The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland.
[1]
Population and political organization
In the Hallstatt C period, which lasted from around 700 to 600 BCE,
[2]
Hallstatt polities became increasingly integrated into the Mediterranean economy. Although the settlement pattern was still rather decentralized,
[2]
this period saw the proliferation of fortified sites.
[3]
These elevated settlements, covering between one and ten hectares, sprang up at strategic locations such as the confluence of rivers. They were often enclosed by earthworks and walls and associated with burial mounds and tumuli.
[4]
Another important development of the Hallstatt C period was an increasing diversity in material culture, especially in ceramic and metal objects, as seen in the elaborate bronze hoards dating to this period.
[3]
The variability of artefact types may indicate the fragmentation of cultural zones and the creation of myriad princely territories with an average radius of c. 30 kilometres.
[5]
It is possible that a four-tiered administrative hierarchy developed during the Hallstatt C period.
[6]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH.
[2]: (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ.
[3]: (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. "From chiefdom to state organization in Celtic Europe." In Celtic chiefdom, Celtic state. New Directions in Archaeology, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 13-25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH.
[4]: (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 7) Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson. 1995. “Introduction: Beyond the Mists: Forging an Ethnological Approach to Celtic Studies.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and Gibson, 1-7. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z.
[5]: (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ.
[6]: (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 6-7) Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson. 1995. “Introduction: Beyond the Mists: Forging an Ethnological Approach to Celtic Studies.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and Gibson, 1-7. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z.
| 31 U |
| Hallstatt C |
| None (Absent Capital) |
| Hallstatt culture | |
| Hallstatt | |
| Western Hallstatt | |
| Atlantic Complex | |
| North-Alpine Complex |
| vassalage to [---] |
| Hallstatt |
| Hallstatt D |
| continuity |
| UNCLEAR: [continuity] | |
| Succeeding: Hallstatt D (fr_hallstatt_d) [continuity] |
| loose |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred present |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| inferred absent |
| absent |
| absent |
| absent |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| absent |
| absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| absent |
| inferred present |
| present |
| absent |
| absent |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| absent |
| present |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| Year Range | Hallstatt C (fr_hallstatt_c) was in: |
|---|---|
| (700 BCE 601 BCE) | Paris Basin |
"The most prominent signature of these earlier, archaeological polities of the Hallstatt period are the sizeable elevated fortified settlements, the Furstensitze. These settlements advertise their likely role as former political capitals by virtue of their size (1-11 ha), their strategic location at the confluence of major water-ways, architectural features such as large enclosing earthworks or walls, and the remains of buildings located both within and outside the walls, as well as by the proximity of these sites to groupings of large burial mounds." [1]
[1]: (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 7)
Paris Basin straddles the "North-Alpine Complex" and the "Atlantic Complex" cultural region [1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 14)
Paris Basin straddles the "North-Alpine Complex" and the "Atlantic Complex" cultural region [1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 14)
Paris Basin straddles the "North-Alpine Complex" and the "Atlantic Complex" cultural region [1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 14)
Early Hallstatt culture (900-600) based in Austria
Point against: the Paris Basin region was very much on the periphery of the Hallstatt zone and their local chiefs might not have been close enough to the important trade center (Austria) to have been vassals at any time.
Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)
"The Mediterranean world-economy integrated the North-Alpine complex during Hallstatt B2-3/C. The Greek and Etruscan towns experienced an increasing demand for raw materials which led them to enlarge their supply areas until they embraced a large part of the continent. In this vast exchange system, certain well-positioned local chiefs played the role of privileged intermediaries. They were able to monopolize trade and exchange, and controlled the supply of Mediterranean prestigue goods, ultimately extending their influence into neighbouring territories. They reduced local rulers to vassal status. "
[1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 22-23)
Inhabitants.
There was a fortified center which was possibly "the seat of the local aristocracy."
[1]
Estimate of 5,000 for just after end of this period.
"Rather than a small hillfort of just a few hectares, as once believed, we can now see that in the first half of the 6th century BC Heuneburg was an enormous settlement of 100 ha and at least 5,000 inhabitants."
[2]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 15)
[2]: (Fernández Götz and Krausse 2012, 31)
People.
There was a fortified center which was possibly "the seat of the local aristocracy."
[1]
Estimate of 5,000 for just after end of this period.
"Rather than a small hillfort of just a few hectares, as once believed, we can now see that in the first half of the 6th century BC Heuneburg was an enormous settlement of 100 ha and at least 5,000 inhabitants."
[2]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 15)
[2]: (Fernández Götz and Krausse 2012, 31)
levels.
1. Fortified center
Includes cemeteries of tumuli and is "the seat of the local aristocracy."
[1]
2. Village
3. Farmstead
Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)
"the settlement pattern changes markedly. There is a great increase in the number of fortified sites. Small cemeteries of tumuli appear, often close to the fortifications. Typologies of ceramic and metal objects indicate the fragmentation of previous cultural units. Bronze hoards become more numerous - they are larger and their composition is more varied. Iron working becomes widespread. Rare earlier, iron objects increase rapidly in number during the ninth and eighth centuries BC. ... A small fortification, the seat of the local aristocracy, polarizes each politically autonomous territory."
[1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 15)
levels.
Same as earlier period as no new information to code higher.
levels.
Warrior society implies at least 2 levels of military hierarchy.
levels.
"In their influential paper, Frankenstein and Rowlands [propose] the existence of a four-tiered hierarchy of chieftains, consisting of a paramount chieftain, "vassal chiefs," "sub-chiefs," and "village chiefs." Bintliff (1984) agreed with this suggesting "the spacing of centres suggests large territories and even "proto-state" structures, to be linked perhaps to the emergence of paramount chiefs or princes from an aristocratic stratum scattered throughout the region. The paramounts associated with the major putative centres and their particularly impressive burials, seem to have dominated numerous district chiefs whose rich tumuli are found at various points around the suggested territory of each princedom."
[1]
1. Paramount chieftain
2. Vassal chief
3. Sub-chief
4. Village chief
Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)
A small fortification, the seat of the local aristocracy, polarizes each politically autonomous territory."
[2]
1. Aristocratic chief
2. Local chief
3. Village head
[1]: (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 6-7)
[2]: (Brun 1995, 15)
Warrior aristocracy probably lived on own resources?
previous code: inferred present | primitive irrigation system known from Beaker culture. "Silo" present during this time period.
[1]
Does this refer to food storage? Surplus production might also indicate irrigation systems.
"Silo" present during this time period. [1] Does this refer to food storage?
"Voire" or road is known in France in this period [1] but the two cases are far from the Paris basin region, apparently associated with the Mediterranean and Alps trade.
Not implausible, but not mentioned by sources.
Finds close to Paris Basin region. [1]
"Rempart en pierres seches" finds within France but not close to the Paris Basin region. [1]
"Mur terre" finds within France but not close to the Paris Basin region. [1] Hillforts: "large fortified hilltop sites often enclosed by an intricate system of earth banks and ditches." [2] NOTE: undated reference - does the code apply to this time period?
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 21)
Not mentioned in the literature.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Finds close to Paris Basin region. [1] Bows used on the continent. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
Finds within France during this time period but not close to Paris Basin region. [1] Javelins used on the continent. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Inferred from the absence of crossbows in past and future polities in Paris Basin
Inferred from the absence of composite bows in past and future polities in Paris Basin
Inferred from previous and subsequent (quasi)polities.
Finds close to Paris Basin region. [1] "long slashing swords representative of the aristocratic warrior" from 8th century onwards. [2] "Bronze age swords found by Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland, estimated to be 3,000 year old." [3] Battle axe more common in the East Hallstatt area while in the Western Hallstatt region use of the dagger and sword was more common. [4]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 22)
[3]: (https://twitter.com/europeshistory/status/630725341313548288)
[4]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
Spears were used from the Palaeolithic period for hunting, both handheld and as projectiles, and also served as weapons in early times, though it was not until the Middle Bronze Age when socketed metal spearheads began to be developed that spear superseded arrows as the preferred projectile. Their frequency in Bronze and Iron Age burials shows that they were used by all warriors and particularly by fighters who did not own a sword." [1]
[1]: (McIntosh 2006, 298)
Inferred from previous and subsequent (quasi)polities.
Finds close to Paris Basin region. [1] Battle axe more common in the East Hallstatt area while in the Western Hallstatt region use of the dagger and sword was more common. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
Finds close to Paris Basin region. [1] Battle axe more common in the East Hallstatt area while in the Western Hallstatt region use of the dagger and sword was more common. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
No finds within France until 620-560 BCE. ("Umbo" = shield boss?) [1] "Miniature bronze cult wagon from the Halstatt period, 7th century BC" [2] - in this sculpture the warriors are holding shields.
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 25)
Finds within France during this time period but not close to Paris Basin region. [1] Organic/metal armour, shields, helmets. [2] Organic/metal armour, shields, helmets. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
"Chaîne de suspension" present. Is this chainmail? [1] Organic chain mail suits appear in iron age. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Not mentioned in the literature.