the last ruler of the nayaka dynasty. On the whole, this period shaped the country both economically and culturally since most of these Hindu (Vaishnava) rulers had cultural, literary, and scientific interests and were comparatively tolerant and open in religious matters.” [2]
[1]: (Padmaja 2002, 96) Padmaja, T. 2002. Temples of Krsna in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnadu. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5MFKBQ9E/collection
[2]: (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection
“The rule of the nayaka in Thanjavur came to an end in the second half of the seventeenth century. Vijayaraghava Nayak (1634-73), son of Raghunatha Nayak, was the last ruler of the nayaka dynasty. On the whole, this period shaped the country both economically and culturally since most of these Hindu (Vaishnava) rulers had cultural, literary, and scientific interests and were comparatively tolerant and open in religious matters.” [1]
[1]: (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection
levels. Two levels mentioned in the consulted sources. Towns and Hamlets are inferred due to the presence of capital and villages. :1. Capital : “In the Vijaynagar times, Thanjavur was ruled on its behalf by the Nayak dynasty from 1532 to 1676 AD. The Nayaks were closely connected to the Vijaynagar kings, and Raghunatha Nayak and Vijayaraghava Nayak did much to put Thanjavur on the cultural map.” [1] ::2. Town (inferred) :::3. Village ::: “The following quote discusses an agreement between the Nayak of Thanjavur, Vijayaraghava, and the Dutch. “Apart from the above agreement, there is also an elaborate contract between Vijayaraghava Nayak and the Dutch inscribed on a silver plate in the Dravidian language Telugu. The Dutch ‘translation’ of the silver-plate grant of the Nayak Vijayaraghava, dated 24 December 1658, mentions that the following ten villages, which were originally belonging to the palli of the Portuguese, are given to the Dutch by Vijayaraghava.” [2] ::::4. Hamlet (inferred)
[1]: (Chakravarthy 2016, 78) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection
[2]: (Menon 2001, 303) Menon. A.G. 2001. ‘Copper Plates to Silver Plates: Cholas, Dutch and Buddhism’ In Fruits of Inspiration: Studies in Honour of Prof. J.G. de Caparis. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FU8TFSTT/collection
levels. Five levels mentioned in the consulted sources. The levels below the Nayak refer to local administration levels. Likely that more levels directly under the Nayak were present. :1. Nayak :“The rule of the nayaka in Thanjavur came to an end in the second half of the seventeenth century. Vijayaraghava Nayak (1634-73), son of Raghunatha Nayak, was the last ruler of the nayaka dynasty.” [1] ::2. Karnam :: “The Nayaks rule in Thanjavur witnessed the introduction of Ayagar system in each village. The officials in this system, the Karnam, Vettiyan, Talayari along with the head of the village called Maniakkaran were entrusted with the prime business of lang collection along with village administration.” [2] :::3. Vettiyan ::::4. Talayari :::::5. Maniakkaran (village chief)
[1]: (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection
[2]: (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 456) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection
Temples. “Five temples attached to the Devasthanam in Thanjavur palace are dedicated to Krsna. They are (1) Navanita Krsna (2) Bhuloga Krsna (3)Mannarswami (4) Madanagopalaswami (5)Venugopalaswami. All of them seem to have come up during the rule of the Nayaks of Thanjavur and the Mahrattas from the 16th century onwards.” [1]
[1]: (Padmaja 2002, 96) Padmaja, T. 2002. Temples of Krsna in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnadu. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5MFKBQ9E/collection
“In this period, generally four kinds of incomes are referred to Dharmasanam, the income from charities was the first kind. Manorarthy was the second, which implied the tax on land. Karaithurai was the third one. Which means the contract money for using the ports by the foreign trading companies. The English Factory records inform that Ragunatha Nayak demanded seven thousand Rial as Karaithurai from the British. Five thousand Chakkarams were collected for Nagai [Nagaputtinam] port from the Dutch. The fourth one was ‘Sungam’ or tolls which was levied on merchandise imported into or exported from local places. Ragunathan Nayak collected eighteen thousand madai (a kind of money) as a toll tax.” [1]
[1]: (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 457) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection
The following quote discusses an agreement between the Nayak of Thanjavur, Vijayaraghava, and the Dutch. “Apart from the above agreement, there is also an elaborate contract between Vijayaraghava Nayak and the Dutch inscribed on a silver plate in the Dravidian language Telugu. The Dutch ‘translation’ of the silver-plate grant of the Nayak Vijayaraghava, dated 24 December 1658, mentions that the following ten villages, which were originally belonging to the palli of the Portuguese, are given to the Dutch by Vijayaraghava.” [1] “Another system followed during the Nayak period was a total tax exemption granted to those who donated their money to the temples. It was applied even to the foreign trading companies. An inscription of seventeenth century from Thiruvaiyaru Temple in Thanjavur district informs that people who donated money to this temple got relieved from state tax.” [2]
[1]: (Menon 2001, 303) Menon. A.G. 2001. ‘Copper Plates to Silver Plates: Cholas, Dutch and Buddhism’ In Fruits of Inspiration: Studies in Honour of Prof. J.G. de Caparis. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FU8TFSTT/collection
[2]: (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 457) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection
The following quote discusses an agreement between the Nayak of Thanjavur Vijayaraghava and the Dutch. “Apart from the above agreement, there is also an elaborate contract between Vijayaraghava Nayak and the Dutch inscribed on a silver plate in the Dravidian language Telugu. The Dutch ‘translation’ of the silver-plate grant of the Nayak Vijayaraghava, dated 24 December 1658, mentions that the following ten villages, which were originally belonging to the palli of the Portuguese, are given to the Dutch by Vijayaraghava.” [1]
[1]: (Menon 2001, 303) Menon. A.G. 2001. ‘Copper Plates to Silver Plates: Cholas, Dutch and Buddhism’ In Fruits of Inspiration: Studies in Honour of Prof. J.G. de Caparis. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FU8TFSTT/collection
“Telugu is one of the four literary languages of the Dravidian family […] Its phonemic system contains native as well as borrowed sounds (from Sanskrit, Perso-Arabic and English sources). All nasal, trills, approximants and laterals are voiced; all fricatives are voiceless; stops are differentiated both for voicing and aspiration.” [1]
[1]: (Bhaskararao 2010, 1055) Bhaskararao, P. 2010. ‘Telugu’ In Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Edited by Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Oxford: Elsevier Science. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5I6DBU98/collection
“The rule of the nayaka in Thanjavur came to an end in the second half of the seventeenth century. Vijayaraghava Nayak (1634-73), son of Raghunatha Nayak, was the last ruler of the nayaka dynasty. On the whole, this period shaped the country both economically and culturally since most of these Hindu (Vaishnava) rulers had cultural, literary, and scientific interests and were comparatively tolerant and open in religious matters.” [1]
[1]: (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection
The following quote, attests to the fact that the rulers of this polity were Hindu, religiously tolerant, and interested in patronising literature, suggests that sacred texts were in circulation. “The rule of the nayaka in Thanjavur came to an end in the second half of the seventeenth century. Vijayaraghava Nayak (1634-73), son of Raghunatha Nayak, was the last ruler of the nayaka dynasty. On the whole, this period shaped the country both economically and culturally since most of these Hindu (Vaishnava) rulers had cultural, literary, and scientific interests and were comparatively tolerant and open in religious matters.” [1]
[1]: (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection
The following quote, attests to the fact that the rulers of this polity were Hindu, religiously tolerant, and interested in patronising literature, suggests that religious literature was in circulation. “The rule of the nayaka in Thanjavur came to an end in the second half of the seventeenth century. Vijayaraghava Nayak (1634-73), son of Raghunatha Nayak, was the last ruler of the nayaka dynasty. On the whole, this period shaped the country both economically and culturally since most of these Hindu (Vaishnava) rulers had cultural, literary, and scientific interests and were comparatively tolerant and open in religious matters.” [1]
[1]: (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection
“The rule of the nayaka in Thanjavur came to an end in the second half of the seventeenth century. Vijayaraghava Nayak (1634-73), son of Raghunatha Nayak, was the last ruler of the nayaka dynasty. On the whole, this period shaped the country both economically and culturally since most of these Hindu (Vaishnava) rulers had cultural, literary, and scientific interests and were comparatively tolerant and open in religious matters.” [1]
[1]: (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection
“Essentially, the Tamil calendar is a solar calendar, with aspects of the lunar cycle incorporated for fixing certain religious and temple festivals. The Tamil month begins when the sun enters a particular iraci (rasi-zodiac). Therefore, the number of days in a particular month does not remain constant or equal, although on the average the length of the year is 365 days.” [1]
[1]: (Venkateswaran 2018, 274) Venkateswaran, T.V. 2018. ‘Ragoonatha Charry and his ‘Scientific’ Pancanga. In The Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrophysics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7AH4P2I9/collection
“In this period, generally four kinds of incomes are referred to Dharmasanam, the income from charities was the first kind. Manorarthy was the second, which implied the tax on land. Karaithurai was the third one. Which means the contract money for using the ports by the foreign trading companies. The English Factory records inform that Ragunatha Nayak demanded seven thousand Rial as Karaithurai from the British. Five thousand Chakkarams were collected for Nagai [Nagaputtinam] port from the Dutch. The fourth one was ‘Sungam’ or tolls which was levied on merchandise imported into or exported from local places. Ragunathan Nayak collected eighteen thousand madai (a kind of money) as a toll tax.” [1]
[1]: (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 457) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection
The following quote refers to weight systems from the 16th- 18th centuries CE in southern India. “Also, measurements were largely matters of local custom. Not only did they vary across regions (for example, the Chingleput veli was six times larger than the Thanjavur veli) but, in the same place, the same standard of measurement could be applied differently to different commodities and even people.” [1]
[1]: (Washbrook 2010, 272) Washbrook, David. 2010. ‘Merchants, Markets, and Commerce in Early Modern South India’. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Vol. 53:1/2 Pp 266-289. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7ZBUUSJN/collection
“Essentially, the Tamil calendar is a solar calendar, with aspects of the lunar cycle incorporated for fixing certain religious and temple festivals. The Tamil month begins when the sun enters a particular iraci (rasi-zodiac). Therefore, the number of days in a particular month does not remain constant or equal, although on the average the length of the year is 365 days.” [1]
[1]: (Venkateswaran 2018, 274) Venkateswaran, T.V. 2018. ‘Ragoonatha Charry and his ‘Scientific’ Pancanga. In The Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrophysics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7AH4P2I9/collection