Home Region:  Anatolia-Caucasus (Southwest Asia)

Ottoman Empire IV

1839 CE 1922 CE

G SC EC HS PT EQ 2020  tr_ottoman_emp_4 / TrOttm5

Displayed: 1840 CE








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Preceding Entity:
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Succeeding Entity:
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No General Descriptions provided.

General Variables
Identity and Location
Temporal Bounds
Political and Cultural Relations
Language
Religion
Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Hierarchical Complexity
Professions
Bureaucracy Characteristics
Law
Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Transport Infrastructure
Special-purpose Sites
Information / Writing System
Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Information / Money
Information / Postal System
Information / Measurement System
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
Military use of Metals
Projectiles
Handheld weapons
Animals used in warfare
Armor
Naval technology
Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Religion Variables Coding in Progress.
Human Sacrifice Coding in Progress.
Crisis Consequences Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range Ottoman Empire IV (tr_ottoman_emp_4) was in:
Home NGA: Konya Plain

General Variables
Identity and Location
Utm Zone:
35N
[1839, 1922]

Istanbul: WGS 84 / UTM zone 35N [GmbH_(https://www.klokantech.com/) 0]


Original Name:
Ottoman Empire
[1839, 1922]

Capital:
Istanbul
[1839, 1922]

Alternative Name:
Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOsmānīye
[1839, 1922]

Temporal Bounds
Political and Cultural Relations
Language
Religion

Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Population of the Largest Settlement:
873,000 people
1885 CE

Istanbul was the largest settlement in the Ottoman Empire, serving as its capital and primary urban center. [Gül_Lamb 2004]


Polity Territory:
1,448,423 km2
1840 CE

Polity Population:
[27,230,000 to 35,350,000] people
1839 CE 1856 CE

1831 Census: The first official census conducted under Sultan Mahmud II focused primarily on males for military conscription and taxation purposes. [Karpat 1985]

Polity Population:
17,388,000 people
1881 CE 1893 CE

The census (1881–1893) took 10 years to finish. In 1893 the results were compiled and presented. This census is the first modern, general and standardized census accomplished not for taxation nor for military purposes, but to acquire demographic data. [Karpat 1985]

Polity Population:
16,128,361 people
1914 CE

1914 Ottoman census [Karpat 1985]


Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
6
[1839, 1922]

Large City (e.g., Istanbul, Cairo):
Population: 100,000–1,000,000. City (e.g., Aleppo, Izmir):
Population: 20,000–100,000.
Large Town (e.g., Konya, Edirne):
Population: 5,000–20,000.
Town:
Population: 2,000–5,000.
Village:
Population: 200–2,000.
Hamlet:
Population: <200. [Quataert 2005]


Religious Level:
5
[1839, 1922]

Sheikh-ul-Islam: The highest religious authority
Muftis: Regional jurists interpreting Islamic law
Qadis: Judges enforcing Sharia law in courts
Imams: Leaders of local prayers
Mullahs and Madrasa Teachers: Educators responsible for teaching Islamic principles [Zilfi 1988]


Military Level:
14
1861 CE 1922 CE

Post Ottoman military reforms: Müşir: Field Marshal (highest rank, equivalent to a commander-in-chief).
Birinci Ferik: Lieutenant General.
Ferik: Major General.
Mirliva: Brigadier General (commander of a brigade or liva).
Miralay: Colonel (commander of a regiment or alay).
Kaymakam: Lieutenant Colonel.
Binbaşı: Major.
Kolağası: Senior Captain.
Yüzbaşı: Captain.
Mülâzım-ı Evvel: First Lieutenant.
Mülâzım-ı Sani: Second Lieutenant.
Çavuş: Sergeant.
Onbaşı: Corporal.
Nefer: Private (lowest rank).
[Uyar_Erickson 2009]


Administrative Level:
5
[1839, 1922]

Overall Ruler
Sultan: The supreme ruler of the Ottoman Empire, holding religious and political authority. Provincial/Regional Governors
Vali: Appointed governors overseeing provinces (vilayets). They reported directly to the central government and implemented imperial policies. District Governors
Kaymakam: Administrators responsible for districts (kazas). They acted as intermediaries between the provincial governors and local officials. Town Mayors
Mudir: Officials managing towns (nahiyes), often under the authority of district governors. Village Heads
Muhtar: Elected or appointed leaders of villages, responsible for tax collection, census duties, and maintaining order. [Khoury 2002]


Professions
Professional Soldier:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Nizam troops constituted a professional army. They were not recruited on the basis of universal conscription, but rather in a fashion which is reminiscent of the system introduced by Peter the Great in Russia or the Bunichah system in Persia.2 Governors and notables in Anatolia (not in the Balkans or the Arab provinces) were required to send contingents of peasant boys to Istanbul for training. Those enrolled in the corps remained under arms for an unspecified period. [Zürcher 1998, p. 437] The new army, which was modelled entirely on the earlier Nizam-i-Cedid corps, quickly grew from 1,500 to 27,000 men. The army was organized along European lines, with the basic units being the regiment (tertip, later alay), consisting of three battalions (tabur). Once again, this was a professional army manned by volunteers and peasants recruited by the Sultan’s officials in the provinces [Zürcher 1998, p. 438]


Professional Priesthood:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Imams, khatibs (preachers), and muezzins (callers to prayer) served in mosques full-time, leading prayers and providing religious instruction. [Finkel 2007]


Professional Military Officer:
Present
[1839, 1922]

In this context, the Mekteb-i Fünûn-ı Harbiyye-i Şâhâne (Turkish Military Academy) was established in 1834 in İstanbul to provide officers for the army, where cadets were given professional military education and training. [İbrahim_Sani_MERT 2019, p. 442]


Source Of Support:
state salary
[1839, 1922]

Bureaucrats were salaried officials, paid in currency or kind by the central government or local administrations. [Finkel 2007]


Bureaucracy Characteristics
Specialized Government Building:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Bab-ı Ali (Sublime Porte): Bâbıâli, which became the real centre of government. There, too, were the offices of the foreign ministry and the council of state. [webpage_Sublime Porte | Ottoman Empire,...]


Merit Promotion:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Tanzimat reforms introduced regularized systems for promotions in the military and civil administration, emphasizing performance and qualifications over hereditary privilege. Graduates of the Mekteb-i Mülkiye (School of Civil Administration, established 1859) advanced within the bureaucracy based on examinations and reviews of their performance. [Finkel 2007]


Full Time Bureaucrat:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Ottoman Empire relied on salaried officials in the central administration based in Istanbul, such as scribes (katip), finance officers (defterdar), and inspectors (müfettiş). [Finkel 2007]


Examination System:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Tanzimat reforms introduced regularized systems for promotions in the military and civil administration, emphasizing performance and qualifications over hereditary privilege. Graduates of the Mekteb-i Mülkiye (School of Civil Administration, established 1859) advanced within the bureaucracy based on examinations and reviews of their performance [Finkel 2007]


Law
Professional Lawyer:
Present
1864 CE 1922 CE

The Nizamiye Courts were first established in 1864 as a part of the Tanzimat efforts meant to westernize and modernize the Ottoman Empire. During this time period the Khedivial Law School was founded for the sake of training lawyers for the Nizamiye Courts. [Rubin 2011]


Judge:
Present
1864 CE 1922 CE

The Nizamiye Courts were first established in 1864 as a part of the Tanzimat efforts meant to westernize and modernize the Ottoman Empire. During this time period the Khedivial Law School was founded for the sake of training lawyers for the Nizamiye Courts. [Rubin 2011]


Formal Legal Code:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Court:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Tanzimat reforms introduced Nizamiye courts (secular courts), which operated in dedicated court buildings, often modeled on European designs. [Rubin 2011]


Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Market:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Grand Bazaar (Kapalıçarşı) in Istanbul: One of the world's oldest and largest covered markets, established in the 15th century. [Finkel 2005]


Irrigation System:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Irrigation systems, such as canals and aqueducts, were managed by local communities or provincial authorities. [Mikhail 2010]


Food Storage Site:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Large communal granaries were maintained in urban and rural areas to store grain for local populations and military campaigns. The granaries in Istanbul supported the city’s population by regulating the grain supply and preventing shortages. [Finkel 2005]


Drinking Water Supply System:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Kırkçeşme water supply system was an Ottoman aqueduct system that brought water from the Belgrade Forest, north of Constantinople. While part of this system was restored by Mehmet II, the main features of the Kırkçeşme system were built by Mimar Sinan between 1554 and 1563. [webpage_Kırkçeşme Water System]


Communal Building:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Communal buildings such as mosques, caravanserais, and bathhouses (hammams) were integral to Ottoman urban and rural life. [İnalcık 2002]


Utilitarian Public Building:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Valens Aqueduct (Istanbul): Constructed during the Roman period but maintained and expanded by the Ottomans. It supplied water to the city’s reservoirs and fountains. [İnalcık 2002]


Symbolic Building:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Sultan Ahmed Fountain Location: Istanbul, near Hagia Sophia. Purpose: A monumental public fountain designed to symbolize Ottoman benevolence . [İnalcık 2002]


Knowledge Or Information Building:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Köprülü Library: founded by Ottoman Grand Vizier Köprülü Mehmed Pasha in 1678. It was the first public library in the Middle East [Oswald 2017], [İnalcık 2002]


Entertainment Building:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Coffeehouses: Centers for storytelling, music, and shadow puppet shows (Karagöz). [İnalcık 2002]


Transport Infrastructure
Road:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Example : Süleyman’s Road Network (16th Century): Constructed to support Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent's military campaigns, especially in the Balkans and Anatolia. [İnalcık 2002]


Port:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Istanbul Port (Constantinople Harbor): The principal port for trade, military activity, and passenger transport in the Ottoman Empir [İnalcık 2002]


Canal:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Mesopotamian Irrigation Canal, actively maintained throughout the 19th century under Ottoman rule. Supported agriculture by distributing water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to surrounding farmland. [Husain_Husain 2021]


Bridge:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Mostar Bridge (Stari Most), Mostar, Bosnia.Originally built in 1566, actively maintained by the Ottoman administration during the 19th century. [İnalcık 2002]


Special-purpose Sites
Mines or Quarry:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Küre Copper Mine, Küre, near Kastamonu, Anatolia. [Gü_Kaya 2019]


Ceremonial Site:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Sultan Ahmed Mosque, is an Ottoman-era historical imperial mosque located in Istanbul, Turkey. It was constructed between 1609 and 1617 during the rule of Ahmed I [Finkel 2007]


Burial Site:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Tomb of Sultan Mahmud II, a tomb built by the Ottoman Sultan Abdulmecid for his father Mahmud II in Istanbul, where other sultans and members of the Ottoman Dynasty were later buried. [Finkel 2005]


Information / Writing System
Written Record:
Present
[1839, 1922]

While the Ottomans wrote a great deal of prose (especially on history, theology, mysticism, biography, and travel), poetry was the focus of literary thought; hence, the following discussion will confine itself to verse. The forms, genres, and themes of pre-Ottoman and Ottoman Turkish literature—those works written between about 1300 and 1839, the year in which the wide-ranging Tanzimat reforms were begun—were generally derived from those of Persian literature, either directly or through the mediation of Chagatai literature. Anatolia and parts of the Balkans, although increasingly Turkish-speaking, developed a high literary culture of the type known as Persianate. [webpage_Turkish literature | History, Authors,...]


Script:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Ottomans used a version of the Perso-Arabic script until 1928, when it was replaced by the Latin-based modern Turkish alphabet. [webpage_Turkish language | Alphabet, Basics,...]


Phonetic Alphabetic Writing:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Ottoman Empire primarily used Ottoman Turkish, written in a variant of the Arabic script. The Arabic script is an abjad, where vowels are not fully represented, making it partially phonetic. Armenian, Greek, and Latin scripts were present, which are phonetic. [webpage_Turkish language | Alphabet, Basics,...]


Nonwritten Record:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Seals: The use of official seals (e.g., the Sultan's tuğra, a calligraphic emblem) was widespread. The tuğra was a combination of calligraphic art and a symbolic signature, but it functioned as a nonwritten identifier rather than a script-based record. [Finkel 2007]


Non Phonetic Writing:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Ottoman Empire primarily used Ottoman Turkish, written in a variant of the Arabic script. The Arabic script is an abjad, where vowels are not fully represented, making it partially phonetic [webpage_Turkish language | Alphabet, Basics,...]


Mnemonic Device:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Trade and Taxation: Informal tallies and counters (e.g., notched sticks, stones, or abacuses) were used in marketplaces and by tax collectors. [Faroqhi_Faroqhi 2013]


Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Scientific Literature:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Mecmua-i Ulum-i Riyaziye (Collection of Mathematical Sciences) written by Hoca Ishak Efendi. Journals such as "Mecmua-i Fünun" (Journal of Sciences) published articles on mathematics, medicine, and natural sciences. [webpage_Mecmua-i fünūn-i askeriye], [Ferhat_Ozcep 0]


Sacred Text:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Quran [Cook 2000]


Religious Literature:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Tafsir (Quranic Commentary) remained central to Islamic scholarship. Scholars provided new interpretations to address contemporary challenges, such as reconciling Islamic law with the reforms of the Tanzimat era. [Finkel 2007]


Practical Literature:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Cerrahiyyetü’l-Haniyye" (Imperial Surgery): Written by Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu in the 15th century, it remained a reference for surgical practices into the 19th century, [Quataert 2005]


Philosophy:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Works by medieval philosophers like Ghazali and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). "Risale-i Ahlak" (Treatise on Ethics) by Katip Çelebi: Focused on morality and virtue in Islamic life. [Hafez 2021]


Lists Tables and Classification:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Temettuat Defterleri (Tax Registers): Detailed tables of land, crops, and taxable income. Nüfus Defterleri (Population Registers): Comprehensive population lists, including demographic classifications like age, religion, and occupation [Quataert 2005]


History:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Cevdet Pasha’s Tarih-i Cevdet: A multi-volume history blending Islamic and Western approaches, commissioned during the Tanzimat era.
Şânîzâde Mehmed Ataullah Efendi’s Tarih-i Şanizade: Chronicles covering late 18th and early 19th-century events [Faroqhi_Faroqhi 2013]


Fiction:
Present
[1839, 1922]

While the Ottomans wrote a great deal of prose (especially on history, theology, mysticism, biography, and travel), poetry was the focus of literary thought; hence, the following discussion will confine itself to verse. The forms, genres, and themes of pre-Ottoman and Ottoman Turkish literature—those works written between about 1300 and 1839, the year in which the wide-ranging Tanzimat reforms were begun—were generally derived from those of Persian literature, either directly or through the mediation of Chagatai literature. Anatolia and parts of the Balkans, although increasingly Turkish-speaking, developed a high literary culture of the type known as Persianate. [webpage_Turkish literature | History, Authors,...]


Calendar:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Hijri calendar was the primary calendar used for religious purposes and much of daily life. It determined dates for Islamic rituals like Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr, and Eid al-Adha.
In 1840 shortly after the accession to the throne of Sultan Abdülmecid I, as the official calendar for all civic matters and named "Rumi calendar" (literally Roman calendar), was adopted. [webpage_Takvimlerin dönüşümü. Hicri, miladi,...]


Information / Money
Precious Metal:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Uncoined gold and silver were frequently used in long-distance trade or to settle debts, especially in international transactions where local coins were not accepted. [Pamuk 2003]


Paper Currency:
Present
1840 CE 1922 CE

The “Kaime-i Nakdiye-i Mutebere” banknotes, which were put into circulation by Sultan Abdülmecit in 1840 and meant “Paper Substitute for Money”, were not “banknotes” but rather “interest-bearing debt instruments” or “treasury bonds”. [webpage_TCMB Sanal Müze], [Pamuk 2003]


Indigenous Coin:
Present
[1839, 1922]

These coins formed the first examples of the kuruş, the Ottoman coin that would ground the Ottoman economy for much of the eighteenth century. For the four hundred years before the introduction of the kuruş, the akçe had served as the main monetary unit. But the akçe had been repeatedly debased to the point that it was too small for general use. Along with the kuruş, the Ottoman state issued a full spectrum of silver currency. The kuruş system succeeded in becoming the leading unit of account and means of exchange in the eighteenth-century Ottoman Empire. Some European coins did continue to circulate despite Mustafa II’s ban, but they never again occupied the central role they had once played in the Ottoman economy. [blogPost_The Ottoman Kuruş and Control of...]


Foreign Coin:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Foreign coins, especially those from European nations, circulated extensively. [Pamuk 2003]


Article:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Grain, a staple commodity, was often used as a medium of exchange in rural areas. [Quataert 2005]


Store Of Wealth:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Ottoman state maintained treasury rooms (hazine) for storing coins, precious metals, jewels, and other valuables in government buildings like the Topkapı Palace. [Pamuk 2003]


Debt And Credit Structure:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Written contracts, often on parchment or paper, formalized debt agreements in markets and between individuals. Promissory notes (senet) were widely used for commercial credit. [Pamuk 2003]


Information / Postal System
Postal Station:
Present
1840 CE 1922 CE

The Ministry of the Post was established on 23 October 1840. Its duty was to provide postal services for private individuals as well as the government and the first road link went from Istanbul to Edirne. [webpage_Postal service among the Ottomans...]


General Postal Service:
Present
1840 CE 1922 CE

The Ministry of the Post was established on 23 October 1840. Its duty was to provide postal services for private individuals as well as the government and the first road link went from Istanbul to Edirne. [webpage_Postal service among the Ottomans...]


Courier:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The earliest postal service in Turkey, that is, in the Ottoman Empire dates from the sixteenth century when Grand Vizier Çelebi Lutfi Pasa (g.v. 1539-1541) organized a relay service on behalf of the government. It was used to transmit the orders of the sultan and return information about what was happening elsewhere in the Empire. This system was not available to the general public who had to rely on caravans, travelers, pilgrims and not too reliable private messenger services. The foreign embassies of Russia, France, Italy, Britain and Austria also had their own postal services under the so-called capitulations which granted foreigners special privileges. Germany, Poland and Romania also maintained post offices. [webpage_Postal service among the Ottomans...]


Information / Measurement System
Weight Measurement System:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Ottoman Empire employed a variety of traditional weight units, which varied regionally. These units were widely used in marketplaces and taxation.
Examples: Okka: The most commonly used unit, approximately 1.282 kilograms.
Dirhem: A smaller unit, approximately 3.2 grams, often used for spices, precious metals, and medicines.
[Faroqhi_Faroqhi 2013]


Volume Measurement System:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Examples: Kile: A standard unit for measuring grains, typically about 25-30 liters
Batman: Used for measuring bulk items, often both volume and weight, depending on context. [book_An economic and social history...]


Time Measurement System:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Islamic timekeeping was based on prayer times, which divided the day into segments tied to the position of the sun. This system was widely used in daily life and religious observance. Examples:
Alaturka (Turkish/Islamic Time): The day was divided into 12-hour segments, beginning at sunset, with hours varying in length depending on the season. [Wishnitzer 2015]


Other Measurement System:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Zij Tables: Adapted from earlier Islamic astronomers, these included measurements of celestial movements and calculations for lunar and solar cycles. [Selin 1997]


Length Measurement System:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Ottoman Empire used several traditional length units:
Arşın: A common unit equivalent to approximately 68 centimeters
Zira: Similar to the arşın, often translated as a "cubit," used in both trade and construction.
Endaze: A smaller unit (about 65 cm), used primarily for measuring cloth. [book_An economic and social history...]


Geometrical Measurement System:
Present
[1839, 1922]

Ishaq Efendi used European sources such as Étienne Bézout’s books while preparing this compendium. This work is accepted as the introduction of modern sciences (such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, mineralogy, botanic, and zoology) cumulatively to the Ottoman literature. It is also important by including the first Turkish article printed on modern chemistry as well as the analytical geometry [Seyhan 2019] Figure 16. An example of measuring the distance between trees RD on the mountain TF from Ishaq Efendi, Vol. 2, picture 53, belongs to p. 76. Quadrant board (rubu tahtası) was of course much more popular than astrolabe since it was a less complicated device. Astrolabes were solely used by scholars while quadrants were used also by common people as a clock. Mostly common quadrants consisted of two faces: rubû’el-müceyyeb or rubû’el-düstûr (sine quadrant) and rubû’el-mukantara (astrolabe-quadrant). Assume that an observer stands on the south pole and there exists a tangent plane on the north pole. The 1/4 of the conical projection of the sky to that mentioned plane is called rubû’el-mukantara. It was used for astronomical calculations such as calculating the Sun’s longitude. The other side namely rubû’el-müceyyeb (sine quadrant) was used for trigonometric calculations. It has two perpendicular scales inserted to the radii of the quadrant. One of these scales is sine line and the other is cosine line, each of these lines degreed till 60˚. [Seyhan 2019]


Area Measurement System:
Present
[1839, 1922]

The Ottoman Empire employed traditional units for measuring land area, particularly in rural and agricultural contexts.
Dönüm: The most common unit, approximately equal to 1,000 square meters (1 decare). Used primarily for agricultural land. Evlek: A smaller unit, often one-fourth of a dönüm, used for subdividing plots. [Faroqhi_Faroqhi 2013]



Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
Military use of Metals
Projectiles
Handheld weapons
Animals used in warfare
Armor
Naval technology

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Luxury Goods
[1839, 1922]
Luxury Spices Incense And Dyes: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Qajar

“The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […].” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79] “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb.” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]


[1839, 1922]
Luxury Manufactured Goods: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: British Empire
France
Consumption by Ruler: Inferred Present
Consumption by Elite: Present

E.g. furniture and household goods. “In the early nineteenth century, important furnishing changes were taking place. At the port city of Izmir, homes of wealthy merchants were filling up with goods from Paris and London, including knives, forks, tables, chairs, and English fireplaces along with English coal. By the end of the century, chairs, tables, beds, and bedsteads had become relatively common in elite homes in Istanbul and the port cities and were spreading inland to cities and towns.” [Quataert 2005, p. 153] ““In the early nineteenth century, important furnishing changes were taking place. At the port city of Izmir, homes of wealthy merchants were filling up with goods from Paris and London, including knives, forks, tables, chairs, and English fireplaces along with English coal. By the end of the century, chairs, tables, beds, and bedsteads had become relatively common in elite homes in Istanbul and the port cities and were spreading inland to cities and towns.” [Quataert 2005, p. 153]


[1839, 1922]
Luxury Glass Goods: Present

The following quote suggests that luxury glass goods circulated within the Ottoman Empire at this time, and indeed where exported outside of the empire in exchange for other luxury goods. “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […].” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]


[1839, 1922]
Luxury Fabrics: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Ottoman Empire IV
Europe

““[Over the course of the nineteenth century] Social status was being contested in the clothing competitions of the public spaces. While the fez and frock became the standard attire of the official classes, the non-Muslims led the way in wearing elegant, expensive, up-to-the minute fashions from Paris” (Quataert 2000: 155) [Quataert 2005] “In some professions, re-orientation in production was feasible, and local manufacturers directed their production toward the new fashions. Some tailors, for instance, followed the lead of the small number of European dressmakers working in Istanbul and made large fortunes by selling their own designs. Most of them, however, were unable to compete in a market dominated by the “cheap and elegant” ready-to-wear European clothes. In other areas of local production, European competition allowed much less room. The once powerful and wealthy Christian guilds of fur processor sand woolen-cloth makers (abaci) rapidly dwindled in Istanbul when the demand for European style overcoats replaced local ones. The early impact of European competition took a heavy toll on Ottoman manufacturers, although it did not bring about the total eclipse of local manufacturing. [...]. The demand for Western products for clothing or home furnishings, along with the demand for services, such as interior decoration, European-language lessons, and piano and dancing classes, were related to the reshaping of social boundaries in a period of high social mobility. Material and cultural products of Western origin were used—at least, to a degree—to mark the boundaries dividing middle-class families from other urban groups.” [Exertzoglou 0, pp. 80-81]


[1839, 1922]
Luxury Precious Stone: Present

The following quote suggests that precious stones circulated within the Ottoman Empire at this time, and indeed where exported outside of the empire in exchange for other luxury goods. “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […].” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]



Human Sacrifice Data
Human Sacrifice is the deliberate and ritualized killing of a person to please or placate supernatural entities (including gods, spirits, and ancestors) or gain other supernatural benefits.
Coding in Progress.
Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions