| # | Polity | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | Edit | Desc |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
1. shamanistic local figures, having religious and social authority
[1]
.
"Between A.D. 300 and A.D. 500 people in the area of the present day Kobe-Osaka-Kyoto triangle began to bury their elite dead in huge stone sarcophagi covered by keyhole-shaped earthen mounds called kofun." [2] Mound building until change of emphasis to constructing Buddhist temples "from the sixth century onwards." [3] _Buddhism_ [1]: K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 299. [2]: (Jones 2015, 87-88) Jones, David. 2015. Martial Arts Training in Japan: A Guide for Westerners. Tuttle Publishing. [3]: (Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL. |
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|
levels. Shamans.
[1]
Buddhism was also present, probably more levels: "The Juan-juan khagans and nobles were well acquainted with Buddhist teachings and were probably Buddhists as early as the beginning of the sixth century. It is known that in 511 they sent a Buddhist monk and preacher to China with the gift of an image of the Buddha ornamented with pearls for the emperor."
[2]
[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication) [2]: (Kyzlasov 1996, 317) |
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|
levels. Shamans.
[1]
Buddhism was also present, probably more levels: "The Juan-juan khagans and nobles were well acquainted with Buddhist teachings and were probably Buddhists as early as the beginning of the sixth century. It is known that in 511 they sent a Buddhist monk and preacher to China with the gift of an image of the Buddha ornamented with pearls for the emperor."
[2]
[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication) [2]: (Kyzlasov 1996, 317) |
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|
levels.
"At Cahokia there may have been no difference between the religious and political hierarchy. They were interlocked, impossible to disentangle." [1] 1. Chief / Priest In the Emergent Mississippian period: "perhaps the appearance of chiefs" [2] "Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia." [3] 2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest? "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [4] 3. Elder / Religious functionary kin group leaders [4] [1]: (Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 23) [2]: (Iseminger 2010, 26) [3]: (Peregrine 2014, 31) [4]: (Iseminger 2014, 26) |
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|
levels.
(2) Bishops; (1) Priests ’At the start of the Icelandic Commonwealth the dominant religious tradition was Nordic paganism. There is no data on the number of religious levels for Nordic paganism. Christianity (in the form of Catholicism) was introduced around 1000 CE. In 1056 CE Christianity was officially accepted as the official religion. The conversion was largely the result of a top-down decision. There is no data available on a popular Christian movement in the years before 1056 CE. The Church followed the standardized Catholic hierarchy consisting of a bishop, (deacons), and priests. Before 1056 the code should probably be 1 as we have no indications of religious hierarchy in either pagan or early Christian times.’ [1] Christianity was introduced around 1000ce: ’Iceland was settled before any significant impact of Christianity in Scandinavia and the early Icelanders were pagans. Many of the Celtic people incorporated in the foundational population were probably Christian but this appears to have had little impact in the society in general. Pre-Christian religious practices are known largely by poetic and literary sources, all recorded during the Christian era, and some traces of material culture. These sources depict a rich cosmology including the Norse pantheon of gods and giants. Thor held a place of special significance based on his frequent inclusion in person and place names. The Icelanders inhabited an environment rich in supernatural entities including trolls, elves, and ghosts. Prescience and magical abilities were often attributed to individuals. In 1000 A.D., responding to a combination of internal and foreign pressure exerted by the Norwegian king, the Icelanders meeting at the General Assembly decided to adopt Christianity as the common religion. Hencefor th Iceland was officially Christian although many of the traditional beliefs remained.’ [2] ’By the end of the 10th century, the Norwegians were forced by their king, Olaf I Tryggvason, to accept Christianity. The king also sent missionaries to Iceland who, according to 12th-century sources, were highly successful in converting the Icelanders. In 999 or 1000 the Althing made a peaceful decision that all Icelanders should become Christians. In spite of this decision, the godar retained their political role, and many of them probably built their own churches. Some were ordained, and as a group they seem to have closely controlled the organization of the new religion. Two bishoprics were established, one at Skálholt in 1056 and the other at Hólar in 1106. Literate Christian culture also transformed lay life. Codification of the law was begun in 1117-18. Later the Icelanders began to write sagas, which were to reach their pinnacle of literary achievement in the next century.’ [3] During the pagan period, chiefs frequently fulfilled religious functions: ’Pagan ceremonies were varied, and the details handed down by later Christian texts are not clear. Sacrificial rites performed by household heads or chieftains played a part in the ritual. Certain rituals seeking the intercession of spirits for divination or assistance (SEIÐR) were largely performed by women. Special cultic sites or buildings (HOFS) existed but religious ceremonies were not limited to these settings. Sacrificial activities were banned shortly after the conversion and Christian ceremonies such as baptism and communion were introduced.’ [2] The offices of priest and bishop were introduced after the formal adoption of Christianity, but chiefs and farmers remained primary actors in the performance of rituals: ’The political institution of chieftaincy (GOÐORÐ) was rooted in religious function, a priestly office of intermediary between the community and supernatural forces. It is unclear the degree to which the role of chieftains had been secularized by the occupation of Iceland, but it is likely chiefs played a continued role in local religious activities by performing rites and sacrifices. Religious activities were not exclusive to chieftains. Individuals played a variety of intermediary between the mundane and supernatural roles including private devotions, divination, and sorcery. The conversion to Christianity brought with it the institutions of priest and bishop to Iceland. Throughout much of the early period, the institutional power of the church was weak. Churches were located on privately owned farmlands and were built and maintained by the local farmers who maintained a priest or served as priest himself. The early farm churches were small and probably served little more than the household and immediate neighbors.’ [2] The few Icelandic bishops of the Commonwealth period resembled chiefs in their reliance on additional household labour: ’Although I would prefer to flout the conventional wisdom that slavery had all but died out by the eleventh century (Karras 1988a), the household laborers that replaced them in the Commonwealth period were numerous. When Þórðr kakali returns to Iceland Kolbeinn ungi immediately sends out thirty húsmenn to look for him in Eyjafjörðr. Þorsteinn Cod-biter had sixty free men in his household (Eyrbyggja saga, ÍF 4, ch. 11); Guðmundr the Mighty had one hundred (Brennu-Njáls saga, ÍF 12, ch. 113); Sörla þáttr (Ljósvetninga saga), ÍF 10, ch. 1:109); Bishop Páll’s household at Skálholt (ca 1200) had seventy to eighty residents, and a household with eighty has been discussed above. It is probably not unfair to say that by the Commonwealth period the majority of the wealth of great bœndur and goðar was the product of teams of house-men and women.’ [4] The interests of the church and the ’secular’ elites were in conflict during the phase of intensified internal strife that preceded the Norwegian period: ’As I have mentioned earlier, the era of the Sturlungs was a period bordering on civil war, in which the Sturlunga family was central. What kinds of sentiments would the author of the Eyrbyggja saga, who must have been close to the Sturlungs, be likely to express? Although some of the Sturlung family’s most prominent members in Norway had solemnly obliged themselves to further the king’s cause, they nevertheless tended to forget the vow when they returned to Iceland. As also was the case with other chieftains, they preferred to act independently of the king. Some of the Sturlungs clearly harbored dreams of being Icelandic kings; others preferred a society governed by an oligarchy of Icelandic [Page 144] chieftains. In both cases sentiments would have been against the Norwegian king’s growing influence in Iceland. The Sturlungs were therefore likely to express anti-royal feelings, even though they might admire the king’s person. As the aristocracy was competing with the Church, we may also assume that the Sturlungs were against the ascending dominance of the Church in juridical, economic, and moral matters (Hastrup 1985, ch. 7). Two of the Sturlungs had in fact been instrumental in removing bishop Ari Guðmundsson from his bishopric in northern Iceland in 1222 (ST 1:287-298). As representatives of the dominant class, the Sturlungs were also likely to express contempt towards the lower classes. We find all these structurally determined resentments in Eyrbyggja saga.’ [5] The bishops received seats in the parliament of the general assembly: ’One of the peculiarities of early Iceland was the lack of formal state institutions. The legislature, extensive law code, and judicial system of local and higher courts left prosecution and the enforcement of settlements in the hands of individuals. From an early date, the country was divided into Quarters. Each quarter constituted a broad community with three assemblies (ÞINGS), with the exception of the Northern Quarter that had four, and a system of local courts. Once a year the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) met in the southwest of Iceland. Judicial cases that could not be resolved in local quarters were heard and the parliament (LÖGRÉTTA) convened. The parliament was the principal legislative institution and was responsible for the introduction and maintanence of law. It consisted of chieftains (GOÐAR) from the local quarters. After the conversion to Christianity, the two Icelandic bishops were each given a seat in the parliament. The institution of chieftaincy (GOÐORÐ) was the main locus of political leadership in the country. Originally there were 36 but this number was later expanded. Chieftaincies themselves were a form of property and could be alienated and even divided among multiple individuals. In some cases, individuals asserted power beyond the scope of the political system and controlled multiple chieftaincies. All independent farmers had to be affiliated with a chieftain, although they could choose among any of the chieftains in their quarter and could switch allegiances if they did not feel that their needs were being met. Other than a seat on the parliament, chieftains had few rights beyond those of other independent farmers and few institutional means of dominating others. Chieftains derived much of their authority from their ability to broker support as advocates for their constituents in legal disputes or feuds.’ [6] [1]: Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins [2]: Bolender, Douglas James and Beirle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders [3]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10088 [4]: Samson, Ross 1992. “Goðar: Democrats Of Despots?”, 179 [5]: Odner, Knut 1992. “Þógunna’S Testament: A Myth For Moral Contemplation And Social Apathy”, 143 [6]: Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders |
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|
levels.
"At Cahokia there may have been no difference between the religious and political hierarchy. They were interlocked, impossible to disentangle." [1] 1. Chief / Priest In the Emergent Mississippian period: "perhaps the appearance of chiefs" [2] "Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia." [3] 2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest? "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [4] 3. Elder / Religious functionary kin group leaders [4] [1]: (Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 23) [2]: (Iseminger 2010, 26) [3]: (Peregrine 2014, 31) [4]: (Iseminger 2014, 26) |
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|
levels.
(2) Bishops; (1) Priests ’At the start of the Icelandic Commonwealth the dominant religious tradition was Nordic paganism. There is no data on the number of religious levels for Nordic paganism. Christianity (in the form of Catholicism) was introduced around 1000 CE. In 1056 CE Christianity was officially accepted as the official religion. The conversion was largely the result of a top-down decision. There is no data available on a popular Christian movement in the years before 1056 CE. The Church followed the standardized Catholic hierarchy consisting of a bishop, (deacons), and priests. Before 1056 the code should probably be 1 as we have no indications of religious hierarchy in either pagan or early Christian times.’ [1] Christianity was introduced around 1000ce: ’Iceland was settled before any significant impact of Christianity in Scandinavia and the early Icelanders were pagans. Many of the Celtic people incorporated in the foundational population were probably Christian but this appears to have had little impact in the society in general. Pre-Christian religious practices are known largely by poetic and literary sources, all recorded during the Christian era, and some traces of material culture. These sources depict a rich cosmology including the Norse pantheon of gods and giants. Thor held a place of special significance based on his frequent inclusion in person and place names. The Icelanders inhabited an environment rich in supernatural entities including trolls, elves, and ghosts. Prescience and magical abilities were often attributed to individuals. In 1000 A.D., responding to a combination of internal and foreign pressure exerted by the Norwegian king, the Icelanders meeting at the General Assembly decided to adopt Christianity as the common religion. Hencefor th Iceland was officially Christian although many of the traditional beliefs remained.’ [2] ’By the end of the 10th century, the Norwegians were forced by their king, Olaf I Tryggvason, to accept Christianity. The king also sent missionaries to Iceland who, according to 12th-century sources, were highly successful in converting the Icelanders. In 999 or 1000 the Althing made a peaceful decision that all Icelanders should become Christians. In spite of this decision, the godar retained their political role, and many of them probably built their own churches. Some were ordained, and as a group they seem to have closely controlled the organization of the new religion. Two bishoprics were established, one at Skálholt in 1056 and the other at Hólar in 1106. Literate Christian culture also transformed lay life. Codification of the law was begun in 1117-18. Later the Icelanders began to write sagas, which were to reach their pinnacle of literary achievement in the next century.’ [3] During the pagan period, chiefs frequently fulfilled religious functions: ’Pagan ceremonies were varied, and the details handed down by later Christian texts are not clear. Sacrificial rites performed by household heads or chieftains played a part in the ritual. Certain rituals seeking the intercession of spirits for divination or assistance (SEIÐR) were largely performed by women. Special cultic sites or buildings (HOFS) existed but religious ceremonies were not limited to these settings. Sacrificial activities were banned shortly after the conversion and Christian ceremonies such as baptism and communion were introduced.’ [2] The offices of priest and bishop were introduced after the formal adoption of Christianity, but chiefs and farmers remained primary actors in the performance of rituals: ’The political institution of chieftaincy (GOÐORÐ) was rooted in religious function, a priestly office of intermediary between the community and supernatural forces. It is unclear the degree to which the role of chieftains had been secularized by the occupation of Iceland, but it is likely chiefs played a continued role in local religious activities by performing rites and sacrifices. Religious activities were not exclusive to chieftains. Individuals played a variety of intermediary between the mundane and supernatural roles including private devotions, divination, and sorcery. The conversion to Christianity brought with it the institutions of priest and bishop to Iceland. Throughout much of the early period, the institutional power of the church was weak. Churches were located on privately owned farmlands and were built and maintained by the local farmers who maintained a priest or served as priest himself. The early farm churches were small and probably served little more than the household and immediate neighbors.’ [2] The few Icelandic bishops of the Commonwealth period resembled chiefs in their reliance on additional household labour: ’Although I would prefer to flout the conventional wisdom that slavery had all but died out by the eleventh century (Karras 1988a), the household laborers that replaced them in the Commonwealth period were numerous. When Þórðr kakali returns to Iceland Kolbeinn ungi immediately sends out thirty húsmenn to look for him in Eyjafjörðr. Þorsteinn Cod-biter had sixty free men in his household (Eyrbyggja saga, ÍF 4, ch. 11); Guðmundr the Mighty had one hundred (Brennu-Njáls saga, ÍF 12, ch. 113); Sörla þáttr (Ljósvetninga saga), ÍF 10, ch. 1:109); Bishop Páll’s household at Skálholt (ca 1200) had seventy to eighty residents, and a household with eighty has been discussed above. It is probably not unfair to say that by the Commonwealth period the majority of the wealth of great bœndur and goðar was the product of teams of house-men and women.’ [4] The interests of the church and the ’secular’ elites were in conflict during the phase of intensified internal strife that preceded the Norwegian period: ’As I have mentioned earlier, the era of the Sturlungs was a period bordering on civil war, in which the Sturlunga family was central. What kinds of sentiments would the author of the Eyrbyggja saga, who must have been close to the Sturlungs, be likely to express? Although some of the Sturlung family’s most prominent members in Norway had solemnly obliged themselves to further the king’s cause, they nevertheless tended to forget the vow when they returned to Iceland. As also was the case with other chieftains, they preferred to act independently of the king. Some of the Sturlungs clearly harbored dreams of being Icelandic kings; others preferred a society governed by an oligarchy of Icelandic [Page 144] chieftains. In both cases sentiments would have been against the Norwegian king’s growing influence in Iceland. The Sturlungs were therefore likely to express anti-royal feelings, even though they might admire the king’s person. As the aristocracy was competing with the Church, we may also assume that the Sturlungs were against the ascending dominance of the Church in juridical, economic, and moral matters (Hastrup 1985, ch. 7). Two of the Sturlungs had in fact been instrumental in removing bishop Ari Guðmundsson from his bishopric in northern Iceland in 1222 (ST 1:287-298). As representatives of the dominant class, the Sturlungs were also likely to express contempt towards the lower classes. We find all these structurally determined resentments in Eyrbyggja saga.’ [5] The bishops received seats in the parliament of the general assembly: ’One of the peculiarities of early Iceland was the lack of formal state institutions. The legislature, extensive law code, and judicial system of local and higher courts left prosecution and the enforcement of settlements in the hands of individuals. From an early date, the country was divided into Quarters. Each quarter constituted a broad community with three assemblies (ÞINGS), with the exception of the Northern Quarter that had four, and a system of local courts. Once a year the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) met in the southwest of Iceland. Judicial cases that could not be resolved in local quarters were heard and the parliament (LÖGRÉTTA) convened. The parliament was the principal legislative institution and was responsible for the introduction and maintanence of law. It consisted of chieftains (GOÐAR) from the local quarters. After the conversion to Christianity, the two Icelandic bishops were each given a seat in the parliament. The institution of chieftaincy (GOÐORÐ) was the main locus of political leadership in the country. Originally there were 36 but this number was later expanded. Chieftaincies themselves were a form of property and could be alienated and even divided among multiple individuals. In some cases, individuals asserted power beyond the scope of the political system and controlled multiple chieftaincies. All independent farmers had to be affiliated with a chieftain, although they could choose among any of the chieftains in their quarter and could switch allegiances if they did not feel that their needs were being met. Other than a seat on the parliament, chieftains had few rights beyond those of other independent farmers and few institutional means of dominating others. Chieftains derived much of their authority from their ability to broker support as advocates for their constituents in legal disputes or feuds.’ [6] [1]: Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins [2]: Bolender, Douglas James and Beirle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders [3]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10088 [4]: Samson, Ross 1992. “Goðar: Democrats Of Despots?”, 179 [5]: Odner, Knut 1992. “Þógunna’S Testament: A Myth For Moral Contemplation And Social Apathy”, 143 [6]: Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders |
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|
levels. “In 1576 Tümen Jasaghtu Khan invited the head of the Red Hat sect, the Karma-pa Lama (bLama), to his headquarters and agreed with him that Tibetan Buddhism should be adopted as the state religion of Mongolia. In implementation of this decision, Altan Khan and Khutughtai Sechen Khongtaiji received the head of the Yellow Hat sect, the third Dalai Lama, with great pomp in 1577. The Tümed and Ordos Mongols con- verted simultaneously to Buddhism. On meeting the Dalai Lama at Altan Khan’s head- quarters, Abtai Khan also declared his desire to convert the whole of northern Mongolia to the Buddhist faith. »
[1]
Before 1576 CE, shamanism:"While ruling China as the Yüan Dynasty, Qubilay and his successors began to abandon their people’s ancestral shamanism, which was marked by religious indifference or tolerance, and to display a growing interest in Buddhism." [2] 1. Shaman "In all three cases the form adopted was the Tibetan denomination of the Yellow Hat, better known as Lamaism - and more correctly, in scholarly terminology, given its Tibetan name Gelugpa. It was famous for its extreme monasticism, theocracy eventually symbolized by the person of the Dalai Lama reigning from Lhassa, and a complex system of reincarnations. This also meant a lasting and mutually supportive relationship between the Mongol and Tibetan churches, which began in 1578 when Sonam-Gyatso (or bSod-nams rgya-mts’o, if we follow the generally accepted scholarly transliteration), chief of the Tibetan church, came to Mongolia to organize the new junior branch. It was at that point that the title Dalai Lama appeared for the first time - a Mongolian-Tibetan hybrid with the connotation of “Universal Lama” - apparently bestowed upon the Tibetan prelate by Altan Khan and from then on assumed by the spiritual and temporal chief of the Tibetan church. Sonam-Gyatso then returned to Tibet, but not without leaving in Mongolia a substitute of sorts, a “Living Buddha” who then resided at the aforementioend Köke-khoto or Huehot, a city in Inner Mongolia near the northeastern bend of the Yellow River and now the capital of China’s Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region." [3] 1. Dalai Lama - head of the Tibetan church 2. Living Buddha in Mongolia - a local substitute for the Dalai Lama3. Lama(4. Novice?) [1]: (Ishjamts 2003, 215) [2]: (Soucek 2000, 167) [3]: (Soucek 2000, 168) |
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levels. “In 1576 Tümen Jasaghtu Khan invited the head of the Red Hat sect, the Karma-pa Lama (bLama), to his headquarters and agreed with him that Tibetan Buddhism should be adopted as the state religion of Mongolia. In implementation of this decision, Altan Khan and Khutughtai Sechen Khongtaiji received the head of the Yellow Hat sect, the third Dalai Lama, with great pomp in 1577. The Tümed and Ordos Mongols con- verted simultaneously to Buddhism. On meeting the Dalai Lama at Altan Khan’s head- quarters, Abtai Khan also declared his desire to convert the whole of northern Mongolia to the Buddhist faith. »
[1]
Before 1576 CE, shamanism:"While ruling China as the Yüan Dynasty, Qubilay and his successors began to abandon their people’s ancestral shamanism, which was marked by religious indifference or tolerance, and to display a growing interest in Buddhism." [2] 1. Shaman "In all three cases the form adopted was the Tibetan denomination of the Yellow Hat, better known as Lamaism - and more correctly, in scholarly terminology, given its Tibetan name Gelugpa. It was famous for its extreme monasticism, theocracy eventually symbolized by the person of the Dalai Lama reigning from Lhassa, and a complex system of reincarnations. This also meant a lasting and mutually supportive relationship between the Mongol and Tibetan churches, which began in 1578 when Sonam-Gyatso (or bSod-nams rgya-mts’o, if we follow the generally accepted scholarly transliteration), chief of the Tibetan church, came to Mongolia to organize the new junior branch. It was at that point that the title Dalai Lama appeared for the first time - a Mongolian-Tibetan hybrid with the connotation of “Universal Lama” - apparently bestowed upon the Tibetan prelate by Altan Khan and from then on assumed by the spiritual and temporal chief of the Tibetan church. Sonam-Gyatso then returned to Tibet, but not without leaving in Mongolia a substitute of sorts, a “Living Buddha” who then resided at the aforementioend Köke-khoto or Huehot, a city in Inner Mongolia near the northeastern bend of the Yellow River and now the capital of China’s Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region." [3] 1. Dalai Lama - head of the Tibetan church 2. Living Buddha in Mongolia - a local substitute for the Dalai Lama3. Lama(4. Novice?) [1]: (Ishjamts 2003, 215) [2]: (Soucek 2000, 167) [3]: (Soucek 2000, 168) |
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: 1. Pope
:: 2. Cardinal ::: 3. Archbishops :::: 4. Bishops ::::: 5. Priests :::::: 6. Abbots ::::::: 7. Monks :::::::: 8. Friars ::::::::: 9. Nuns :::::::::: 10. Missionaries “In Solorzano’s argument, it was crucial that, among many other ceremonies, the viceroys continued to exercise the right to be received under a canopy when they first arrived in their dominions. Bishops and archbishop should also meet them on the steps in front of cathedrals and churches.”(Eissa-Barroso 2017: 42) Eissa-Barroso, Francisco A. 2017. The Spanish Monarchy and the Creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1739). Leiden: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XNET89MW “‘Building bridges, making roads’ is a ‘pious work’ as good as any other, commented Ponz at the end of the Old Regime, as he gave reference after reference to bishops setting up workshops, distributing spindles, wool and flax to the poor. He cited with approval the letter of the archbishop of Toledo to the priests of his diocese in 1779, urging them to take an interest in the material welfare of their parishioners. His great friend Jovellanos, in his treatise of 1795 on economic reform, doubted whether the church needed so many friars (or chantry priests) as in the Middle Ages.”(Casey 2002: 248) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT “This state of affairs, however, did not last long. Slowly, but surely, Alberoni gained the confidence of the new queen and, through her, that of the king. By the end of 1716, the abbot, soon to be cardinal, had succeeded in replacing Giudice as the leading figure of a new government.”(Eissa-Barroso 2017: 114) Eissa-Barroso, Francisco A. 2017. The Spanish Monarchy and the Creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1739). Leiden: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XNET89MW “Clearly, the church was on the defensive during the Bourbon eighteenth century, but the extent of its decline should not be exaggerated. Efforts to reduce the sheer number of clergy got nowhere, so that in 1788 Spain had 68,000 monks, 33,000 nuns, and 88,000 secular clergy, or a total of about 200,000 ecclesiastics in a population of 10,000,000, representing a percent¬ age two or three times of that in France, for example.”(Bergamini 1974: 92) Bergamini, John D. 1974. The Spanish Bourbons: The History of a Tenacious Dynasty. New York: G. P Putnam’s Sons. https://archive.org/details/spanishbourbons00john. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5A2HNKTF |
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Level 1: Archbishop (head of the church in the realm, controls large dioceses, oversees bishops):
Example: Archbishop of Canterbury, Archbishop of York.
Level 2: Bishop (regional church leader, governs dioceses, oversees cathedrals and priests):
Examples: Bishops of Winchester, Durham, Norwich.
Level 3: Abbot/Abbess (head of a major monastery or abbey, oversees monastic communities):
Examples: Abbots of Westminster, Glastonbury.
Level 4: Dean/Canon (senior cleric in cathedrals, assists the bishop, manages cathedral chapters):
Examples: Canons of Durham Cathedral.
Level 5: Parish Priest (local religious leader, performs sacraments, administers the parish):
Examples: Parish priests serving rural and urban churches.
Level 6: Monk/Nun (members of monastic communities, focus on prayer, study, and local charity):
Examples: Monks of St. Albans Abbey. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Barlow 1979]
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levels.
(3) Zaydi imams; (2) Other sayyids and scholars; (1) Local preachers Most Yemenis were Muslims: ’Islam is the major force that unifies Yemenis across social, sexual, and regional boundaries. Yet most adherents of the different schools of Islam reside in distinct sections of the country, and this fact has certain political implications. Zaydis, who belong to the Shia subsect of Islam, are located in the northern and eastern parts of Yemen, whereas Shafis, orthodox Sunnis, live in the southern and coastal regions. Location in the highlands apparently enables Zaydis more successfully to repel invasions than Shafis in the lower lying areas. A smaller Shia subsect, the Ismaili, and also the remnants of an ancient Jewish community, may still be found in certain parts of Yemen.’ [1] ’As Muslims, Yemenis aspire to fulfill the five tenets of Islam: affirmation of the Islamic creed, prayer, fasting, charity, and pilgrimage.’ [1] ’In the Shafi areas of Yemen, the tombs of certain holy men are visited by believers for their special healing and other powers.’ [1] ’Being of sayyid status, even in contemporary Yemeni society, still validates (but does not necessarily guarantee) one’s access to religious learning. Men gather at the mosque for prayers and sermons on the Sabbath, which in Yemen occurs on Friday. Strict segregation of the sexes usually does not permit women to worship in public.’ [1] ’Yemenis observe the major holidays, such as Ramadan, the holy month of fasting, as well as lesser festivals in the Arabian calendar.’ [1] Religion was an important social divider: ’Throughout society, the broadest distinctions between population groups are based not on ethnicity but on religious affiliation. Islam is the state religion, and the Sunni branch of Islam, represented by the Shāfiʿī school, predominates. The Shīʿite minority consists of the Zaydī school, which has long been politically dominant in the mountainous highlands of the north, and the Ismāʿīlīs, now a relatively small group found in the Haraz region of northern Yemen and in Jabal Manakhah, the mountainous area west of Sanaa. The non-Muslim community is very small, consisting mostly of foreign visitors and workers. All are free to worship as they wish - including the Jewish community - but, as in most conservative Muslim countries, proselytizing of Muslims by non-Muslims is illegal.’ [2] Yemen has a history of religious militancy: ’Yemen’s distance from any Islamic central authority has made it historically an attractive haven for militant offshoots of normative Sunni Islam, particularly the two smaller branches of Shi˜ism: Ismaili, or “Sevener,” Shi˜ism, and Zaydi, or “Fiver,” Shi˜ism. Zaydism was established in Yemen by the imam Yahya al-Hadi (d. 911), a descendant of ˜Ali’s son Hasan who migrated from Medina to Yemen late in the ninth century and established his capital at the northern highland city of Sa˜da.1 Unlike Ismaili or Twelver Shi˜ite doctrine, Zaydi theology posits an active, visible imam, or leader of the Muslim community, descended from either Hasan or his brother Husayn, who is learned in the religious sciences and who publicly proves himself worthy of leading the Muslim community, in battle if necessary.2 What this has meant in Yemeni history is that scions of numerous lines of Hasanid and, less frequently, Husaynid descendants have proclaimed their da˜was, or “calls” - occasionally simultaneously, so that the supporters of one line were obliged to fight it out with supporters of another.’ [3] While Yemen was nominally under the control of a Zaydi imamic dynasty, sayyids also quarreled amongst themselves: ’AI-Mahdi al-iAbbas (1748-75) was very much a Sanani Imam, being based on the city throughout his reign. Among learned San’anis he retained a high reputation (al-Shawkani 19 29: 310-12; Serjeant 1983: 85 ff.), but it is plain that all was not well elsewhere. Abu ’Alamah’s 175I rising in the north-west has already been mentioned. Two years earlier a campaign had been fought in Lower Yemen against a ’sorcerer’ who promised his followers immunity against sword wounds and gun shots.V In the year before that, Hasan al-Tlkarn, of the qadi family from Barat and the north-east, was leading tribesmen at odds with the new Imam in Lower Yemen (Zabarah 1958: 684)Y In both the west and the south, the incursion of tribesmen over the preceding generation had not been quietly absorbed, and the affairs of the Barat tribes in particular (Dhii Muhammad and Dhu Husayn) became involved with those of the Imam’s capital at San’a’.’ [4] ’The connections of learning which were often important in an Imam’s rise to power (Ch. 5) could also readily generalize a threat to that power if one emerged; and the language of equality, justice, and religious probity linked the learned with the tribesmen also. In 17 68, for instance, the ’ulamd’ of Barat (particularly Bayt al-’Ansi) wrote to Zaydi centres such as Huth and Dhamar, calling for the expulsion of al-Mahdi al-Abbas and his Qasimi relatives on doctrinal grounds (al-jirafi 1951: 187; Zabarah 1958: 521-2; al-Shawkani 1929: ii. 134-5), though the Barat tribes’ incursions in preceding years suggest that doctrinal detail was not the main motive force (see e.g. Zabarah 1958: 13).’ [5] ’The Qasimis were accused of ’innovations’ (bida’). Zaydism had always recognized ijtihad (the formation of new law by extrapolation from scripture), but in the mid-eighteenth century a pronounced movement of criticism was under way. Ibn al-Amir, for instance, a Zaydi scholar who kept his political distance from the Imamate, blurred the distinction between his own school and the Shafi’i,14 with the result that conspicuous details, such as postures of prayer, became matters of contention among those less learned than he. The Barat qadis blamed the Qasimis for supporting him. On at least one occasion, an intestine squabble among San’ani ’ulamd’ over mosque appointments, phrased in these terms, led one faction to demand arbitration from al-’Ansi, ’the qadi of Hashid and Bakil’ (Zabarah 1941: 617), rather than from their Qasimi rulers.’ [6] Dresch also mentions millenarian militant movements: ’In 175I, however, a millenarian rising broke out in the western mountains, led by Abu ’AIamah, a black ’magician’ who preached a puritanical renewal of Islam. Accounts of the rising mention several forts in the west being taken from Bayt al-Ahmar: al-Qahirah at alMahabishah was lost, then Qaradah and al-Gharnuq at Najrah, just south of Hajjah, then Sabrah, and finally the fort near alMadayir that al-Mansur had bought several years earlier (Zabarah 1941: 53-5). During the forty years since al-Mansur al-Husayn b. al-Qasim (a rival of al-Mawahib) came to power in 1712, says a contemporary witness, the state had counted for little: "The rule of ’All al-Ahmar and his sons after him and of other tribesmen from Hashid remained over-great and excessive until God destroyed what they had built and extinguished their flame, proclaiming their weakness and perdition by the appearance of this dervish. (Quoted ibid. 54)’ [7] Accordingly we have opted for a rough approximation of the complex religious landscape of Yemen for the time being. More material is needed. [1]: Walters, Delores M.: eHRAF Culture Summary for Yemen [2]: (Burrowes and Wenner 2020) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RMZUSMFG. [3]: Hathaway, Jane 2003. "A Tale of Two Factions", 79pp [4]: Dresch, Paul 1989. "Tribes, Government and History in Yemen", 212 [5]: Dresch, Paul 1989. "Tribes, Government and History in Yemen", 212p [6]: Dresch, Paul 1989. "Tribes, Government and History in Yemen", 213 [7]: Dresch, Paul 1989. "Tribes, Government and History in Yemen", 206 |
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levels.
(4) Pope and leadership of the Latin church; (3) the Archbishop and Council of Bergen (Norwegian ecclesiastical system); (2) Bishops and Abbots; (1) Priests and Monks ’In the whole church hierarchy there would be 4 levels (pope, archbishop, bishop, priest), within the Norwegian state 3 levels but locally in Iceland only the last 2 would be present.’ [1] The bishoprics expanded their landholdings: ’In spite of the rise of a profitable export industry, it is generally believed that Iceland’s economy deteriorated in the late Middle Ages. The birchwood that had covered great parts of the country was gradually depleted, in part because it was excellent for making charcoal. The destruction of the woodland, together with heavy grazing, led to extensive soil erosion. The climate also became more severe, and grain growing was given up altogether. At the same time, more and more of the land was acquired by ecclesiastical institutions and wealthy individuals, to whom the farmers had to pay rent.’ [2] Monastic orders were present by the Norwegian period, occasionally providing refuge to chieftains and other leaders: ’At last the people’s hatred and opposition grew so intense that he resolved to retire and enter a monastery. He had already made an agreement with Bishop Jörund of Hólar to take the monastic vow of the order of St. Augustine, but he died January 12, 1268, beforer the final arrangements could be consummated. His estate Stad, at Reynines, he gave to the church with the understanding that a monastery should be erected there. This condition was finally fulfilled in 1296, when the cloister for nuns at Reynines and the monastery at Mödruvellir were founded by Bishop Jörund of Hólar.’ [3] The church structure was comprised of regular priests, Icelandic bishops, and Norwegian archbishops: ’At this time important changes also took place in the Icelandic church. For some time the bishops in Iceland had been Norwegian ecclesiastics, but in the latter part of Haakon Magnusson’s reign the Icelander Brand Jonsson became bishop of Hólar, and when he died a year later, his countryman Jörund Thorsteinsson succeeded him in 1267, after a long vacancy in the office. As the Norwegian born Bishop Sigurd of Skálholt was now so old and feeble that he could no longer perform his official duties, Bishop Jörund assumed supervision also over the Skálholt diocese, by placing the popular priest Arni Thorlaksson in charge of it. [...] When Bishop Sigurd died in 1268, the diocese petitioned Archbishop Jon of Nidaros to appoint Arni as his successor, but the archbishop ignored the request and chose instead a Norwegian priest, Thorleif, evidently because he wished to continue the practice of placing Norwegian ecclesiastics over the Icelandic dioceses. As Thorleif died shortly after his election, the archbishop was prevailed upon, probably by King Magnus himself, to elect Arni, who was consecrated bishop June 21, 1269.’ [4] The Norwegian period saw protracted conflicts between clergy and laity on the matter of church property: ’Upon his return to Iceland Bishop Arni, assisted by Bishop Jörund of Hólar, summoned the people of his diocese to a general council at Skálholt, where he proposed several measures of reform, among others that the churches should be made ecclesiastical property under the control of the bishops. As nearly all churches in Iceland were privately owned, this would involve a change in property rights to which the people would not readily consent. [...] the king’s assistance could be invoked. [...] With threats of ban and excommunication he so intimidated the lesser landowners that they suffered to let the smaller churches to pass under ecclesiastical control. But the chieftains who owned the larger churches resolutely resisted. This was especially the case with the churches of Oddi and Hitardal, two of the largest in Iceland. Their owners refused to surrender them; but the bishop caused a decree of transfer to be promulgated at the Althing, threatening the owners with the ban if they resisted. [...] In 1273 King Magnus summonsed a council to meet in Bergen to consider a new code of church laws to be proposed by Archbishop Jon of Nidaros, and to deal with other questions touching the relation between church and state. At this council, Bishop Arni, Hrafn Oddsson and the Icelandic chieftains also appeared. In the trial of their case the king as inclined to favor the chieftains, but the archbishop rendered a decision in Arni’s favor. His victory was so complete that upon his return home he began to prepare a new code of church laws for Iceland, based on principles suggested to him by Archbishop Jon. The code was adopted at the Althing in 1275 with the understanding that it was later to be ratified by the king and the archbishop.’ [5] Norwegian ecclesiastic and royal control did not prevent those conflicts: ’The Council of Bergen, which placed the churches of Iceland under ecclesiastic control, proved to be only another abortive attempt to settle the difficult question of the relation between church and state. In Norway a new controversy arose between the nobility and the clergy upon the death of King Magnus Lagaboter in 1280. [...] These events could not fail to encourage the Icelandic chieftains to in their opposition to the aggressive policy of Bishop Arni.[Gjerset then describes the adoption of the Jónsbók at the Althing against the wishes of Bishop Arni.] This was a severe defeat for Bishop Arni, as the chieftains saw that in Iceland as in Norway they could defeat the church party by cooperation and energetic action. Now that they felt sure of support from King Eirik and the Council of Regency, they were no longer afraid to join issue with the bishops regarding the question of ownership of churches and church property. [...] With him came also Erlend Olafsson, who had been appointed lawman. They brought royal letters addressed to the people of Iceland encouraging them to resist the bishops. All church property which had been unjustly seized was to be returned to the laity, and the church laws as they had been in King Haakon Haakonsson’s time were to be in force.’ [6] Ultimately, some privately owned churches were handed over to ecclesiastic authorities: ’The church estates which still remained in the hands of the laity were surrendered to the bishops shortly after Arni’s return to Iceland. But this attempt to forestall a final settlement proved to be of little value. In 1292 royal commissioners were sent to Iceland with instructions from the king stating that with regard to churches and church property the conditions existing prior to the union should be restored, that church estates should be returned to their lay owners. Both bishops resented the royal orders, but the people, led by Thorvard Thorarinsson, seized many estates, and the controversy was renewed. In 1295 Thorvard went to Norway to plead the cause of the people. [...] the case was finally settled by a compromise embodied in a royal document of September 13, 1297. It was agreed that all the churches in which the lay people owned a share amounting to at least one-half should belong to them without any curtailment of property rights. All other churches should be surrendered to the bishops. [...] In the bishopric of Hólar the struggle between church and laity was less intense but of a similar character. Bishop Jörund died in 1313, and was succeeded by Audun Raudi, a member of the cathedral chapter at Nidaros. [...] He was consecrated bishop November 25, 1313, but did not arrive in Iceland till 1315. He was already advanced in years, but he ruled his diocese with great energy and authority, maintained a fine household and practiced the greatest hospitality. the cathedral church was improved, new buildings were erected at the bishop’s seat, and the cathedral school was kept in a high state of efficiency, as he took pains to secure able teachers. [He also faced opposition from the populace when introducing increased taxation.] The clergy had established an ascendency which no existing authority in Iceland could successfully control.’ [7] Some bishops became very powerful: ’Bishop Arni gradually assumed the rôle of ruler in Iceland. In many cases he opposed the sýslumadr Thorvard Thorarinsson, so that the people at the Althing appealed to the decision of the bishop in purely secular matters, contrary to all law. Of these complaints were made to the king. [...] In 1277 the king sent Eindride Böngull a second time to Iceland as his commissioner, accompanied by the Icelander Nicolas Oddsson. They brought letters addressed to both the sýslumadr and and the bishop forbidding any appeal to the bishop in cases brought before the Althing. The kind had already written to the people warning them that not to accept any law before he and the archbishop had considered the measure, as the right to alter the laws of the church or any other statute belong to them alone. The church code given by Bishop Arni was accordingly rejected, and [...] the people felt that the royal government was henceforth the supreme authority in the land.’ [8] The crown consulted with Icelandic clergy: ’In 1303 many prominent Icelanders were summoned to Norway, among others Bishop Jörund of Hólar, and Abbot Runolf, who had served as vicar in the diocese of Skálholt after the death of Bishop Arni. The king’s purpose seems to have been to obtain their advice regarding changes in the Icelandic code of laws which had been demanded, possibly also to secure their consent to new taxes to be levied in Iceland. The Icelandic annals for the year 1304 state that in that year the king collected Peter’s pence (Roma skattr) in Iceland. The supplement to the code resulting from this conference is dated June 23, 1305. It contains provisions dealing with Iceland, but it does not touch the issues bearing on the relations between the two countries. These issues do not even seem to have been considered, but the Icelandic leaders probably consented to the levying of new taxes.’ [9] Ecclesiastic conventions, such as celibacy, were more strictly enforced among the rank and file: ’The rule respecting celibacy of the clergy was so rigorously enforced that even dubdeacons who had been married for many years and had several children were compelled to separate from their wives.’ [10] According to Gjerset, bishops frequently acted as regional overlords, although this may be due to his strong nationalist bias against foreign-born clergy: ’In the church the patriarchal relation which had once existed between the bishops and laity had wholly disappeared at the beginning of the fourteenth century. Many of the ecclesiastics who at this time were elevated to the highest position in the Icelandic church were of foreign birth. In the period 1236-1465 thirteen of the bishops of Skálholt were foreigners, while only five were native Icelanders. But whether foreigners or native-born, they had usually acquired the greed and love of power which everywhere characterized the Roman hierarchy. [...] Without regard for the welfare of the country they often resorted to extortionate practices to increase the income of their dioceses, while the people were sorely tried by great national calamities and and steadily growing poverty. [...] These oppressive practices of the leaders of the church gradually created among the people a hostile opposition to the selfish ecclesiastical officialdom which forms a distinct trait in Icelandic church life throughout the Middle Ages.’ [11] ’ [1]: Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins [2]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10093 [3]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 212 [4]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 217 [5]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 217p [6]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 221p [7]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 225p [8]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 219p [9]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 231 [10]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 218p [11]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 237 |
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levels.
1.Intip churin Inca 9th Imperial ruler added the title intip churin (Son of the Sun) to the paramount qhapaq/capac title. [1] 2.OraclesGave advice to the Inca and performed function of state ambassador 3. Mamakunas (priestesses) 4. Chosen virgins (aqllawasi) 3.High priestPrinciple temple was the Coricancha [1] 4.PriestsLocal level state religious infrastructure [1] Other actors were important in religious life but had a parallel role and did not come into this hierarchy.House of Cloistered women: "In the sequestered House of the Chosen Women (aqllawasi), they were taught religion, weaving, cooking, and chicha-making by lifelong virgins dedicated to the religious institutions. Cobo said that as many as 200 women of various ages could be found in the largest aqllawasi. Although they were well protected, the girls and women were not entirely confined, since they participated in many ceremonies at locations outside their quarters. After about four years, the girls were ready to serve as mamakuna (priestesses) or to marry men who merited the honor for their service to the Inca (Cobo 1990: 172-4; Rowe 1946: 283)." [2] This system runs parallel to the religious hierarchy, as the girls can become priestesses (level 4). Alan Covey: The mamakuna were much more numerous than any male priestly functionaries, and should probably be thought of as the real imperial religious hierarchy. [3] . Mamakunas and aqllakunas are counted within the 4 religious levels as outlined above. Ritual advisor for state matters OraclesAdvised the Sapa Inca and performed function of state ambassador "Some, but not all, huacas had oracular powers. Some of the most famous, such as Pachacamac and Apurimac have already been mentioned. In Inca culture all decisions were made only after consulting the supernatural. Questions put to oracles usually had to do with seeing the future and result of certain actions." [4] "After consulting his oracles and counselors, the Inca ruler chose to favor the Lupaqas but hedged his bets by promising aid to both sides." [5] "The mummies and their oracles also served the king in an advisory capacity. The ruling Inca was expected to seek advice from the ancestors on issues of importance, and it was carefully observed which oracles provided sound advice and which did not. The most trusted mummies and their spokespersons were used as ambassadors for the Inca." [6] "Each mummy had an oracle: an individual who spoke for and received things on behalf of the dead king." [7] -> seem to be parallel, religious command, not administrative. Innovations relating to organization of state religion occurred during reign of Qhapaq Yupanki. "Several different Inka rulers are credited with the institution of the Sun cult." The Coricancha was the "principal temple in Cusco." This cult had a "high priest." Inka Roq’a required that "aqlawasi (house of cloistered women) be established in Inka-controlled towns" which produced crump (fancy cloth) and aqha (maize beer) used in rituals. [8] Alan Covey: I wouldn’t treat this as historical, but rather to say that a state sun cult developed around the time of early state expansion (maybe in the later 13th or early 14th century). [9] [1]: (Covey 2006, 119) [2]: (D’Altroy 2014, 301) [3]: (Alan Covey 2015, personal communication) [4]: (McEwan 2006, 159) [5]: (D’Altroy 2014, 93) [6]: (Bauer 2004, 167) [7]: (Bauer 2004, 165) [8]: (Covey 2003, 352) [9]: (Covey 2015, personal communication) |
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Level 1: The Pope
The Pope in Rome, as the supreme authority of the Catholic Church, influenced religious practices in East Francia. Level 2: Archbishops Leaders of archdioceses, the highest-ranking ecclesiastical figures within East Francia. Level 3: Bishops Leaders of dioceses, responsible for overseeing the clergy and managing church lands. Level 4: Abbots and Priors Heads of monasteries and abbeys, such as Fulda, Reichenau, and St. Gall. Level 5: Parish Priests Local clergy serving individual parishes. [Riché 1993], [Wickham 2010] |
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levels. Inferred from previous polities.
1. Emperor 2. Ministry of Rites 3. Ritual specialists |
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levels. (Thomas Cressy: how was this calculated? What is this figure based on?)
_ Buddhist _ _ Shinto_ |
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levels.
Earliest evidence for the existence of ritual specialists dates to the Late Jomon. |
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levels. That there were dedicated priests with at least two levels of hierarchy is about all we know. Whether parochial religious figures were linked in a centralized hierarchy with the center, or whether the king claimed to be the paramount priest, or how elaborate the priestly hierarchy was, are all unknown.
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levels.
Islam. Earlier polities coded 3. |
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1. Pope
Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. [1] 1. Patriarch of Constantinople "Patriarchs were elected by the standing synod in Constantinople, which presented three names to the emperor. He was entitled to choose one of these, or, if unable to accept any of the candidates, to choose the new patriarch himself." [2] Five Patriarchs (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem). 2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." [2] "The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." [2] 3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops [1] "Chorepiskopoi (literally ’country bishops’) were assigned to rural communities and were subject to a bishop in a nearby city." [2] "After the fourth century, the powers and functions of chorepiskopoi were gradually restricted and they were allowed only to ordain clerics of the lower orders. After the second Council of Nicaea (787) which prohibited them from ordaining even readers (anagnostai) without episcopal assent (canon 14), this separate episcopal rank began to disappear (Jugie 1904)." [2] 3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." [2] 4. Deacon"Deacon (diakonos, ’servant’)" [3] "Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." [4] 4. Deaconess (diakonissa)Become more and more rare, would be of equal rank as deacon. [1] "The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." [4] 5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." [5] 6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." [5] 7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." [5] [1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication) [2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Cunningham 2008, 530) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [4]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [5]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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Christianity 4: 380-457 CE
"Theodosius (r.379-395), made Christianity the legal or "official" religion of the empire." [1] 1. Emperor "The first seven "ecumenical" ... councils were gathered by the Roman (or, later, Byzantine) emperors." [2] 1. Bishop of a patriarchate "The churches organized themselves along the lines laid down by the geography and political order of the empire. A city (civitas), along with its surrounding rural perimeter, the foundation of imperial organization, also formed the basic unit of ecclesiastical structure. Virtually every Roman city, many of them quite small, had its own bishop. He exercised his authority over a "diocese" that ordinarily coincided with the boundaries of the civitas. These dioceses were then grouped into provinces, over which a metropolitan, the bishop of a province’s principal city, held sway. Eventually, provinces themselves were organized into large "patriarchates," each lead by one of the five preeminent bishops of the church: those in Rome, Constantinople (called "New Rome," second in prestige to the Old), Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem." [2] 2. Metropolitan, with authority over a province 3. Bishop in civitas, with authority over a diocese 4. Presbyters or priests (elders)"Evidence from the second century suggests that a wide variety of models for local clergy existed throughout the Roman Empire. Yet the one to prevail was a three-tiered, hierarchical. In this model, the bishop served as leader of the local community and was assisted by presbyters or priests (elders) and deacons. Again, this model was established in the Antioch of Ignatius, as he underscores emphatically the necessity of gathering for learning, ritual, and teaching around a single bishop. By the end of the century this three-tiered form of ministry had spread to most early Catholic communities throughout the empire, and it would soon become the sole authoritative manner of organizing local ecclesial communities." [3] 5. Deacons _Mithraism_ Cult of Mithra spread from the Parthian Empire to Rome (originated in India? bronze age?). "Contrary to other religions of the same type, such as the cults of Isis and Osiris, Serapis, Dionysus (all well-known examples), Mithraicism eschewed any external manifestations and depended only on its initiatory nature to recruit its followers. ... it gradually became a common faith for soldiers, civil servants, merchants ... The members joined a spirituality of an initiatory type ... shared with a large group of solar faiths ... that promised both a life near to the deity and a personal redemption." [4] "From the end of the first century B.C.E. we have evidence of a cult coming from the East and gradually and discretely conquering the Roman army and administration (Daniels). This god, previously unknown to the Romans, was called Mithra. Some historians believe (see Plutarch, Pomp. 24.7) that the notorius Cilician pirates defeated by Pompeius propagated this cult when deported in Calabria. We now believe that it was a late transformation of the god Mithra, the friendly protector of contracts .... and defender of true and just causes." [5] "We must also stress that this god retained, in his manifestation in the Roman Empire, his essential characteristics of friend and guardian of contracts." [6] "Mithra probably won over even the imperial house. We are wary about the well-known initiation of the emperor Nero to the mysteries of the Magi through Tiridates (see Turcan 1989:237). However, it seems that the emperor Commodus (192) was an unworthy adept of the mysteries, because he was suspected of having killed a fellow-adept during a ceremony simulating a ritual sacrifice. The imperial house had a much worthier adept in Diocletian and his colleagues of the Tetrarchy: Galerius and Licinius. The god is then called the fautor imperii sui, the "protector of the imperial power" (Inscription of Carnuntum in 307)." [7] Mithraism: "on the social level people learned, in the ’Persic Cavern’, to respect the contract linking the human being to the cosmos and to the gods, and then, at least in an implicit way, to respect the emperors, who were divine beings, as intermediaries between the sky and the earth. The faithfulness to a vivifying cosmic order was thus accompanied by faithfulness to the one representing this order on earth. It is not surprising, then, that Mithra was invoked as Jupiter Dolichenus for the salvation of the emperor. In time, a cult ascribed to the enemies gets mixed up with the worship of the protecting gods of Rome!" [7] [1]: (Madigan 2015, 20) [2]: (Madigan 2015, 21) [3]: (Madigan 2015, 14) [4]: (Decharneux (2004, 94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [5]: (Decharneux 2004, 93) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [6]: (Decharneux 2004, 93-94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [7]: (Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. |
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1. Ritual specialist
In the broader Early Harappan tradition there is evidence that there were priests, and Kenoyer refers to "ritual specialist". However, Possehl says there is no evidence for a state religion. [1] [2] [1]: Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark, ‘The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India’, Journal of World Prehistory, 5 (1991), 370 [2]: Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 6. |
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levels. "There are very few signs of status differentiation amongst the few burials known. Most settlements were simple collections of huts with no evidence for internal differentiation in architecture or material culture than might suggest clear-cut divisions in society."
[1]
[1]: G. Barker, Mediterranean Valley (1995), p. 156 |
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levels.
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levels.
Shaman-like religious leaders. |
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level. sources do not suggest there is evidence for standardised religion during this period (standardised temples with private sacred rooms appear in later periods). A primary centre, San José Mogote, had two structures (19 and 28) which may have supported a temple, as well as a circular platform (structure 31). Smaller platform constructions were present at secondary centres, although the religious connection with the larger centres is not clear.
[1]
[1]: Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p128-131 |
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levels. Ritual ‘Men’s Houses’ (consisting of one, plaster-coated room with lime mixing pits) were built at San José Mogote.
[1]
Given the ritual practices shown throughout the rest of the site (including pottery relating to either the Earth or Sky motifs and cranial deformation practices) at least one religious level is inferred here.
[2]
[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p11 [2]: Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p106 |
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levels.
Islam has no true hierarchy. |
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levels. Inferred from previous polities.
1. Emperor 2. Ministry of Rites 3. Ritual specialists |
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levels.
Shaman-like religious leaders. |
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levels. [1-2] levels at the time of Conquest? Local priests and polity-wide priest? ADAna: The only religious leader documented is the naoma, also known as máma. He preformed rituals and was the source of knowledge of the community. Apprentices f this labour where children chosen, but their is no evidence that shows how they were involved in rituals and religious performances. “Los caciques de la Sierra Nevada también tuvieron jerarquías de poder; sabemos que las ciudades estaban divididas en barrios, cada uno al mando de un cacique y todos ellos dependientes de un señor principal, que no existe evidencia de una unión entre los diversos grupos, lo que trajo la derrota y el aniquilamiento total de la cultura después de casi un siglo de resistencia al español. (…)De los Taironas tenemos noticias de categorías de jerarquía social; caciques mayores dominaban a otros secundarios y existieron subalternos en la autoridad civil, llamados <capitanes> y <mandadores>, por los españoles.” / Sierra Nevada’s chiefs also had power hierarchies; we know that cities were divided in neighbourhoods, each ruled by a chief and all of them under a head lord, there is no evidence of a union among the different groups and this might be the cause of the defeat and annihilation of their culture after a century of resistance against the Spanish (…) From the Taironas we have some news of their social hierarchy; greater chiefs ruled over others, apart from subordinated civil authorities, called <captains> and <carriers> by the Spanish.
[1]
“Dentro de su organización social había separación de funciones religiosas y administrativas por lo que tenían dos tipos de líderes: los religiosos conocidos como naomas -sacerdotes y guías espirituales- y los administrativos -caciques y capitanes-. Aunque los sacerdotes, tenían influencia y participación en los concejos, no estaban investidos de reales poderes administrativos, los caciques por su parte eran los llamados a la administración y a la justicia, y no tenían investidura religiosa.” /Inside their social structure, they use to have two types of leaders, because of the gap between the religious and administrative function: the religious were known as the naomas- priests and spiritual guides- and the management-chiefs and captains-. Even though the priests had influence and participation in the consensus, they were not embellished in royal management power, on the other hand, the chiefs were called to the managing and justice, and did not had any religious implication.
[2]
"The chronicles make frequent reference to naomas and mohanes, of whom there could be several in each town. The two words are often used interchangeably, and these people are usually considered to be priests and ritual specialists,the possible ancestors of the present-day Kogi and Ika mamas (Dussán de Reichel 2000: 88; for a contrary view see Bischof 1971; 1982-83: 88). In this connection, there is an interesting mention in the Relación de Tayrona (1571) to a town with two caciques; the principal one was called Mamanauma (Oyuela- Caycedo 1998: 52). The mohanes are undoubtedly priests (see Castellanos 1955, 2: 596), but the status of the naomas is less clear. Juan de Castellanos, writing in 1601, notes that naomas could hold political office and that they outranked ordinary caciques: “fifteen caciques, great señores, are subject to the command of the naoma called, it is said, Marocando” (Castellanos 1955, 2: 340). The same author also mentions a personage called Betoma, “whom they recognized as a Naoma and who held command over all the caciques” (ibid.: 548). The political power of sixteenth-century naomas is not in doubt, but their priestly role remains ambiguous."
[3]
[1]: Chávez, A et al. (1995) Los Indios de Colombia. Mapfre: Cayambe, Ecuador: p. 83 [2]: Triana, M Quintana, B (2011) Cultura Tayrona: Aproximaciones a la Conquista, In: Manifestaciones Artísticas en Colombia Prehispánica. PDF p. 3 [3]: (Bray 2003, 302) |
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levels.
1. Higher Shaman 2. Lower Shaman. "The relationship between the shaman supplying the magical power and the person receiving it is not a relationship between equals. The power-giver is referred to in these tribes as the ’higher’ shaman, and the recipient as the ’lower.’ The ’higher’ and ’lower’ designations refer to actual authority and control exercised by the giver of power over the recipient. The higher shaman, it is believed, can magically take back the power which he has conferred, regardless of the distance separating the two shamans (see pp. 165-66). He may take back this power because of a personal offense, or because he has been bribed to do so by an enemy of the lower shaman. Such occurrences are frequently reported, and there are a number of former shamans who testify that they lost their power in this manner." [1] "A sudden loss of shamanistic power is believed to result in serious illness and often in death. The lower shaman, therefore, tends to fear his higher associate and attempts to keep on good terms with him. With this purpose in mind, he sends tribute in the form of substantial gifts of material valuables (kuit) at regular intervals. Such kuit includes shotguns, hunting dogs, blowguns, curare, feather headbands (tawaspä), and Western-manufactured shirts and trousers. He particularly hopes that these gifts will offset any bribes that may be offered to the higher shaman." [2] "A secondary incentive for sending tribute is the need of the lower shaman to replenish his supply of magical darts [Page 122] every few years. His power, in the form of these spirit servants, is gradually used up through curing, bewitching, or dispensing it. He expects, therefore, to have to replenish his supply by visiting his higher associate. The lower shaman may look forward to help from the higher man only if he has been faithful in the submission of goods." [3] "Tribute between shamans flows from the south, since, of course, the most powerful shamans are in the north. The tribute follows the lines of the shaman hierarchies up into the Canelos tribe. These hierarchies do not converge upon a single Canelos shaman, however, because there are a number of banks of about equal power in the tribe. In other words, this is basically a system of plural and parallel hierarchies culminating in the same region, but not in the same individual." [4] "The hierarchical situation is further complicated by the fact that a given shaman frequently obtains magical power from several higher associates. He does this so that his power cannot be completely taken away from him at the whim of a single higher shaman. This tendency seems to prevent the hierarchies from being used as chains of authority. Since a shaman is thus often directly subordinate to several others, considerable intertwining of hierarchical relationships occurs (see Figure 3)." [4] [1]: Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121 [2]: Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121p [3]: Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121-22 [4]: Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 122 |
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levels.
1. Higher Shaman 2. Lower Shaman. "The relationship between the shaman supplying the magical power and the person receiving it is not a relationship between equals. The power-giver is referred to in these tribes as the ’higher’ shaman, and the recipient as the ’lower.’ The ’higher’ and ’lower’ designations refer to actual authority and control exercised by the giver of power over the recipient. The higher shaman, it is believed, can magically take back the power which he has conferred, regardless of the distance separating the two shamans (see pp. 165-66). He may take back this power because of a personal offense, or because he has been bribed to do so by an enemy of the lower shaman. Such occurrences are frequently reported, and there are a number of former shamans who testify that they lost their power in this manner." [1] "A sudden loss of shamanistic power is believed to result in serious illness and often in death. The lower shaman, therefore, tends to fear his higher associate and attempts to keep on good terms with him. With this purpose in mind, he sends tribute in the form of substantial gifts of material valuables (kuit) at regular intervals. Such kuit includes shotguns, hunting dogs, blowguns, curare, feather headbands (tawaspä), and Western-manufactured shirts and trousers. He particularly hopes that these gifts will offset any bribes that may be offered to the higher shaman." [2] "A secondary incentive for sending tribute is the need of the lower shaman to replenish his supply of magical darts [Page 122] every few years. His power, in the form of these spirit servants, is gradually used up through curing, bewitching, or dispensing it. He expects, therefore, to have to replenish his supply by visiting his higher associate. The lower shaman may look forward to help from the higher man only if he has been faithful in the submission of goods." [3] "Tribute between shamans flows from the south, since, of course, the most powerful shamans are in the north. The tribute follows the lines of the shaman hierarchies up into the Canelos tribe. These hierarchies do not converge upon a single Canelos shaman, however, because there are a number of banks of about equal power in the tribe. In other words, this is basically a system of plural and parallel hierarchies culminating in the same region, but not in the same individual." [4] "The hierarchical situation is further complicated by the fact that a given shaman frequently obtains magical power from several higher associates. He does this so that his power cannot be completely taken away from him at the whim of a single higher shaman. This tendency seems to prevent the hierarchies from being used as chains of authority. Since a shaman is thus often directly subordinate to several others, considerable intertwining of hierarchical relationships occurs." [4] [1]: Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121 [2]: Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121p [3]: Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121-22 [4]: Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 122 |
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Brier and Hobbs (2008, 72)- Diagram "Government organization at the time of the New Kingdom."
[1]
1. Pharaoh (not included in diagram) 2. Overseer of the Temples and Prophets of all the Gods"a government official who functioned not as a priest but as the civil overlord of an institution that controlled great national wealth. So entwined were Egypt’s civil and religious affairs, however, that, in addition to his civil post, a vizier often held the position of overseer of the temples. Ranked directly below the overseer stood high priests ..." [2] 3. High Priests of each god"the chief priest was designated as the ’first god’s servant’." [3] "at Karnak, a second, third or even fourth god’s servant served under him." [3] 4. Second god’s servant are these servants at the same or at different levels i.e. does the second command the third etc.?5. Scroll carriercleric who "maintained and read the sacred texts of the temple." 5. Wab priestsmaintained idols and instruments. had to be circumcised. shave whole body every two days, bathe twice a day and twice a night, weather non-animal clothing, avoid pork, fish and beans, they worked shifts of one month followed by three months of rest. [4] "Wab priests ... were organized into squadrons of ten or so, and served under the command of a ’god’s father.’ All were male, but women could serve as priestesses who sang and danced for a god." [5] 4. Third god’s servant5. Scroll carrier 5. Wab priests 4. Fourth god’s servant5. Scroll carrier 5. Wab priests 1. King "In the temple, the sun-god’s daily journey through the heavens was symbolically enacted by means of rituals and hymns, the principal aim of which was to maintain the created order of the universe. The king played a crucial role in this daily ritual; he was the main officiant, the sun priest, who had an intimate knowledge of all aspects of the sun-god’s daily course." [6] "Although the seat of government during most of the New Kingdom was the northern capital, Memphis, the 18th-Dynasty kings had originated from Thebes, and this city remained the most important religious centre of the country. Its local god, Amun (’the hidden one’), had become associated with the sun-god Ra and as Amun-Ra King of the Gods was worshipped in every major temple in Egypt, including Memphis." [7] _ Cult of Amun, Thebes _ 2. God’s father or Amun [8] 2. God’s wife of Amun [9] 3. Steward of the estate of Amun" administered the land owned by the temple. [8] 3. Overseer of priests. [10] same as? High Priest of Amun [11] 4. Second Priest of Amun [8] [12] 5. Third Priest of Amun [8] [12] 6. Fourth Priest of Amun [12] 7. Scribes and other workers? _ Cult of Osiris, Abydos _ 2. 3. 4. 5. _ Cult centres _ 1. 2. 3. EWA: 1 Pharaoh, [2 High Priest of Amon], 3 High Priest/Temple Steward, 4 Lector-priests, God’s servants. God’s fathers. 5 Wab priests. Pharaoh (1). Divine Adoratrice (?). Overseer of Priests of Upper and Lower Egypt (2). High Priest/Temple Steward (3). God’s servants. God’s fathers. Lector-priests (4, 4-5 or 4-6). Wab priests (5, 5-6 or 5-7). Non-priestly workers. [1]: (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 72) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. [2]: (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 74-75) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. [3]: (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 75) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. [4]: (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 75-76) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. [5]: (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 76) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. [6]: (Van Dijk 2000, 266) [7]: (Van Dijk 2000, 267) [8]: (Van Dijk 2000, 300) [9]: (Bryan 2000, 210) [10]: (Bryan 2000, 230) [11]: (Van Dijk 2000, 301) [12]: (Bryan 2000, 261) |
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Brier and Hobbs (2008, 72)- Diagram "Government organization at the time of the New Kingdom."
[1]
1. Pharaoh (not included in diagram) 2. Overseer of the Temples and Prophets of all the Gods"a government official who functioned not as a priest but as the civil overlord of an institution that controlled great national wealth. So entwined were Egypt’s civil and religious affairs, however, that, in addition to his civil post, a vizier often held the position of overseer of the temples. Ranked directly below the overseer stood high priests ..." [2] 3. High Priests of each god"the chief priest was designated as the ’first god’s servant’." [3] "at Karnak, a second, third or even fourth god’s servant served under him." [3] 4. Second god’s servant are these servants at the same or at different levels i.e. does the second command the third etc.?5. Scroll carriercleric who "maintained and read the sacred texts of the temple." 5. Wab priestsmaintained idols and instruments. had to be circumcised. shave whole body every two days, bathe twice a day and twice a night, weather non-animal clothing, avoid pork, fish and beans, they worked shifts of one month followed by three months of rest. [4] "Wab priests ... were organized into squadrons of ten or so, and served under the command of a ’god’s father.’ All were male, but women could serve as priestesses who sang and danced for a god." [5] 4. Third god’s servant5. Scroll carrier 5. Wab priests 4. Fourth god’s servant5. Scroll carrier 5. Wab priests 1. King "In the temple, the sun-god’s daily journey through the heavens was symbolically enacted by means of rituals and hymns, the principal aim of which was to maintain the created order of the universe. The king played a crucial role in this daily ritual; he was the main officiant, the sun priest, who had an intimate knowledge of all aspects of the sun-god’s daily course." [6] "Although the seat of government during most of the New Kingdom was the northern capital, Memphis, the 18th-Dynasty kings had originated from Thebes, and this city remained the most important religious centre of the country. Its local god, Amun (’the hidden one’), had become associated with the sun-god Ra and as Amun-Ra King of the Gods was worshipped in every major temple in Egypt, including Memphis." [7] _ Cult of Amun, Thebes _ 2. God’s father or Amun [8] 2. God’s wife of Amun [9] 3. Steward of the estate of Amun" administered the land owned by the temple. [8] 3. Overseer of priests. [10] same as? High Priest of Amun [11] 4. Second Priest of Amun [8] [12] 5. Third Priest of Amun [8] [12] 6. Fourth Priest of Amun [12] 7. Scribes and other workers? _ Cult of Osiris, Abydos _ 2. 3. 4. 5. _ Amarna Period _ 2. 3. 4. _ Cult centres _ 2. 3. 4. EWA: 1 Pharaoh, 2 High Priest/Temple Steward, 3 Lector-priests, God’s servants. God’s fathers. 4 Wab priests. Pharaoh (1). Divine Adoratrice (?). Overseer of Priests of Upper and Lower Egypt (2). High Priest/Temple Steward (3). God’s servants. God’s fathers. Lector-priests (4, 4-5 or 4-6). Wab priests (5, 5-6 or 5-7). Non-priestly workers. [1]: (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 72) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. [2]: (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 74-75) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. [3]: (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 75) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. [4]: (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 75-76) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. [5]: (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 76) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. [6]: (Van Dijk 2000, 266) [7]: (Van Dijk 2000, 267) [8]: (Van Dijk 2000, 300) [9]: (Bryan 2000, 210) [10]: (Bryan 2000, 230) [11]: (Van Dijk 2000, 301) [12]: (Bryan 2000, 261) |
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levels.
1. Mediums, Diviners, and Healers as well as other Ritual Specialists ’Ritual practices were conducted by their own specialists. They included spirit mediums, breadfruit summoners, fish summoners, healers, masters of spells, masters of sorcery, builders, navigators, diviners, and most importantly the masters of magic and ritual relating to war and politics. Their knowledge was private property passed down to their children and junior lineage mates.’ [1] ’Major ceremonies were those associated with death, communicating with good souls of the dead, summoning breadfruit, and making food presentations to chiefs. Ritual was also associated with divination, curing, warfare, political meetings, house building, and courtship.’ [1] Mediums communicated with the dead: ’In traditional belief, spirit beings were widely distributed in the sky, under the sea, and on land. The important places among spirit lands in the sky were: a region under the dome of Heaven, home of the gods who could take human form; a region in the south from which came all the plant and marine life that gave people food; and a region named ’Achaw’ or ’Kachaw,’ abode of the ancestors of many Chuukese clans and particularly of the clans associated with the chiefship and the special bodies of magical lore from which chiefly power derived. Spirits could accomplish their intentions at will and were thus the source of all that was MANAMAN (mana), such as efficacious spells, medicines, and rituals. Good souls of the dead were consulted through mediums. The Chuukese also invoked in spells the spirits inhabiting the dome of Heaven, presided over by ’Great Spirit,’ and the spirits associated with particular crafts and major bodies of lore.’ [1] Diviners, Healers, and Mediums were involved in the treatment of illness: ’Sickness was believed to result from the ’bite’ of a malevolent spirit, or of any other spirit one had offended or that was controlled by a ritual specialist one had offended or by a sorcerer. Sickness might also result from soul loss. In all but the latter case, treatment involved the use of medicines to be applied externally, to be drunk, or to be inhaled. For soul loss, a spirit medium was consulted to help find and restore the soul. Divination was used as a diagnostic aid in cases of severe or prolonged illness. Massage was used to treat bruises, local infections, and muscle ailments.’ [1] Diviners accepted payments from apprentices in exchange for secret knowledge: ’There are systems of knowledge which are subject to special rules of their own. [Page 56] For example, to learn knot divination a pupil must pay the diviner ( sowupwe) even if the latter is his own father or mother’s brother. An jitag (a sort of lawyer, general, diplomat and orator all rolled into one, who occupies the most prestigeful position in Trukese society) is alleged never to teach his own children as much as he teaches his sister’s children. This contention does not, however, appear to be supported by the genealogical connections of the past jitag of Romonum Island. Despite special rules governing specific forms of incorporeal property, their over-all organization is analogous to that of corporeal property and does not require a new conceptual framework to make them intelligible.’ [2] Spirit mediums were an exception to this rule, as their expertise did not rely on knowledge per se: ’All religious practitioners as well as craftsmen and magicians are owners of the knowledge necessary to exercise their specialties. The Trukese make no distinction between them and other skilled personnel. There is one important exception to this rule, the spirit medium ( wäättwa or wään ëny). His (or her) position is not based on knowledge so much as on having been possessed by a spirit. This spirit is in no way classed as the medium’s property, nor can it be inherited automatically by a son or lineage mate. The position of a spirit medium, therefore, is different from that of a property holder, except as he uses his abilities to diagnose illness.’ [2] The Chuuk islands experienced a higher degree of regional ceremonial integration prior to the 18th century (see above under ’preceding quasi-polity’). Whatever information is available on this would have to be covered in an additional data sheet. [1]: Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E. [2]: Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 55 |
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levels.
1. Mediums, Diviners, and Healers as well as other Ritual Specialists ’Ritual practices were conducted by their own specialists. They included spirit mediums, breadfruit summoners, fish summoners, healers, masters of spells, masters of sorcery, builders, navigators, diviners, and most importantly the masters of magic and ritual relating to war and politics. Their knowledge was private property passed down to their children and junior lineage mates.’ [1] ’Major ceremonies were those associated with death, communicating with good souls of the dead, summoning breadfruit, and making food presentations to chiefs. Ritual was also associated with divination, curing, warfare, political meetings, house building, and courtship.’ [1] Mediums communicated with the dead: ’In traditional belief, spirit beings were widely distributed in the sky, under the sea, and on land. The important places among spirit lands in the sky were: a region under the dome of Heaven, home of the gods who could take human form; a region in the south from which came all the plant and marine life that gave people food; and a region named ’Achaw’ or ’Kachaw,’ abode of the ancestors of many Chuukese clans and particularly of the clans associated with the chiefship and the special bodies of magical lore from which chiefly power derived. Spirits could accomplish their intentions at will and were thus the source of all that was MANAMAN (mana), such as efficacious spells, medicines, and rituals. Good souls of the dead were consulted through mediums. The Chuukese also invoked in spells the spirits inhabiting the dome of Heaven, presided over by ’Great Spirit,’ and the spirits associated with particular crafts and major bodies of lore.’ [1] Diviners, Healers, and Mediums were involved in the treatment of illness: ’Sickness was believed to result from the ’bite’ of a malevolent spirit, or of any other spirit one had offended or that was controlled by a ritual specialist one had offended or by a sorcerer. Sickness might also result from soul loss. In all but the latter case, treatment involved the use of medicines to be applied externally, to be drunk, or to be inhaled. For soul loss, a spirit medium was consulted to help find and restore the soul. Divination was used as a diagnostic aid in cases of severe or prolonged illness. Massage was used to treat bruises, local infections, and muscle ailments.’ [1] Diviners accepted payments from apprentices in exchange for secret knowledge: ’There are systems of knowledge which are subject to special rules of their own. [Page 56] For example, to learn knot divination a pupil must pay the diviner ( sowupwe) even if the latter is his own father or mother’s brother. An jitag (a sort of lawyer, general, diplomat and orator all rolled into one, who occupies the most prestigeful position in Trukese society) is alleged never to teach his own children as much as he teaches his sister’s children. This contention does not, however, appear to be supported by the genealogical connections of the past jitag of Romonum Island. Despite special rules governing specific forms of incorporeal property, their over-all organization is analogous to that of corporeal property and does not require a new conceptual framework to make them intelligible.’ [2] Spirit mediums were an exception to this rule, as their expertise did not rely on knowledge per se: ’All religious practitioners as well as craftsmen and magicians are owners of the knowledge necessary to exercise their specialties. The Trukese make no distinction between them and other skilled personnel. There is one important exception to this rule, the spirit medium ( wäättwa or wään ëny). His (or her) position is not based on knowledge so much as on having been possessed by a spirit. This spirit is in no way classed as the medium’s property, nor can it be inherited automatically by a son or lineage mate. The position of a spirit medium, therefore, is different from that of a property holder, except as he uses his abilities to diagnose illness.’ [2] As a result of missionary activities, Christianity spread quickly in the 20th century: ’After 1900 Christianity became well established in most major centres in Micronesia. For the most part, traditional religions ceased being practiced in their full original form, although in Yap and some atolls of the central Carolines, traditional religion continued to be practiced until the middle of the 20th century. Missionaries and travelers recorded descriptions of certain aspects of the island religions, but there is no complete and systematic account.’ [3] ’The main island is Toloas. On it lie: the government station (Witetun), the main station of the Catholic ( O[unknown]omenau) and of the Protestant ( Kutua) missions. The landmark of Poloas is the legendary mountain of Tolemuan (peak of the man). The small island of Eten, on which was to be found the seat of the Jaluit Company, is also under the head chief of Toloas.’ [4] ’Before the Spanish Government had gained sufficient influence in the islands, the people of Truk lived under the rule of numerous petty chiefs who were constantly engaging in inter-district and inter-island warfare. In Spanish and German times, Catholic and Protestant missionaries Christianized and subdued the warlike tendencies of the population, but many of the old suspicious attitudes still show in present-day culture patterns. The numbers of Spanish and Germans who came to Truk at any one time were relatively small; they left their mark on the people in the folklore, in the religion and in the alphabet which they applied to the Trukese language, teaching the people to read and write. It was left to the Japanese to make the most impression on the native economy.’ [5] We have coded for native specialists rather than missionaries for the time being. [1]: Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk [2]: Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 55 [3]: (Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE. [4]: Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 247 [5]: Fischer, Ann M. 1950. “Role Of Trukese Mother And Its Effect On Child Training”, 7 |
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levels.
Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France 1. Pope Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. [1] 2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." [2] "The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." [2] 3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops [1] 3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." [2] 4. Deacon"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." [3] 4. Deaconess (diakonissa)"The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." [3] 5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." [4] 6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." [4] 7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." [4] [1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication) [2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [4]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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King as divine ruler, especially encouraged by Philip IV who was the first of the Valois kings.
Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France 1. King as divine ruler, especially encouraged by Philip IV who was the first of the Valois kings. 1. Pope Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. [1] 2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." [2] "The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." [2] 3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops [1] 3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." [2] 4. Deacon"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." [3] 4. Deaconess (diakonissa)"The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." [3] 5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." [4] 6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." [4] 7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." [4] [1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication) [2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [4]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France
1. Pope Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. [1] 2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." [2] "The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." [2] 3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops [1] 3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." [2] 4. Deacon"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." [3] 4. Deaconess (diakonissa)"The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." [3] 5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." [4] 6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." [4] 7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." [4] [1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication) [2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [4]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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levels.
Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France 1. Pope Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. [1] 2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." [2] "The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." [2] 3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops [1] 3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." [2] 4. Deacon"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." [3] 4. Deaconess (diakonissa)"The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." [3] 5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." [4] 6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." [4] 7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." [4] [1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication) [2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [4]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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levels.
(1) priests serving major shrines associated with the Omanhene; (2) priests serving minor shrines and chiefs; (3) priests and healers associated with the commoner population and village shrines Priests and spirit mediums communicated with deities and other spirits: ’Indigenous Akan religion is based upon the worship of a High God, various spirits or deities, and ancestors. The High God-known as Onyame, Onyankopon, and by other names-is the Creator, now otiose; Asase Yaa, the goddess of the earth, accompanies him. The ancestors live in the land of the dead and may demand offerings, in the past including those of slaves.’ [1] ’Spirits or deities are many, and the living can communicate with them through prayer, sacrifice, and possession. Each has its own OSOFO, or priest; an OKOMFO is a living spirit medium who interprets the words of a spirit who is consulted to remove sickness and human disasters.’ [1] Rulers and royal lineages were closely connected to the cult: ’The royal ancestors are at the heart of the ritual protection of a kingdom. They are "fed" at shrines in the form of blackened stools of wood and kept in the "stool rooms" in palaces and houses. Traditionally, the stools were anointed with human blood, gunpowder, and spider webs, and given alcoholic drink; human sacrifices are no longer made. Each kingdom and town has, or had in past years, an annual purification ritual, known as ODWIRA, in which the king, the office of kingship, the kingdom, and the town are purified of the pollution of the preceding year; this is often known in the literature as a "yam festival."’ [1] In Fante communities, high-ranking priests played a prominent role in the polity: ’The object, however, of this work is not to deal with religious theories, deities, or matters of belief. In the Fanti districts, with their numerous free and independent communities, the priests who officiated at the shrine of Nanaam (that is ancestors), the national deities, situate at Mankesim, exercised large powers and wielded great [Page 52] influence, so much so that the opinion has been expressed that the high priest, a Braffo, was the sovereign ruler of the Fanti people. The physician was so often a priest that it is not surprising to discover him possessed of much influence; but this much may be said, the priests did not rule the people. The general name for God is Nyankupon (Nyankrupon according to the Akanfu), meaning the Only One, than who none is greater, or, as others say, the Great Friend. Nyankupon is invisible. He lives above the heavens, and the winds are His messengers. The common saying is, “Speak to the winds, and God will hear thee.” This word has different pronunciations, and the difficulty of finding its root may be through this cause. Rain is called Nyankum; rainbow is nyankunton. Nyan is to awaken, and it has been suggested that probably Onyan (the awakener) was an old name for the sky. One is rather inclined to form the opinion that Nyankupon is not derived from ye, meaning to do, act, create, as some say. This subject is certainly interesting, and requires further study and much thinking over.’ [2] [1]: Gilbert, Michelle, Lagacé, Robert O. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Akan [2]: Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 51p |
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levels.
(1) head-priests involved in the organized ceremonial of the state and its ruler;(2) priests serving major deities and chiefs;(3) priests serving minor deities and chiefs;(4) priests and healers associated with the commoner population and village shrines From the information gathered so far, we infer that organized religion shared some basic structural principles with the territorial and military organization. Some particularly powerful priests worked with the Asantehene himself, in organized ceremonial and military campaigns: ’Before a war senior servants of the Asantehene visited the shrines of major gods with gifts, to ask for guidance and support, and to promise rewards for success. They may also, of course, have received knowledge obtained by the webs of communication centred on the shrine. After successful campaigns, gods were rewarded with land and captives, large umbrellas and asipim chairs, and their priests given gold or silver crescent-shaped pendants to wear. Some priests and gods accompanied the armies, or missions, as in the case of the three priests in the retinue of General Akyeampon when he returned to the capital after negotiating in the south in the early 1870s.’ [1] The practice was projected back to the times of Osei Tutu, but this may have had ideological reasons [2] . Major gods and their shrines produced offshoots in the form of minor deities and temples, both with their respective religious specialists: ’The god Tano has long enjoyed a particularly high place in the Asante pantheon. Thus in 1817 Bowdich remarked that “the present favourite fetish of Ashantee is that of the river Tando.” Such a god was divisible. Water and sediment might be transferred from the river to other locations and, provided this was done with all due ritual and honors, access to the god might be gained at them. Such local offshoots, the atano, were regarded as “children” of Tano and given a second name to distinguish each from the other, thus Taa (or Tano) Odomankoma, Taa Kora, Taa Bobodwo, Taa Kwadwo, Taa Yawo, Taa Mensa, and Taa Dwemo, to name but a few. An atano resided in a shrine, commonly a brass pan, which was housed in an abosomfie or temple protected and maintained by a custodian or bosomwura. Depending upon its prestige and wealth, the atano was served by a greater or lesser number of priests and priestesses - akomfo - who had been possessed by the god, and by such other attendants - atanokwaa - as cooks, musicians, umbrella carriers, and the like. Indeed, the temple of a powerful atano might, in terms of its personnel, closely resemble the court of a chief.’ [3] Priests also participated in the organized ceremonial relevant to chiefs: ’Eto (mashed yams) are cooked once a year by the priests, and upon the day appointed (a Saturday) the chief will place a spoonful in the pan upon top of the forked branch, with the words: ‘Me Nyankopon me sere wo nkwa, na me sere wo ahooden’ (My God, I pray you for life and I pray you for strength). A sheep is also killed and the blood allowed to fall upon the ground [...].’ [4] The smallest shrines were associated with the village-level: ’Temples of gods ( bosom’dan, bosom’fie) were also often situated towards the edges of the village, although some were built well away from human habitation, usually on the banks of rivers or streams (from which gods were thought to come). In their simplest form the temples were small rectangular buildings, entered by steps, the outer surfaces decorated with low reliefs and covered with red and white clay. More usually they consisted of a number of units around a court. Here male priests would periodically carry the god’s shrine on their heads, becoming possessed and showing their powers to see, say and do things beyond the abilities of ordinary mortals.’ [5] Those priests ’combine with their office the cure of disease. Some of them are very good doctors and pull through cases where European skill has failed. They are skilled in the use of herbal remedies, and it might repay European medical men to study native therapeutics in its application to the treatment of diseases peculiar to the Gold Coast.’ [6] [1]: McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 64 [2]: Wilks, Ivor 1993. “Forests Of Gold: Essays On The Akan And The Kingdom Of Asante”, 111 [3]: Wilks, Ivor 1993. “Forests Of Gold: Essays On The Akan And The Kingdom Of Asante”, 338 [4]: Rattray, R. S. (Robert Sutherland) 1923. “Ashanti”, 143 [5]: McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 38 [6]: Hayford, J. E. Casely (Joseph Ephraim Casely) 1970. “Gold Coast Native Institutions With Thoughts Upon A Healthy Imperial Policy For The Gold Coast And Ashanti”, 106 |
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levels. Local priest
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levels.
(1) Bards (LEMAMBANG), Augurs (TUAI BURONG), and Shamans (MANANG) associated with Longhouse Communities ’The personnel of Iban religion, the experts, are those individuals who have specific roles in relation to rice cultivation, augury, ritual celebrations and the ordering of society. They act as a channel between the world of immediate experience and its spirit antecedents and influences. The leading exponents of these roles in Iban society are four, although one or more functions may be vested in the same person. They are the tuai burong or augur, the tuai rumah or village headman, the lemambang or ritual incantation specialist, and, lastly, the manang--shaman or ‘healer’.’ [1] ’There are three religious practitioners: the bard (LEMAMBANG), the augur (TUAI BURONG), and the shaman (MANANG). Individually or in teams, bards are invited to chant at all major rituals. They are highly respected men, capable of recalling and adapting as appropriate, chants that go on for hours. The augur is employed for critical activities, such as farming or travelling. The shaman is a psychotherapist, who is consulted for unusual or persistent ailments.’ [2] ’For deliberate auguries the knowledge of an expert augur is usually sought. If the undertaking involves the efforts of the whole community, as, for example, house-building, responsibility for seeking omens generally falls on the tuai burong , or community augur. The latter is a man generally recognized for his experience and skill as an augur. In practice, beburong ordinarily precedes a great many lesser occasions, aside from the major ones mentioned, and responsibility for taking auguries normally rests with tuai burong or with the person who leads the undertaking. Because of the importance of augury, any man traditionally aspiring to leadership within the community, as a longhouse headman or senior family head, or within the wider region, as a war chief, migrational leader, or the head of a trading venture, was expected to possess a proficient knowledge of augury. The position of the tuai burong was traditionally one of considerable influence in Iban society and a knowledge of practical augury was an important requirement of leadership more generally.’ [3] Village headmen often double as augurs: ’Administration of customary law and the social code as such, the adat in its restricted and technical sense, falls to the tuai rumah (see above, pp. 25 seq.). Unlike the office of tuai burong , the tuai rumah is officially recognized by the government, although the position carries no emoluments. The functions of tuai rumah and tuai burong are distinct, but in practice it is often the same man who performs both. This was the case in approximately two-thirds of the longhouses studied in the Lemanak and Delok. In the past, while the Iban remained comparatively isolated and pindah migration was a recurrent event thought to depend for its success on spirit favour and the correct response to spirit guidance, the tuai burong was almost invariably also tuai rumah . In recent years, a more settled way of life and the expectation that the tuai rumah will act as host to visiting officials and as spokesman or longhouse representative before the authorities, have come to demand qualities which the traditional tuai burong did not need nor always possess.’ [4] Bards provide ritual incantations: ’The lemambang may perhaps be called a priest but he is not the ultimate authority on Iban religion. His concern is with intoning the ritual incantations, called pengap , which form a central part of major ceremonies ( gawai ). These occur intermittently. Although extremely important, they are not as significant in the context of day-to-day religion as are omens, dreams, and social ordinances.’ [5] ’The incantations include the full names, honorifics, and nick-names of the spirits. These are unfamiliar in detail to Iban other than the lemambang ; even the tuai burong rarely knows them fully. The lemambang , however, does not necessarily understand the precise role of the named spirits in augury or other rites, and does not, qua lemambang , participate in these. Less than being a priest, since he does not perform ritual acts, it is probably truer to say, as Scott (1956, 103) does in his dictionary, that the lemambang is the ‘bard’ of Iban society, albeit the liturgical bard or cantor.’ [6] Shamans act as healers and perform rituals associated with head-hunting, which are continued symbolically even after the cessation of infighting and head-taking: ’Various female deities are then summoned to “nurse” ( ngua ) the unhappy head, among them the wives of the legendary headhunting heroes of Panggau Libau. But even the best attempts of Kumang, Lulong, and the others are to no avail - the trophy head is inconsolable. In the end, in desperation, it is passed to the highest ranking shamans in the community - the manang bali’ . The latter are individuals who have changed their sex from male to female in the pursuit of their vocation ( bali’ lit. = “changed”), their adopted status being reflected in their female attire. The position of manang bali’ in society is a very special one in that they are able to slay malevolent demons ( antu ) in ritual combat. In this respect their role is comparable to that of Iban warriors, except that their deeds are performed in the supernatural realm against unseen foe, rather than on the ground against enemies of flesh and blood.’ [7] [1]: Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 59 [2]: Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban [3]: Sandin, Benedict, and Clifford Sather 1980. “Iban Adat And Augury”, xxxviiip [4]: Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 61 [5]: Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 62 [6]: Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 63 [7]: Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 189 |
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levels.
(1) Bards (LEMAMBANG), Augurs (TUAI BURONG), and Shamans (MANANG) associated with Longhouse Communities ’The personnel of Iban religion, the experts, are those individuals who have specific roles in relation to rice cultivation, augury, ritual celebrations and the ordering of society. They act as a channel between the world of immediate experience and its spirit antecedents and influences. The leading exponents of these roles in Iban society are four, although one or more functions may be vested in the same person. They are the tuai burong or augur, the tuai rumah or village headman, the lemambang or ritual incantation specialist, and, lastly, the manang--shaman or ‘healer’.’ [1] ’There are three religious practitioners: the bard (LEMAMBANG), the augur (TUAI BURONG), and the shaman (MANANG). Individually or in teams, bards are invited to chant at all major rituals. They are highly respected men, capable of recalling and adapting as appropriate, chants that go on for hours. The augur is employed for critical activities, such as farming or travelling. The shaman is a psychotherapist, who is consulted for unusual or persistent ailments.’ [2] ’For deliberate auguries the knowledge of an expert augur is usually sought. If the undertaking involves the efforts of the whole community, as, for example, house-building, responsibility for seeking omens generally falls on the tuai burong , or community augur. The latter is a man generally recognized for his experience and skill as an augur. In practice, beburong ordinarily precedes a great many lesser occasions, aside from the major ones mentioned, and responsibility for taking auguries normally rests with tuai burong or with the person who leads the undertaking. Because of the importance of augury, any man traditionally aspiring to leadership within the community, as a longhouse headman or senior family head, or within the wider region, as a war chief, migrational leader, or the head of a trading venture, was expected to possess a proficient knowledge of augury. The position of the tuai burong was traditionally one of considerable influence in Iban society and a knowledge of practical augury was an important requirement of leadership more generally.’ [3] Village headmen often double as augurs: ’Administration of customary law and the social code as such, the adat in its restricted and technical sense, falls to the tuai rumah (see above, pp. 25 seq.). Unlike the office of tuai burong , the tuai rumah is officially recognized by the government, although the position carries no emoluments. The functions of tuai rumah and tuai burong are distinct, but in practice it is often the same man who performs both. This was the case in approximately two-thirds of the longhouses studied in the Lemanak and Delok. In the past, while the Iban remained comparatively isolated and pindah migration was a recurrent event thought to depend for its success on spirit favour and the correct response to spirit guidance, the tuai burong was almost invariably also tuai rumah . In recent years, a more settled way of life and the expectation that the tuai rumah will act as host to visiting officials and as spokesman or longhouse representative before the authorities, have come to demand qualities which the traditional tuai burong did not need nor always possess.’ [4] Bards provide ritual incantations: ’The lemambang may perhaps be called a priest but he is not the ultimate authority on Iban religion. His concern is with intoning the ritual incantations, called pengap , which form a central part of major ceremonies ( gawai ). These occur intermittently. Although extremely important, they are not as significant in the context of day-to-day religion as are omens, dreams, and social ordinances.’ [5] ’The incantations include the full names, honorifics, and nick-names of the spirits. These are unfamiliar in detail to Iban other than the lemambang ; even the tuai burong rarely knows them fully. The lemambang , however, does not necessarily understand the precise role of the named spirits in augury or other rites, and does not, qua lemambang , participate in these. Less than being a priest, since he does not perform ritual acts, it is probably truer to say, as Scott (1956, 103) does in his dictionary, that the lemambang is the ‘bard’ of Iban society, albeit the liturgical bard or cantor.’ [6] Shamans act as healers and perform rituals associated with head-hunting, which are continued symbolically even after the cessation of infighting and head-taking: ’Various female deities are then summoned to “nurse” ( ngua ) the unhappy head, among them the wives of the legendary headhunting heroes of Panggau Libau. But even the best attempts of Kumang, Lulong, and the others are to no avail - the trophy head is inconsolable. In the end, in desperation, it is passed to the highest ranking shamans in the community - the manang bali’ . The latter are individuals who have changed their sex from male to female in the pursuit of their vocation ( bali’ lit. = “changed”), their adopted status being reflected in their female attire. The position of manang bali’ in society is a very special one in that they are able to slay malevolent demons ( antu ) in ritual combat. In this respect their role is comparable to that of Iban warriors, except that their deeds are performed in the supernatural realm against unseen foe, rather than on the ground against enemies of flesh and blood.’ [7] [1]: Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 59 [2]: Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban [3]: Sandin, Benedict, and Clifford Sather 1980. “Iban Adat And Augury”, xxxviiip [4]: Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 61 [5]: Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 62 [6]: Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 63 [7]: Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 189 |
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levels. There is no evidence that multiple cultic sites were connected within a larger organization; they seem to have operated independently, and were probably devoted to localized deities. Thus, the typical shrine would have featured:
1) A chief priest (possibly the only priest). 2) Rarely, subordinate priests. 3) Lesser functionaries, such as female cultic servants. The possibility of a fourth rung would be relevant to larger cultic sites, such as the one at Hazor, which would have had a more elaborate structure. |
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levels.
_Hinduism_ There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism [1] . However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. [2] ), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels. _Jainism_ NOTE: I have found two equally authoritative sources on Jain hierarchy: (1) [3] 1. Arihants (ones who have conquered their inner enemies) 2. Siddhas (Liberated Ones)3. Acharyas (who head the Order)4. Upadhyays (who teach the message)5. Sadhus (Monks/Seekers) (2) [4] 1. Guru (teacher) 2. Monks 2. Male figure (not specified by author whether a monk) in charge of nuns3. Pravartini or ganini (aides to the male figure in charge of nuns)4. Nuns _Buddhism_ "Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to ’pure’ teachings and exemption from ’impure’ duties." [5] . [1]: http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556 [2]: G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4 [3]: Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319 [4]: M. Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka (2006), pp. 269-276 [5]: P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628 |
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levels.
(1) Village Priest (Kamal) ‘A Garo religious practitioner is known as KAMAL. The word is used to mean ’specialist’; thus a midwife may be a kamal. A kamal has neither special privilege nor prestige from his service to the society.’ [1] The village priest or healer dealt with misfortune caused by malicious sprites: ‘These mite live in many places. Some dwell in the village, others in the jungle, near a tree, or by a stream or waterfall. A fork in a road is a favorite place, and powerful mite are said to live on mountain tops. All are dealt with in the same general fashion, though the details of the sacrifices differ. Several men usually spend about two hours building an altar. Most altars are built of bamboo and leaves, but the precise form depends upon the particular spirit to whom the sacrifice is to be directed. Once the altar is built, a ritually skilled man must offer an egg, a chicken, a pig, or even a cow, depending upon the seriousness of the disease and the demands of the mite. This priest kills the animal in a ritually prescribed manner, and smears the blood on to the altar. He recites a number of chants while standing or squatting before the altar, and usually pours a bit of rice beer on to the ground as an additional offering. At a sacrifice to cure disease, as on other occasions when animals are ceremoniously killed, the priest inspects their viscera for omens. If the proper portion of a chicken’s intestines prove to be filled, for instance, the prognosis is good; otherwise it is bad. While the priest is performing the ritual, the men who have helped build the altar sit around, chatting and joking, with no outward signs of respect or attention. There is no ecstasy and no sleight of hand, and the sick person is not even necessarily present. When the formalities are completed, the helpers prepare the animal and cook it into a curry. Rice is boiled, and all of the helpers share in the ensuing meal. Typically, the entire sacrifice, from the time the participants first assemble to the time they finish the feast, takes three or four hours. Afterward the participants go to their own houses. They are not supposed to go to their fields for the whole day, though they may do chores about the house. Sacrifices of this sort are the commonest kind of ceremony performed by the people of Rengsanggri. They involve only a half dozen or so neighbors and relatives, and they are held whenever the need arises. Occasionally two or three may even be held on the same day if several people in the village are sick. Altogether several hundred sacrifices are likely to be performed in the village of Rengsanggri in a single year.’ [2] They also officiated at village festivals: ‘Wangala is one of the three festivals at which group dancing takes place. This occurs in the courtyards in front of the houses, where people like to keep a sizable cleared space for this very purpose. Both married and unmarried people take part, though dancing is generally felt to be most appropriate for the young, especially those who are unmarried. Group dancing is almost exclusively a night pastime, and may continue intermittently until dawn.’ [3] During the pre-colonial period, some missionary contact took place, but Christianization itself only accelerated after the British occupation: ‘The third major influence on the Garos, and in some ways the most important, has been that of Christianity. American Baptist missionaries began to have a few peripheral contacts with the Garos even before their hills were occupied by the British. Missionaries were stationed in Goalpara, a town on the Brahmaputra just north of the Garo Hills, and some of their work was with Garos. However, intensive Christianization began only after the occupation of the hills. American missionaries followed the government officers into the hills and like them set up their headquarters in the town of Tura, which remains the center of Garo Christian activities today. The missionaries not only evangelized, but from the beginning carried out extensive medical and educational work.’ [4] Accordingly, this variable was coded for A’chik practitioners rather than Christian missionaries. [1]: Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo [2]: Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 55 [3]: Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 66 [4]: Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 312 |
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levels.
(1) Village Priest (Kamal) ‘A Garo religious practitioner is known as KAMAL. The word is used to mean ’specialist’; thus a midwife may be a kamal. A kamal has neither special privilege nor prestige from his service to the society.’ [1] The village priest or healer deals with misfortune caused by malicious sprites: ‘These mite live in many places. Some dwell in the village, others in the jungle, near a tree, or by a stream or waterfall. A fork in a road is a favorite place, and powerful mite are said to live on mountain tops. All are dealt with in the same general fashion, though the details of the sacrifices differ. Several men usually spend about two hours building an altar. Most altars are built of bamboo and leaves, but the precise form depends upon the particular spirit to whom the sacrifice is to be directed. Once the altar is built, a ritually skilled man must offer an egg, a chicken, a pig, or even a cow, depending upon the seriousness of the disease and the demands of the mite. This priest kills the animal in a ritually prescribed manner, and smears the blood on to the altar. He recites a number of chants while standing or squatting before the altar, and usually pours a bit of rice beer on to the ground as an additional offering. At a sacrifice to cure disease, as on other occasions when animals are ceremoniously killed, the priest inspects their viscera for omens. If the proper portion of a chicken’s intestines prove to be filled, for instance, the prognosis is good; otherwise it is bad. While the priest is performing the ritual, the men who have helped build the altar sit around, chatting and joking, with no outward signs of respect or attention. There is no ecstasy and no sleight of hand, and the sick person is not even necessarily present. When the formalities are completed, the helpers prepare the animal and cook it into a curry. Rice is boiled, and all of the helpers share in the ensuing meal. Typically, the entire sacrifice, from the time the participants first assemble to the time they finish the feast, takes three or four hours. Afterward the participants go to their own houses. They are not supposed to go to their fields for the whole day, though they may do chores about the house. Sacrifices of this sort are the commonest kind of ceremony performed by the people of Rengsanggri. They involve only a half dozen or so neighbors and relatives, and they are held whenever the need arises. Occasionally two or three may even be held on the same day if several people in the village are sick. Altogether several hundred sacrifices are likely to be performed in the village of Rengsanggri in a single year.’ [2] They also officiate at village festivals: ‘Wangala is one of the three festivals at which group dancing takes place. This occurs in the courtyards in front of the houses, where people like to keep a sizable cleared space for this very purpose. Both married and unmarried people take part, though dancing is generally felt to be most appropriate for the young, especially those who are unmarried. Group dancing is almost exclusively a night pastime, and may continue intermittently until dawn.’ [3] During the colonial period, the A’chik population became the target of missionary activities: ‘The third major influence on the Garos, and in some ways the most important, has been that of Christianity. American Baptist missionaries began to have a few peripheral contacts with the Garos even before their hills were occupied by the British. Missionaries were stationed in Goalpara, a town on the Brahmaputra just north of the Garo Hills, and some of their work was with Garos. However, intensive Christianization began only after the occupation of the hills. American missionaries followed the government officers into the hills and like them set up their headquarters in the town of Tura, which remains the center of Garo Christian activities today. The missionaries not only evangelized, but from the beginning carried out extensive medical and educational work.’ [4] But the process of Christianization was initially slow and statistically insignificant for most of the colonial period, the majority of the population remaining Songsarek (i.e., attached to indigenous beliefs and rituals), although the subsequent decades experienced a rapid growth of the Christian population: ‘As per the census report, prior to 1941 in the Garo Hills none claimed as Christians. The presence of Buddhists in the Garo Hills was first reported in the 1941 census report and the presence of Muslim in the 1961 census report. Islam in the Garo Hills was spread by traders much before 1961, and Christianity by the British as early as 1847. By 1911, there were 5314 people enrolled as Christians. There was steady rise in the Christian population after independence. The rise in the Christian population was very high. After 1961 there was rise in the Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist population but, their increase has not been significant as compared with the rise in Christian population.’ [5] [1]: Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo [2]: Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 55 [3]: Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 66 [4]: Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 312 [5]: Pandey, M. C. 1995. “Demographic Profile Of The Garo Hills”, 26 |
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[1]
1. Sultan Suleiman I called himself "caliph of all the Muslims in the world" [2] 2. Chief Mufticalled seyhulislam. Part of the ulema religious establishment. 3. Inner Circlecalled ilmiye. Part of the ulema religious establishment. 4. Imams "The population of the Empire was heterogenous in religion, language and social structure. As the Faith of the sultans and of the ruling elite, Islam was the dominant religion, but the Greek and Armenian Orthodox Churches retained an important place within the political structure of the Empire, and ministered to large Christian populations which, in many areas, outnumbered Muslims." There were also Jews (especially after expelled from Spain 1492), Maronites and Druzes. [3] [1]: (Palmer 1992) [2]: (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 20) [3]: (Imber 2002, 1-2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. |
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1. Pontifex maximus
2. Colleges (flamines, augurs, pontifices, vestals)Three colleges of religious officials. 1. augurs 2. decemviri sacris faciundis 3. pontifices 3. high priests of imperial cult in provinces This level is present for the Middle Roman Republic. Is this not true of the Late Roman Republic? Principate? 4. priests for a deity (running a specific temple or sanctuary) "Freelance" religious officials (soothsayers, oracles, seers, etc). _Mithraism_ Cult of Mithra spread from the Parthian Empire to Rome (originated in India? bronze age?). "Contrary to other religions of the same type, such as the cults of Isis and Osiris, Serapis, Dionysus (all well-known examples), Mithraicism eschewed any external manifestations and depended only on its initiatory nature to recruit its followers. ... it gradually became a common faith for soldiers, civil servants, merchants ... The members joined a spirituality of an initiatory type ... shared with a large group of solar faiths ... that promised both a life near to the deity and a personal redemption." [1] "From the end of the first century B.C.E. we have evidence of a cult coming from the East and gradually and discretely conquering the Roman army and administration (Daniels). This god, previously unknown to the Romans, was called Mithra. Some historians believe (see Plutarch, Pomp. 24.7) that the notorius Cilician pirates defeated by Pompeius propagated this cult when deported in Calabria. We now believe that it was a late transformation of the god Mithra, the friendly protector of contracts .... and defender of true and just causes." [2] "We must also stress that this god retained, in his manifestation in the Roman Empire, his essential characteristics of friend and guardian of contracts." [3] "Mithra probably won over even the imperial house. We are wary about the well-known initiation of the emperor Nero to the mysteries of the Magi through Tiridates (see Turcan 1989:237). However, it seems that the emperor Commodus (192) was an unworthy adept of the mysteries, because he was suspected of having killed a fellow-adept during a ceremony simulating a ritual sacrifice. The imperial house had a much worthier adept in Diocletian and his colleagues of the Tetrarchy: Galerius and Licinius. The god is then called the fautor imperii sui, the "protector of the imperial power" (Inscription of Carnuntum in 307)." [4] Mithraism: "on the social level people learned, in the ’Persic Cavern’, to respect the contract linking the human being to the cosmos and to the gods, and then, at least in an implicit way, to respect the emperors, who were divine beings, as intermediaries between the sky and the earth. The faithfulness to a vivifying cosmic order was thus accompanied by faithfulness to the one representing this order on earth. It is not surprising, then, that Mithra was invoked as Jupiter Dolichenus for the salvation of the emperor. In time, a cult ascribed to the enemies gets mixed up with the worship of the protecting gods of Rome!" [4] [1]: (Decharneux (2004, 94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [2]: (Decharneux 2004, 93) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [3]: (Decharneux 2004, 93-94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [4]: (Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. |
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levels.
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levels.
"Up until about the fourth century AD almost all the inhabitants of Arabia were polytheists." [1] The cult of Athtar was widespread throughout Arabia, where the pantheon of gods known from surviving inscriptions contains over one hundred names (altough "many of these probably represent different aspects or manifestations of the same god" [2] ). "’Athtar almost always occupies first place in lists and his cult was spread throughout the region." [2] Different polities/people had their own god. "The patron deity (shym) of a people was of more immediate significance in south Arabia than the remoter figure of ’Athtar. The four principal peoples had as their patrons Almaqah (Sabaeans), Wadd (Minaeans), ’Amm (Qatabanians) and Sayin (Hadramites), and each people was collectively termed the ’chrildren of their respective patron deity." [2] The pagan religion of South Arabia "was in its essence a planetary astral system in which the cult of the moon-god prevailed. The moon, known in Hadramawt as Sin, to the Minaeans as Wadd (love or lover, father), to the Sabaeans as Almaqah (the health-giving god?) and to the Qatabanians as ’Amm (paternal uncle), stood at the head of the pantheon. He was conceived of as a masculine deity and took precedence over the sun, Shams, who was his consort. ’Athtar (Venus, corresponding to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, Phoenician ’Ashtart), their son, was the third member of the triad. From this celestial pair sprang the many other heavenly bodies considered divine." [3] The pagan Himyarites likely worshipped Almaqah from the time the kingdom was combined with Saba. Hitti writes that the "Himyarites were close kinsmen of the Sabaeans and, as the youngest branch of the sock, became the inheritors of the Minaeo-Sabaean culture and trade." [4] The Himyarites worshipped Almaqah, ’Athtar and other deities. [5] Philostorgius said of the Himyarites: ’They sacrifice to the sun and moon and spirits of the land.’" [5] The pagan Himyarites practiced dedications to temples [6] which were likely sufficiently complex to archive papyrus legal statements concerning the usage of tombs. [7] Minaean carvings in the temple ruins of al-Hazm, from the first millennium BCE, suggest dancing girls may have been included among the temple servants. [8] Sabaean temples are known to have received tithes at the federal and local levels and its financing may been the "divine assistance" behind construction projects. "Some Middle ’Sabaean’ temples may have acted as ’insurance companies’ ... Hence the presence of some kind of insurance company which would provide assistance (to build, say, a house after it had been destroyed) was really very practical and useful for most clans. By paying their tithe (’s2r) to the local temples, the tribesmen paid a sort of ’premium’ to this insurance company’, whereby they could expect to get their ’compensation’ when they needed it." [9] The religion of the Himyarites was pagan and polytheistic in the period 270-375 CE and Jewish or Judaistic monotheism in the period 375-525 CE when they "fell under the influence of Jewish proselytizers" [10] and by the late 4th century CE were rapidly converting from their pagan polytheistic belief system to monotheistic religious doctrines. [6] "There is significant archaeological evidence of the abandonment of pagan temples toward the conclusion of the fourth century and of the almost complete disappearance of expressions of devotion to the old tribal gods shortly thereafter." [11] _Pagan_ 1. King "Southerners worshiped a triad of sun, star and moon gods, and their kings in early times also served as priests." [12] 2. Priest3. Lower priests 3. Financial officialCollected, managed tithe revenue 3. Dancing girls 3. Sacred park managerMinaeans first millennium BCE: "Carvings in the temple ruins of al-Hazm, provincial capital of al-Jawf, represent suspended vessels, probably wine offerings, gazelles and other sacrificial animals, snakes which were divine symbols, dancing girls who were temple servants, and ostriches evidently kept in sacred parks." [8] [1]: (Hoyland 2001, 139) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London. [2]: (Hoyland 2001, 140) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London. [3]: (Hitti 2002, 60-61) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. [4]: (Hitti 2002, 56) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. [5]: (Finegan 1965, 478) Jack Finegan. 1965. The Archaeology of World Religions. Volume 3. Princeton University Press. [6]: (Kaye 2007, 168) L E Kogan. A V Korotayev. Epigraphic South Arabian Morphology. Alan S Kaye ed. 2007. Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. [7]: (Hoyland 2001, 126) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London. [8]: (Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. [9]: (Korotayev 1996, 65-66) Andrey Vitalyevhich Korotayev. 1996. Pre-Islamic Yemen. Socio-political Organization of the Sabaean Cultural Area in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD. Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden. [10]: (Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. [11]: (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. [12]: (16-17) Ted Byfield ed. 2004. The Christians. Their First Two Thousand Years. The Sword of Islam: A.D. 565 to 740 : the Muslim Onslaught All But Destroys Christendom. Christian History Project. |
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levels.
Shaman-like religious leaders. |
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levels.
Shaman-like religious leaders. |
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levels.
Many religions. |
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levels.
Estimate based on Buddhist and Jain hierarchies known from other polities |
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levels. Copied from IqUrIII.
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levels.
In the later Uruk phase "Urban Revolution" c3800-3000 BCE that the following quote refers to religious ideology became more complex, so can infer still low level religious complexity in this period: "Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality." [1] [1]: (Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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_Zoroastrianism_ "or more exactly Mazdaism"
[1]
Third-century CE Zoroastrian two priests were highly influential in the development of Zoroastrianism as the Sasanid state religion (three if we include Pabag, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, who was a priest). Kerdir "may be considered the father of the Zoroastrian church in this period, as he was the one who attempted to make Zoroastrianism into a uniform body, with a unified doctrine, attached to the state." [2] "The Sasanian sources state that Tosar was responsible for the codification of the Avesta ... Kerdir brought about the organization of the church and a religious hierarchy." [2] 1. King of Kings (until Shapur II) 2. Ohrmaz mowbed (chief priest) [3] mowbedan mowbed [4] mowbedan mowbed was the "head of the religious order" [4] Kerdir was one powerful Zoroastrian priest, caretaker of the Anahid fire temple at time of Wahram II (274-293 CE). [5] "When Sassanid kings were raised to the throne they received the insignia of royal authority from the chief Mobedh who held the highest religious office." [6] 3. mowbed (district level) (head priest) [4] "important functions and carried out legal as well as religious and administrative duties. [4] 4. mow/mogThe magus (mow/mog) had a higher status and later was also involved in economic and legal matters. Above him was the chief magus (mowbed), who held an important position and was probably the main religious authority throughout the empire." [7] 4-5. herbeds (teacher priests) [4] "instructed the people in daily ritual, prayer, and tradition and tended the fire." "Three major fire-temples were established for the three classes ... Smaller fire-temples existed in the villages and towns, attended by a teacher-priest (herbed)." [7] "Magians had a hierarchy parallel to that of the state, a hierarchical judicial administration specifically for Zoroastrians, a cult, scriptures, religious laws, and distinctive customs. It was the religion of the elite and rulers." [8] Eight different priests required for some Zoroastrian rituals e.g. vispered ritual and the videvad sade purification ritual "who took up specific positions in the ritual area, also described in the Nirangestan." [9] haoma-pressing priest (hawanan) fire-lighting priest (atr-wakhsh) presenting priest (frabertar) tending priest, who brings water (abert or danu-uzwaza, which refers to the river Danu) washing priest (asnatar) mingling priest (raethwish-kar) auditing priest (sraoshawarz) one who brings sacrificial animal (pasu-wazah) Comprehensive source on Zoroastrian religion: Moazami (2016) "Zoroastrianism: Religious texts, theology, history and culture." [10] _Nestorian Christianity_ "first synod of the Nestorian Church was convened in 410" during reign of Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE). [11] "Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon; he and the Jewish exilarch became responsible for their coreligionists." [11] "The Sasanian state used the churches as intermediaries to regulate and tax the population." [12] 1. Patriach "Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon". [11] the Sasanid king "organized a Christian Persian church that grew in number, and many in the royal family and the nobility, especially the women, gravitated toward this religion." [13] 2. Catholicos in province"The Christian community was headed by the Catholicos" [4] "The Catholicos in each province oversaw the Christian congregation and provided money and guidance for the community." [13] 3. Metropolitan"The Sasanians appointed a catholicos or patriarch and a metropolitan to preside over the bishops in parallel with the Sasanian administrative hierarchy." [8] 4. Bishops of Bishoprics"According to al-Biruni, Christianity had reached Merv within 200 years of the birth of Christ and the first reference to a Merv bishopric dates to the year 334." [14] 5. Heads of Churches"by the end of the Sasanian period there were churches and bishoprics established throughout the empire, and many from the royal family also converted to Christianity." [4] "Royal permission was required for the election of the heads of churches, for construction of buildings, for burials, and even for the issue of monastic rules." [12] 6. _Judaism_ 1. Exilarch (Resh Galut) [11] 2. Rabbis [11] 3. _Buddhism_ "The Buddhas of Bamiyan and a number of Iranian texts in the Sogdian and Khotanese languages are testaments to the importance of Buddhism in eastern Iran." [13] _Manicheanism_ "Manicheans moved east and westward, through some still remained in Iran, to write down their tradition and spread it among all people." [13] Manichaean community in Merv mid-3rd CE. [14] [1]: (Daryaee 2012, 204) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [2]: (Daryaee 2012, 188-189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Daryaee 2009) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. [4]: (Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [5]: (Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. [6]: (Haussig 1971, 186) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. [7]: (Daryaee 2012, 189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [8]: (Lapidus 2012, 16) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [9]: (Skjaervo 2012, 89) Skjaervo, Prods Oktor. Avestan Society. in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [10]: Moazami, Mahnaz. 2016. Zoroastrianism: Religious texts, theology, history and culture. Encylopaedia Iranica. http://www.biblioiranica.info/zoroastrianism-religious-texts-theology-history-and-culture/ [11]: (Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [12]: (Lapidus 2012, 18) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [13]: (Daryaee 2012, 205) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [14]: (Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 474) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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_Zoroastrianism_ "or more exactly Mazdaism"
[1]
Third-century CE Zoroastrian two priests were highly influential in the development of Zoroastrianism as the Sasanid state religion (three if we include Pabag, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, who was a priest). Kerdir "may be considered the father of the Zoroastrian church in this period, as he was the one who attempted to make Zoroastrianism into a uniform body, with a unified doctrine, attached to the state." [2] "The Sasanian sources state that Tosar was responsible for the codification of the Avesta ... Kerdir brought about the organization of the church and a religious hierarchy." [2] 1. King of Kings (until Shapur II) 2. Ohrmaz mowbed (chief priest) [3] mowbedan mowbed [4] mowbedan mowbed was the "head of the religious order" [4] "When Sassanid kings were raised to the throne they received the insignia of royal authority from the chief Mobedh who held the highest religious office." [5] 3. mowbed (district level) (head priest) [4] "important functions and carried out legal as well as religious and administrative duties. [4] 4. mow/mogThe magus (mow/mog) had a higher status and later was also involved in economic and legal matters. Above him was the chief magus (mowbed), who held an important position and was probably the main religious authority throughout the empire." [6] 4-5. herbeds (teacher priests) [4] "instructed the people in daily ritual, prayer, and tradition and tended the fire." "Three major fire-temples were established for the three classes ... Smaller fire-temples existed in the villages and towns, attended by a teacher-priest (herbed)." [6] "Magians had a hierarchy parallel to that of the state, a hierarchical judicial administration specifically for Zoroastrians, a cult, scriptures, religious laws, and distinctive customs. It was the religion of the elite and rulers." [7] Eight different priests required for some Zoroastrian rituals e.g. vispered ritual and the videvad sade purification ritual "who took up specific positions in the ritual area, also described in the Nirangestan." [8] haoma-pressing priest (hawanan) fire-lighting priest (atr-wakhsh) presenting priest (frabertar) tending priest, who brings water (abert or danu-uzwaza, which refers to the river Danu) washing priest (asnatar) mingling priest (raethwish-kar) auditing priest (sraoshawarz) one who brings sacrificial animal (pasu-wazah) Comprehensive source on Zoroastrian religion: Moazami (2016) "Zoroastrianism: Religious texts, theology, history and culture." [9] _Nestorian Christianity_ "first synod of the Nestorian Church was convened in 410" during reign of Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE). [10] "Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon; he and the Jewish exilarch became responsible for their coreligionists." [10] "The Sasanian state used the churches as intermediaries to regulate and tax the population." [11] 1. Patriach "Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon". [10] the Sasanid king "organized a Christian Persian church that grew in number, and many in the royal family and the nobility, especially the women, gravitated toward this religion." [12] 2. Catholicos in province"The Christian community was headed by the Catholicos" [4] "The Catholicos in each province oversaw the Christian congregation and provided money and guidance for the community." [12] 3. Metropolitan"The Sasanians appointed a catholicos or patriarch and a metropolitan to preside over the bishops in parallel with the Sasanian administrative hierarchy." [7] 4. Bishops of Bishoprics"According to al-Biruni, Christianity had reached Merv within 200 years of the birth of Christ and the first reference to a Merv bishopric dates to the year 334." [13] 5. Heads of Churches"by the end of the Sasanian period there were churches and bishoprics established throughout the empire, and many from the royal family also converted to Christianity." [4] "Royal permission was required for the election of the heads of churches, for construction of buildings, for burials, and even for the issue of monastic rules." [11] 6. From the 4th century: "religions communities were organized as legal corporations owning property; maintaining courts; regulating marriages, divorces and inheritances; and through their chiefs, holding responsibility to the state for taxes and discipline." [7] _Judaism_ 1. Exilarch (Resh Galut) [10] 2. Rabbis [10] 3. _Buddhism_ "The Buddhas of Bamiyan and a number of Iranian texts in the Sogdian and Khotanese languages are testaments to the importance of Buddhism in eastern Iran." [12] _Manicheanism_ "Manicheans moved east and westward, through some still remained in Iran, to write down their tradition and spread it among all people." [12] Manichaean community in Merv mid-3rd CE. [13] [1]: (Daryaee 2012, 204) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [2]: (Daryaee 2012, 188-189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Daryaee 2009) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. [4]: (Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [5]: (Haussig 1971, 186) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. [6]: (Daryaee 2012, 189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [7]: (Lapidus 2012, 16) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [8]: (Skjaervo 2012, 89) Skjaervo, Prods Oktor. Avestan Society. in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [9]: Moazami, Mahnaz. 2016. Zoroastrianism: Religious texts, theology, history and culture. Encylopaedia Iranica. http://www.biblioiranica.info/zoroastrianism-religious-texts-theology-history-and-culture/ [10]: (Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [11]: (Lapidus 2012, 18) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [12]: (Daryaee 2012, 205) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [13]: (Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 474) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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1. Pope
Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. [1] 1. Patriarch of Constantinople "Patriarchs were elected by the standing synod in Constantinople, which presented three names to the emperor. He was entitled to choose one of these, or, if unable to accept any of the candidates, to choose the new patriarch himself." [2] Five Patriarchs (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem). 2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." [2] "The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." [2] 3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops [1] "Chorepiskopoi (literally ’country bishops’) were assigned to rural communities and were subject to a bishop in a nearby city." [2] "After the fourth century, the powers and functions of chorepiskopoi were gradually restricted and they were allowed only to ordain clerics of the lower orders. After the second Council of Nicaea (787) which prohibited them from ordaining even readers (anagnostai) without episcopal assent (canon 14), this separate episcopal rank began to disappear (Jugie 1904)." [2] 3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." [2] 4. Deacon"Deacon (diakonos, ’servant’)" [3] "Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." [4] 4. Deaconess (diakonissa)Become more and more rare, would be of equal rank as deacon. [1] "The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." [4] 5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." [5] 6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." [5] 7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." [5] "Hagia Sophia alone had 60 priests, 100 deacons, 40 deaconesses (infirmarians), 90 sub-deacons, 110 readers, 25 singers (psaltai) and 100 door-keepers." [6] Chair of St Peter. [6] End 6th century: "patriarchal sees in Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Rome were occupied by monks." [7] Not true, Patriarchs come from various backgrounds. [8] "In Constantinople and other big cities of the Empire there were monastries whose monks were engaged in publicist activity in support of imperial policy. Commissioned by the Emperor they composed letters and polemic in various languages." [9] [1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication) [2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Cunningham 2008, 530) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [4]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [5]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [6]: (Haussig 1971, 79) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. [7]: (Haussig 1971, 83) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. [8]: (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences. Personal Communication [9]: (Haussig 1971, 252) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. |
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Note on Byzantine monks: "Monks took a leading role not only in determining theology but in shaping a whole view of Christian life that had lasting effects on the Byzantine church."
[1]
Early 10th CE in Constantinople the church hierarchy "was dominated by monks" who "tended to enjoy the greatest spiritual authority, first for their opposition to Iconoclasm and later for their personal sanctity". Their influence increased with the formation of large monasteries such as Theodore’s Monastery of Studius, in Constantinople, and those of Mount Olympus in Bithynia, Mount Latrus (near Ephesus) and Mount Athos (near Thessalonica). "Monks on mountains were far enough from the world to escape many of its distractions, but close enough to influence it."
[2]
1. Pope Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. [3] 1. Patriarch of Constantinople "Patriarchs were elected by the standing synod in Constantinople, which presented three names to the emperor. He was entitled to choose one of these, or, if unable to accept any of the candidates, to choose the new patriarch himself." [4] Five Patriarchs (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem). 2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." [4] "The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." [4] 3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops [3] "Chorepiskopoi (literally ’country bishops’) were assigned to rural communities and were subject to a bishop in a nearby city." [4] "After the fourth century, the powers and functions of chorepiskopoi were gradually restricted and they were allowed only to ordain clerics of the lower orders. After the second Council of Nicaea (787) which prohibited them from ordaining even readers (anagnostai) without episcopal assent (canon 14), this separate episcopal rank began to disappear (Jugie 1904)." [4] 3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." [4] 4. Deacon"Deacon (diakonos, ’servant’)" [5] "Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." [6] 4. Deaconess (diakonissa)Become more and more rare, would be of equal rank as deacon. [3] "The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." [6] 5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." [7] 6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." [7] 7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." [7] [1]: (Treadgold 1997, 555) Treadgold, Warren. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. [2]: (Treadgold 1997, 554-555) Treadgold, Warren. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. [3]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication) [4]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [5]: (Cunningham 2008, 530) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [6]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [7]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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1) King (Ahosu); 2) Aplogan (in charge of all cults); 3) Dangbe priesthood. It is likely there were further, finer, gradations of seniority in the priesthood and cults, but there are no clear descriptions available in the literature. “Understanding of the distribution of political power in Whydah also requires consideration of the sphere of religion, which both legitimated and circumscribed the actions of the ruling elite. The most important national cult in Whydah was that of the god Dangbe (incarnated in the royal python), which was celebrated by annual public processions to the principal Dangbe shrine. Dangbe was primarily concerned with regulation of the weather and of agricultural fertility, but was also invoked for political purposes, "on all occasions relating to their government." Some European accounts imply that the worship of Dangbe was controlled by the king, the head of the cult being an official of the royal palace. It appears, however, that the Dangbe priesthood had rather more autonomy vis-a-vis the king than this suggests, since other evidence shows that King Agbangla in the 1690s expressed resentment at the scale of offerings which he was obliged to make to the cult and sought to reduce the expense which they involved. There was also a publicly celebrated cult of the deceased kings of the royal dynasty, with annual processions to offer sacrifices at their tombs. These did not, however, attain the elaboration of the comparable "Annual Customs" of the kingdom of Dahomey later, where these rather than the worship of any of the gods constituted the principal national religious ceremony. The "Annual Customs" in Whydah are mentioned only in a single contemporary account, and were clearly of much less political significance than the cult of the snake god Dangbe.”
[1]
“The most important of the Whydah chiefs had the titles of Gogan and Aplogan, which were also those of the highest-ranking officials in the later kingdom of Porto-Novo. In Porto-Novo the Gogan was the head of the royal lineage (and as such, conducted the ceremony of the king’s own installation) and the Aplogan had general charge of the community’s religious cults, and these may well also have been the functions of their namesakes in Whydah. In addition to their specific individual functions, the more important chiefs also served as hereditary governors of the component villages of the Whydah kingdom: the Gogan and the Aplogan, for example, served as governors respectively of the important settlements of Paon and Gome, both in the north of the kingdom.”
[2]
[1]: Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 209. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection [2]: Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 207–208. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection |
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levels.
Sivaism, Vishnuism, Jainism, Buddhism - and their different schools "penetrated Central Asia" from India where there was Zoroastrianism, Greek divinities, pre-Zoroastrian cults, and ancient Iranian religions of the horseriding nomads. [1] Kushan rulers had "a liberal and tolerant attitude to all religions." [2] "The Kushan rulers patronized religious cults to assert their legitimacy in power of the conquered sedentary societies". [3] "religious cults appeared on the coins - the dynastic symbol - to indicate religious devotion of a particular king. A variety of gods and cults were documented on Kushan coins - the Sumerian goddess Nana on her lion, Persian gods Oado and Atash, Indian cults of Buddha and Shiva. Zoroastrian fire worship left many remains." [3] _Sivaism_ 1. King "it seems that originally the divine patron of the Kushan dynasty was the ancient Iranian moon god. In view of the close connection between Siva and the moon, dynastic religious ideas may have also suggested to Vima [Kadphises] the choice of Siva as his divine patron." [4] 2. Syncretic religious cult which "apparently combined Greek, Iranian and non-Sivaite Indian elements." [5] _Dynastic protector religion_ 1. King 2. Bakanapati (temple-keeper) [6] "a network of imperial temples dedicated to the divine protectors of the dynasty, where statues of the royal ancestors were also erected". [7] "The main source of their legitimacy was no doubt the divinity of claim to their kingdom. Rulers of Kushans were called ’Son of God’ or the ’Son of Heaven’ ... the worship of heaven, prevailed in many tribes of the steppe. Kushan probably, like other tribes, claim the legitimacy of the chief deity of the sky." [3] Inscription in the Rabatak temple lists gods ’from whom the king as obtained kingship.’ Five are Zoroastrian but two are not. [8] Muzhdwan "is portrayed as a Yuezhi rider with a typical Scythian hooded cap, and it seems reasonable to suppose that Kanishka took this personal protector from his own stock of family gods." [8] Terracotta figurines of horsemen with pointy caps are found at Kushan-Bactrian sites and usually assigned to category of ’rider gods’ or ’heroized ancestors.’ [9] Umma was a goddess ("not to be confused with the Indian goddess Uma who is shown on some later coins") whose Iranian name means ’highest’ or ’supreme’. The Rabatak inscription said she was "welcoming in her presence all the other gods named here." Scythians had a goddess called Tabiti (Herodotus) who might fit her description as a "bestower of power". [9] A terracotta of Umma found in a former Yuezhi territory showed her with "strikingly Yuezhi facial features." [9] "The family temple (Devakula Sanskrit) of the Kushan royal family was where protective deity or deities should be worshiped ... The deification of the ruler which was so prevalent in the Roman and Hellenistic world as well as among the Iranians was thus introduced into India and left a mark on the future development of Hindu kingship." [3] _Vishnuism_ 1. 2. _Jainism_ 1. 2. _Zoroastrianism_ 1. 2.3.4. "the pantheon shown on Kushan coins belongs almost entrely to the Zoroastrian religion - which was the religion of the local populatn of Bactria at least from the Achaemenian period - though the iconographic types were mostly borrowed from Greece and India." [8] _Buddhism_ 1. 2.3.4. Kanishka I (128-150 CE): "Several traditions indicate that Kanishka sponsored the fourth Buddhist Council meeting at Jalandhar, which gave birth to Mahayana Buddhism." [10] Mahayana Buddhism introduced new deities - bodhisattvas - "to help others cross the ocean of suffering". Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvaras would help people in trouble and responded to donations. Other bodhisattvas included Maitreya and Amitabha who had paradises for Buddhists not yet able to reach nirvana. "The Mahayana vision of future lives was no doubt much more attractive to the pragmatically inclined. Rebirth into a beautiful heaven was much more desirable than reaching nirvana. For merchants, making donations was a much more satisfying and practical approach than self-denial. The gifts given in the name of the Buddha or bodhisattvas became the property of Buddhist monasteries." [11] "They were influenced by Buddhism to some extent but none of them actually converted to Buddhism. They patronized the Buddhist establishment and gave full respect to the Buddhist community and Buddhist religion, but continued to worship a large number of Iranian, Mesopotamian, and even some Indian deities." [12] _Hinduism_ 1. 2. "When the Kushans entered South Asia, they encountered both Brahmanism and Buddhism, and cults of both religions appeared on Kushan coins." [3] _Christianity_ 1. 2. "Later Armenian sources refer to the success of Iranian Christianity, spreading to the Kushan Empire and even into India, where it still survives (in Kerala)." [13] [1]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 321) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. [2]: (Samad 2011, 81) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing. [3]: Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya. [4]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 312) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. [5]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 322) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. [6]: B. N. Mukherjee, ’The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire’ (Calcutta, 1988), pp. 335-6/338 [7]: (Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University. [8]: (Grenet 2012, 17) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University. [9]: (Grenet 2012, 18) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University. [10]: (Samad 2011, 83) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing. [11]: (Liu 2010, 53) Liu, Xinru. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [12]: (Samad 2011, 88-89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing. [13]: (Ball 2016, 140) Ball, Warwick. 2016. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. |
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1. Caliph as head of the Sunni Muslim umma.
2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the muslim world. In theory the Caliphate and governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) and aesthetics (Sufis) increasingly attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths were not clearly hierarchical and all were equal before Allah. [1] [1]: Lapidus, History of Islamic Society p. 82,p. 215 |
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levels.
Yangdi "Extending his administrative control into the religious sphere, Yangdi ordered that a supervisor (jian) and an assistant supervisor (cheng) be assigned to each Buddhist monastery, now renamed daochang, and each Daoist abbey (guan), now renamed xuantan." [1] 1. Emperor 2. Supervisor (jian) 3 Assistant supervisor (cheng) [1]: (Xiong 2006, 114) |
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levels.
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levels.
Coded 4 for Akkadian period. "Ur-Nammu and his successors continued the tradition of deifying the ruling king. However, the king was not seen as a hero, like in the Akkadian period, but as a central cultic and administrative figure." [1] "The deified kings of Ur consequently replaced the city-gods as ultimate heads of the land.; [1]: (Leverani 2014, 157) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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levels.
1. King? "The Axum Empire was ruled by a divine monarch". [1] "Currency coined in the time of Ezana and his successors bore a Greek motto signifying ’May the country be satisfied!’ It is evident that this demagogic device reflects an official doctrine, the first traces of which may be discerned in the inscriptions of Ezana." [2] King Ezana was the last ruler of this period and the first ruler of the succeeding period. He changed the official state religion to Christianity. "Ancestor-cult, especially of dead kings, occupied an important place in the religion of the Aksumites. It was customary to dedicate stelae to them". [3] 2. Priest"Although information on the religion of the Aksumites is still extremely fragmentary, it may be considered a relatively developed religion, linked to a complicated ritual and a professional priesthood. During the early Aksumite period religious ideas from countries near and far penetrated into Ethiopia." [4] 3. "Symbols of the sun and moon are found on stelae from Axum, Matara and Anza, and on the coinage of the Axumite kings of pre-Christian times. They refer probably to Mahrem, the dynastic and ethnic deity of the Axumites. In the ’pagan’ bilingua of Ezana, the Mahrem of the Ethiopian text is given the Greek name, Ares. All the ’pagan’ Greek inscriptions of the Axumite kings, with the exception of the Sembrythes’ inscriptions in which the name of the god is absent, use the name Ares. As is well known, the Athenian Ares was worshipped as the god of war. It follows, then, that his double, Mahrem, was also worshipped as the god of war. In the Axumite inscriptions Ares-Mahrem, in his capacity of War-god, is termed ’invincible’, ’unconquerable by his enemies’ and ensuring victory. In is capacity as the ethnic progenitor, Ares is called the ’god of the Axumites’ in the inscriptions from Abba-Pantalewon. As the dynastic deity, the kings called Mahrem-Ares their ’greatest god’, ancestor of kings." [5] "Plainly discernible in the religion of Aksum are the characteristic features of early class ideology, that of a feudal society in the process of formation. The Aksumites offered sacrifices to their gods. Domestic animals constituted the bulk of these offerings. One of Ezana’s inscriptions records that a dozen oxen were offered up to Mahrem at a single sacrifice. According to ancient Semitic custom, some kinds of donation for sacrifice were brought in ritually immaculate clothing; for others this was not obligatory. But already in the pre-Aksumite period the living sacrificial animal was supplanted by its consecrated image. Bronze and stone images of sacrificial bulls, rams and other animals, many bearing inscriptions, have been preserved." [3] "A recently excavated monumental building at Berit Awde, to the north of Aksum, apparently contains a royal grave, and evidence for possible human sacrifice". [6] "Sacrifices were brought to the altars and to the pedestals of stelae carved in the form of altars, and the blood of the sacrifices flowed down into hollows hewn in the form of bowls. The graves of Aksumite kings were regarded as the city’s holy places. Vessels and other objects found in burial grounds indicate belief in a life beyond the grave." [4] [1]: (Newman et al. 1997, 231) Mark Newman. Lanny B Fields. Russell J Barber. Cheryl A Riggs. 1997. The Global Past: Prehistory to 1500. Macmillan Higher Education. [2]: (Kobishanov 1981, 394) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California. [3]: (Kobishanov 1981, 396) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California. [4]: (Kobishanov 1981) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California. [5]: (Kobishanov 1990, 221) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1990. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Abridged Edition. James Currey. UNESCO. California. [6]: (Finneran 2007, 164) Niall Finneran. 2007. The Archaeology of Ethiopia. Routledge. |
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No information found in sources.
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levels.
Same as earlier period as no new information to code higher. |
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levels.
(2) Prophets leading New Religious Movements; (1) Local ceremonial specialists (Keepers of the Faith) and shamans (False Face Societies) Religious specialists were generally village-based: ’Full time religious specialists were absent, however, there were part-time male and female specialists known as Keepers of the Faith whose primary responsibilities were to arrange and conduct the main religious ceremonies. Keepers of the Faith were appointed by matrisib elders and were accorded considerable prestige.’ [1] ’Part time religious specialists known as Keepers of the Faith served in part to censure anti-social behavior. Unconfessed witches detected through council proceedings were punished with death, while those who confessed might be allowed to reform.’ [1] ’Illness and disease were attributed to supernatural causes. Curing ceremonies consisted of group shamanistic practices directed towards propitiating the responsible supernatural agents. One of the curing groups was the False Face Society. False Face Societies were found in each village and, except for a female Keeper of the False Faces who protected the ritual paraphernalia, consisted only of male members who had dreamed of participation in False Face ceremonies.’ [1] From 1800 onwards, new religious movements with a nativist orientation emerged under the trans-local leadership of prophets: ’Around 1800 a Seneca sachem named Handsome Lake received a series of visions which he believed showed the way for the Iroquois to regain their lost cultural integrity and promised supernatural aid to all those who followed him. The Handsome Lake religion emphasized many traditional elements of Iroquoian culture, but also incorporated Quaker beliefs and aspects of White culture.’ [1] ’About the time Christian missions were being established among the Senecas, there was developing among them what later came to be called the “new religion of Handsome Lake.” In June 1799 the Seneca chief known by the chiefly name of Handsome Lake, who had been born at Canawaugas on the Genesee River 64 years before but was then living at the settlement of his half brother, Cornplanter on the Allegheny River, had the first of a series of visions. In this and subsequent visions, the messengers from the Creator (there were four such messengers) appeared to Handsome Lake. They told him what the Creator wished the Iroquois to do, and these messages Handsome Lake duly communicated to his people.’ [2] ’Handsome Lake preached on Cornplanter’s Grant until a quarrel with his half-brother led him and his followers to move to Coldspring on the Allegany Reservation in 1803. A worsening political position at Coldspring induced Handsome Lake to move to Tonawanda where he continued to preach. He died in 1815 on a visit to Onondaga.’ [2] ’The Code of Handsome Lake, called káiwi[unknown] yo[unknown] h ‘thegood message’, touched on many aspects of life and included the admonitions that the Iroquois should not drink, that witchcraft should stop, that abortion and adultery should cease, that children and old people should be treated kindly and taken care of, and that the Four Sacred Rituals (the Four Sacred Ceremonies)--Feather Dance, Thanksgiving Dance, Personal Chant,and Bowl Game--should continue to be given (see also“Origins of the Longhouse Religion,” this vol.).’ [3] ’After his death, the various teachings of Handsome Lake were codified and the preaching of them became an annual event. The Tonawanda Seneca were designated as the “firekeepers” of the new religion, and each year the Tonawanda Longhouse still sends out invitations to the other Longhouses requesting them to come to Tonawanda to hear the Code of Handsome Lake preached there.It is subsequently preached in a biennial circuit that includes the Coldspring Longhouse on the Allegany Reservation one year and the Newtown Longhouse onthe Cattaraugus Reservation the other (see “IroquoisSince 1820,” this vol.).’ [3] Christian attempts at proselytization were initially largely unsuccessful: ’In the early decades of the nineteenth century, variousministers visited the Onondaga and other efforts weremade to convert them, with only limited success. In 1816Eleazar Williams, an adopted Mohawk catechist and layreader (see “Oneida,” this vol.), visited the Onondagas. Inthat and the following year, a few Onondagas were [Page 497] baptized by Episcopalian clergymen, and subsequentlysome attended the church at Onondaga Hill (Clark 1849,1:238-240). About the same time, a local Presbyterian minister also proselytized among the Onondagas, and in1821 there were said to be 34 who professed Christianityin the Presbyterian form of worship. In 1820 a schooltaught by a Stockbridge woman opened, but the teacherdied a few years later (J. Morse 1822:323-324, 394; Clark1849, 1:240-241). About 1828 a Quaker opened anindustrial school and stayed for six or seven years(Fletcher 1888:551). Nevertheless, there remained considerableopposition to Christian missionaries, and aftera Methodist church was established at Oneida in 1829, Indian exhorters rather than ministers were appointed tovisit Onondaga as the Onondagas remained hostile toChristianity (Clark 1849, 1:241).’ [4] The most dramatic phase of Christianization was the mid-century period: ’Most Iroqueis were non-Christian in 1820; however, by 1860 most had become Christian. The spread of Christianity was accsnpanied by a number of intorrolated eausal facters.’ [5] ’During the transformation peried from 1785-1850, when the Six Nations became an agrarian society, two criteria of economical prestige developed. First, missionaries extolled the rural homestead farmer as the ideal. However, the Protestant Ethic required a material accumulation not a redistribution of goods. Consequently, an agrarian lifestyle characterized by use of fashionable European attire and goods, settlement in grand houses, use of linens instead of mats, grain consumption and acceptance into white society, became the acquisitive ideal for the economic elite. However, many Iroquois considered white society to be superficial.’ [6] Both Christianity and the Handsome Lake religion relied on supra-local forms of organization, but until the early 19th century, village-based practices were probably predominant. Given the cultural significance of New Religious Movements in colonial settings, we have chosen to include them in the code. [1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: Abler, Thomas S., and Elisabeth Tooker 1978. “Seneca”, 510 [3]: Abler, Thomas S., and Elisabeth Tooker 1978. “Seneca”, 511 [4]: Blau, Harold, Jack Campisi, and Elisabeth Tooker 1978. “Onondaga”, 496 [5]: Foley, Denis 1994. “Ethnohistoric And Ethnographic Analysis Of The Iroquois From The Aboriginal Era To The Present Suburban Era”, 182 [6]: Foley, Denis 1994. “Ethnohistoric And Ethnographic Analysis Of The Iroquois From The Aboriginal Era To The Present Suburban Era”, 153 |
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‘High office in one of the gozan monasteries brought distinction to a monk, his family, and patrons. Clearly, many monks wanted the title of abbot or senior administrator but not the obligations that went with the office. Finding and maintaining talented monastic leadership thus remained a critical problem for the gozan institution and its secular sponsors. And the problem was compounded by the fact that the shogunate collected a fee each time it issued a certificate of appointment to an abbot.’
[1]
[1]: Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press [sixth edition]. p.544 |
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levels.
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levels.
Earliest evidence for the existence of ritual specialists dates to this period. |
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King as divine ruler, especially encouraged by Philip IV who was the first of the Valois kings.
Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France 1. King as divine ruler, especially encouraged by Philip IV who was the first of the Valois kings. 1. Pope Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. [1] 2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." [2] "The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." [2] 3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops [1] 3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." [2] 4. Deacon"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." [3] 4. Deaconess (diakonissa)"The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." [3] 5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." [4] 6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." [4] 7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." [4] [1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication) [2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [4]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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levels.
Buddhist religion "Many daimyō took along Buddhist priests as army chaplains. They would perform religious services and could also be counted on to perform funerary nembutsu, the ritual of calling on the name of Amida Buddha. They might even advance at great risk to their own lives during the midst of battle to offer nembutsu to the spirits of those who had just died. They also provided memorial services, and would perform the useful act of visiting relatives of the slain and reporting deeds back to the home temple." [1] Based on previous periods: 1. Master 2. Disciple [1]: (Turnbull 2008) |
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levels.
[1]
<: 1. Pope :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Bishops :::: 4. Abbots ::::: 5. Chaplains
[1]: (Fichtner 2017: xxi) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K |
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Caliph
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levels.
In the later Uruk phase "Urban Revolution" c3800-3000 BCE that the following quote refers to religious ideology became more complex, so can infer still low level religious complexity in this period: "Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality." [1] [1]: (Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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“Il re occupa di fatto una posizione strategica di intermediario fra la sfera divina e quella umana. Partecipa a modo suo, pur non essendo divinizzato, a entrambe le condizioni: umano e divino, svolge nelle pratiche rituali un ruolo di spicco, come sacerdote della divinta’ poliade, as esempio di Astarte a Sidone o della Baalat Gubal a Biblo.”
[1]
TRANSLATION: “The ruler occupied a strategic intermediary position between the divine sphere and the human. Though he was not himself a god, he did in his own way partake of both spheres: human and god-like, the ruler played a prominent role in ritual, and was seen as the chief priest in charge of his city’s patron deity, such as Astarte in Sidonia and Baalat Gubal in Biblos.” "Gli uffici del culto regolare, invece, erano affidati a un apposito personale, che le iscrizioni ci mostrano strutturato gerarchicamente e articolato in vari livello di ministero. Nei vari culti il clero era guidato da un sommo sacerdote e comprendeva, oltre agli altri sacerdoti e alle sacerdotesse, una schiera numerosa di personale minore, dai macellatori ai profumieri, dagli scribi agli schiavi. [...] Due cariche sembrano di particolare importanza: quella del ’sacrificatore’, probabilmente scelto con incarico pubblico e rinnovabile, dai compiti forse analoghi al ruolo del mageiros nella religione greca; e quella, meno chiara, del mqmlm, forse il sacredote ’risuscitatore della divinita’, frequente nelle inscrizioni di Cartagine, Cipro, Rodi, Tripolitania. Conosciamo anche l’esistenza di collegi sacerdotali e associazioni a sfondo religioso."
[2]
TRANSLATION: "Regular cult duties fell under the purview of specialised personnel, which, according to inscriptions, was organised hierarchically. Religious personnel was led by a chief priest and, besides regular priests and priestesses, it also included a host of minor figures, such as butchers, perfumers, scribes, and slaves. [...] It seems that two roles were particularly important among the clergy: the ’sacrificer’, possibly a publicly elected and renewable office, possibly one similar to that of a Greek mageiros; inscriptions found in Carthage, Cyprus, Rodes, and Tripolitania often mention the mqmlm, whose function is less clear than the sacrificer’s, though he may have been tasked with ’reviving the deity’. We also know of the existence of priestly assemblies and religious associations."
(1) King; (2) Chief priest;(3) Sacrificer and mqmlm, perhaps;(4) other priests and priestesses;(5) minor temple personnel (e.g. butchers, perfumers, scribes);(6) temple slaves. [1]: Bonnet, C. 2004. I Fenici p. 102. Roma: Carrocci. [2]: Ribichini, S. 1988. Le credenze e la vita religiosa. In Moscati, S. (ed) I Fenici pp. 104-125. Milano: Bompiani. |
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levels.(1) Shamans
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levels. Islam. "In former times the people of this country professed paganism until the year 469/1076-1077 when Yahya b. Abu Bakr the amir of Masufa made his appearance."
[1]
_after 1077 CE_ 1. King "For the sake of administrative support, legitimization, and commercial contacts, the rulers of Kawkaw, Takrur, Ghana, and Bornu adopted Islam in the late tenth and eleventh centuries. Islam became an imperial cult and the religion of state and trading elites, while the agricultural populations maintained their traditional beliefs." [2] 2. Imams"mosques and religious functionaries including imams, muezzins, Quran reciters, and scholars. The Muslims provided the ruler with interpreters and officials." [3] 3. Muezzins? _until 1077 CE_ 1. King "Their religion is paganism and the worship of idols. When their king dies they construct over the place where his tomb will be an enormous dome of acacia wood." [4] 2. Sorcerers"In the king’s town and not far from his court of justice, is a mosque where the Muslims who arrive at his court pray. Around the king’s town are domed buildings and groves and thickets where the sorcerers of these people, men in charge of the religious cult, live." [5] ?. Heads of clans"the basic social and political unit appears in the past to have been the small local group, bound together by ties of kinship. When a number of groups came together they formed a clan. The heads of local clans were usually responsible for certain religious rites connected with the land." [6] King was supreme judge "Au sommet de l’État, on a le roi; on le désigne sous plusieurs appellations « Kaya Maghan » qui signifie roi de l’or en langue Ouakaré, « Tounka » qui veut dire Seigneur ou Dieu. Ses pouvoirs étaient très étendus: il était le juge suprême. Il rendait la justice en tenant compte de l’appartenance religieuse. Ses sujets qui dans l’ensemble appartenaient à la religion traditionnelle étaient jugés selon la coutume,les musulmans, eux, l’étaient sur la base du Coran." At the top of the state, was the King; means the under several names "Kaya Maghan" meaning gold king in language Ouakaré "Tounka" meaning Lord or God. His powers were very extensive: he was the supreme judge. He dispensed justice in the light of religious affiliation. His subjects in all belonged to the traditional religion were judged according to custom, Muslims, themselves, were based on the Koran. [7] [1]: (Al-Zuhri c1130-1155 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 24-25) [2]: (Lapidus 2012, 590) [3]: (Lapidus 2012, 591) [4]: (Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 16) [5]: (Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 15) [6]: (Bovill 1958, 53) [7]: (Kabore, P. http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/) |
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levels. Political and religious institutions are thought to be essentially identical for the Central Mexican Highlands Late/Terminal Formative, such that political power was inherently theocratic.
[1]
[2]
[3]
At least 3 hierarchical levels of religious institutions can be discerned for Cuicuilco. First, formal religious ritual at the household/house-group level (i.e. local corporate/Kin groups, the the basal units of exchange and production) is ubiquitous for the Central Mexican Highlands Late/Terminal Formative, and these are thought to have organized the basal level of the political economy. This has been inferred from the ubiquitous household/house-group shrines and ritual offerings, which are associated with senior lineage houses in house compounds. Compared to junior lineage houses, senior lineage houses also have higher quantities of prestige goods, food storage, obsidian/lithic production, burials, larger houses/rooms, greater architectural quality and ornamentation, and greater occupational time depth. Given that these same ritual tropes are replicated at higher hierarchical levels, it has been inferred that senior lineage religious-ritual authority in access to ancestors was the basis of political-economic authority at the basal house-group (kin/corporate group) level.
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[3]
[11]
[2]
Second, formal settlement- or community-level religious rituals (i.e. wider groupings of hierarchically-ordered kin/corporate-groups) were associated with feasting sponsored by religious/political elites, ritual labor service (production/construction), and sacrificial offerings. Evidence for these religious institutions are centered on settlements’ ceremonial precincts (temples and plazas), which directly associate them with the priestly elite and the political economy.
[2]
[3]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[9]
[10]
[15]
[1]
(1) Community- or settlement-wide (possibly polity-wide) religious institutions at ceremonial center(2) House group, corporate/kin-group religious institutions at senior lineage shrine [1]: Barba de Piña Chán, Beatriz. (1980). Tlapacoya: Los Principios de la Teocracia en la Cuenca de Mexico. Biblioteca Enciclopedica del Estado de Mexico, p.13-42, 95-142. [2]: Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2012). "Where East Meets West: The Formative in Mexico’s Central Highlands." Journal of Archaeological 20(1): 1-51 [3]: Carballo, David M. (2016). Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-215. [4]: Santley, Robert S. (1993). "Late Formative Period Society at Loma Torremote: A Consideration of the Redistribution vs. Great Provider Models as a Basis for the Emergence of Complexity in the Basin of Mexico." In Prehispanic Domestic Units in Western Mesoamerica: Studies of Household, Compound, and Residence, edited by Robert S. Santley and Kenneth G. Hirth, pp. 67-86. CRC Press, Boca Raton. [5]: Sanders, William T., Michael West, Charles Fletcher, and Joseph Marino. (1975). The Formative Period Occupation of the Valley, Parts 1 and 2. Occasional Papers in Anthropology, No. 10. Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park. [6]: Manzanilla, Linda. (1985). "El sito de Cuanalan en el marco de las comunidades pre-urbanas del Valle de Teotihuacan." In Mesoamérica y el entro de México, México, edited by J. Monjarás-Ruiz, E. Pérez Rocha and Roas Brambila, pp. 133-178. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City. [7]: Nichols, Deborah L., Charles D. Frederick, Luis Morrett Alatirrem, and Fernando Sanchez Martínez. (2006). "Water Management and Political Economy in Formative Period central Mexico." In Precolumbian Water Management: Ideology, Ritual, and Power, edited by Lisa J. Lucero and Barbara W. Fash, pp. 51-66. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. [8]: Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. (1998). Preclassic Household Patterns Preserved Under Volcanic Ash at Tetimpa, Puebla, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 9:287-309. [9]: Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2002). "Shrines, ancestors, and the volcanic landscape at Tetimpa, Puebla." In Domestic Ritual in Ancient Mesoamerica, edited by Patricia Plunket, pp. 31-42. Monograph 46, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology. University of California, Los Angeles. [10]: Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2005). "Recent Research in Puebla Prehistory." Journal of Archaeological Research 13:89-128. [11]: Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization. Academic Press, New York, pg. 305-34. [12]: Carballo, David M. (2013). "Labor Collectives and Group Cooperation in Pre-Hispanic Central Mexico." In David Carballo (Ed.) Cooperation and Collective Action: Archaeological Perspectives. Boulder: University of Colorado Press, pp.243-274. [13]: Carballo, D. M., Roscoe, P., & Feinman, G. M. (2014). "Cooperation and collective action in the cultural evolution of complex societies." Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 21(1), 98-133. [14]: Carballo, David M., et al. (2014). "Suprahousehold consumption and community ritual at La Laguna, Mexico." Antiquity 88.339 (2014): 141-159. [15]: Uruñuela Ladrón de Guevara, Gabriela, and Patricia Plunket Nagoda. (2001). "¿“De peidra ha de ser la cama …”? Las tumbas en el Formativo de Puebla-Tlaxcala y la Cuenca de México a partir de la evidencia de Tetimpa, Puebla." Arqueología 25:3-22. |
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levels. Political and religious institutions are thought to be essentially identical for the Central Mexican Highlands Late/Terminal Formative, such that political power was inherently theocratic.
[1]
[2]
[3]
At least 3 hierarchical levels of religious institutions can be discerned for Cuicuilco. First, formal religious ritual at the household/house-group level (i.e. local corporate/Kin groups, the the basal units of exchange and production) is ubiquitous for the Central Mexican Highlands Late/Terminal Formative, and these are thought to have organized the basal level of the political economy. This has been inferred from the ubiquitous household/house-group shrines and ritual offerings, which are associated with senior lineage houses in house compounds. Compared to junior lineage houses, senior lineage houses also have higher quantities of prestige goods, food storage, obsidian/lithic production, burials, larger houses/rooms, greater architectural quality and ornamentation, and greater occupational time depth. Given that these same ritual tropes are replicated at higher hierarchical levels, it has been inferred that senior lineage religious-ritual authority in access to ancestors was the basis of political-economic authority at the basal house-group (kin/corporate group) level.
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[3]
[11]
[2]
Second, formal settlement- or community-level religious rituals (i.e. wider groupings of hierarchically-ordered kin/corporate-groups) were associated with feasting sponsored by religious/political elites, ritual labor service (production/construction), and sacrificial offerings. Evidence for these religious institutions are centered on settlements’ ceremonial precincts (temples and plazas), which directly associate them with the priestly elite and the political economy.
[2]
[3]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[9]
[10]
[15]
[1]
(1) Community- or settlement-wide (possibly polity-wide) religious institutions at ceremonial center(2) House group, corporate/kin-group religious institutions at senior lineage shrine [1]: Barba de Piña Chán, Beatriz. (1980). Tlapacoya: Los Principios de la Teocracia en la Cuenca de Mexico. Biblioteca Enciclopedica del Estado de Mexico, p.13-42, 95-142. [2]: Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2012). "Where East Meets West: The Formative in Mexico’s Central Highlands." Journal of Archaeological 20(1): 1-51 [3]: Carballo, David M. (2016). Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-215. [4]: Santley, Robert S. (1993). "Late Formative Period Society at Loma Torremote: A Consideration of the Redistribution vs. Great Provider Models as a Basis for the Emergence of Complexity in the Basin of Mexico." In Prehispanic Domestic Units in Western Mesoamerica: Studies of Household, Compound, and Residence, edited by Robert S. Santley and Kenneth G. Hirth, pp. 67-86. CRC Press, Boca Raton. [5]: Sanders, William T., Michael West, Charles Fletcher, and Joseph Marino. (1975). The Formative Period Occupation of the Valley, Parts 1 and 2. Occasional Papers in Anthropology, No. 10. Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park. [6]: Manzanilla, Linda. (1985). "El sito de Cuanalan en el marco de las comunidades pre-urbanas del Valle de Teotihuacan." In Mesoamérica y el entro de México, México, edited by J. Monjarás-Ruiz, E. Pérez Rocha and Roas Brambila, pp. 133-178. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City. [7]: Nichols, Deborah L., Charles D. Frederick, Luis Morrett Alatirrem, and Fernando Sanchez Martínez. (2006). "Water Management and Political Economy in Formative Period central Mexico." In Precolumbian Water Management: Ideology, Ritual, and Power, edited by Lisa J. Lucero and Barbara W. Fash, pp. 51-66. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. [8]: Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. (1998). Preclassic Household Patterns Preserved Under Volcanic Ash at Tetimpa, Puebla, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 9:287-309. [9]: Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2002). "Shrines, ancestors, and the volcanic landscape at Tetimpa, Puebla." In Domestic Ritual in Ancient Mesoamerica, edited by Patricia Plunket, pp. 31-42. Monograph 46, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology. University of California, Los Angeles. [10]: Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2005). "Recent Research in Puebla Prehistory." Journal of Archaeological Research 13:89-128. [11]: Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization. Academic Press, New York, pg. 305-34. [12]: Carballo, David M. (2013). "Labor Collectives and Group Cooperation in Pre-Hispanic Central Mexico." In David Carballo (Ed.) Cooperation and Collective Action: Archaeological Perspectives. Boulder: University of Colorado Press, pp.243-274. [13]: Carballo, D. M., Roscoe, P., & Feinman, G. M. (2014). "Cooperation and collective action in the cultural evolution of complex societies." Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 21(1), 98-133. [14]: Carballo, David M., et al. (2014). "Suprahousehold consumption and community ritual at La Laguna, Mexico." Antiquity 88.339 (2014): 141-159. [15]: Uruñuela Ladrón de Guevara, Gabriela, and Patricia Plunket Nagoda. (2001). "¿“De peidra ha de ser la cama …”? Las tumbas en el Formativo de Puebla-Tlaxcala y la Cuenca de México a partir de la evidencia de Tetimpa, Puebla." Arqueología 25:3-22. |
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levels.
(1) prominent figures in New Religious Movements; (2) Local Shamans and Practitioners Ritual practices were initially confined to the household level:’The belief in ghosts and spirits is a predominant characteristic of the northern native. In almost every tribe I have observed the propitiation of family ghosts with individual offerings of food by ordinary persons to secure the vitality of their food supply, and by sorcerers to stimulate their charms. Ghosts are invoked during ceremonies by divination to reveal crimes and criminals. Food offerings to ghosts are made during death feasts and during certain initiation rites. The house of initiation and the paraphernalia of the dance are believed to have spiritual powers, and when the paraphernalia are thrown into the river at the completion of the rites, they are invoked to smite the enemies of the dancers.’ [1] ’The traditional beliefs of the Orokaiva, though in many respects vague and locally variable, focused primarily on the "spirits of the dead" and their influence on the living. The Orokaiva had no high god. Formerly, they were animists, believing in the existence of souls (ASISI) in humans, plants, and animals. The taro spirit was of particular importance and was the inspiration and foundation of the Taro Cult. The Orokaiva have been swept recently by a series of new cults, indicative of their religious adaptability in the face of fresh experience. Mission influence is strong in the Northern District. Religious training is provided almost exclusively by the Anglican church, although mission influence has not totally eradicated traditional beliefs, producing an air of mysticism about the resultant religious system.’ [2] The colonial period saw both the spread of Christianity and the emergence of new supralocal religious movements: ’Mission influence is strong in the Northern District. This is provided almost exclusively by the Anglican church and is of a fairly orthodox nature. Mission influence is mixed somewhat with traditional beliefs and there is an air of mysticism about the resultant religious system.’ [3] ’There has been European contact of some form over a long period. The people are perhaps best known by the work of Williams (1928 and 1930) in which he describes the earlier cult movements and the attempts to master and control new contact situations. Two of these were the cult of the Baigona men and the Taro cult. The former was concerned with healing and sorcery through a type of priest who was in communication with the spirits of the dead and now resident in various reptiles, particularly the snake. The latter was evidenced in sorcery through a priest who was possessed with the spirit of the Taro. Violent dancing or ecstatic movements often accompanied by a trance were not unlike the dance of St Vitus or St John which swept Europe in the fourteenth century (Sargant 1957).’ [4] The Taro and Snake Cults are notable examples: ’The Orokaiva religious history is also particularly interesting here. Their traditional faith, Williams says, though in many respects vague and locally variable, concerned itself “primarily with the spirits of the dead” and their influence on the welfare of the living. Death was appraised with particular realism, although it was considered ultimately as the result of supernatural causes. Magic had a consistent place. Orokaiva country, however, has been swept in modern times by a series of new cults indicative of religious adaptability in the face of fresh experience. First to come into prominence was the Baigona, or “snake cult” of 1911-12, succeeded from 1914 on by the so-called “Taro cult” which in turn had undergone a series of local reformulations by the time Williams reported on it in 1924. Central features of the Taro cult were association of successful taro cultivation with the ancestral spirits, approached by way of a “shaking-fit” technique of revelation, together with somewhat new types of public ritual and symbols, including fragmentary elements from Christianity. Later Belshaw and others reported that “Christian Co-operative Evangelist” societies, which were developed by the Anglican Mission among some Orokaiva converts for the cooperative growing of rice and other crops, tended to assume a somewhat parallel and absorbing mystical agriculture context. Rumors spread of “an order from the King (of England) that co-operatives should be formed … (and that) as a result of their activities the white people would leave Papua and the villagers would be in charge of their own affairs.” This type of cooperative movement was stimulated after the war, and included putting crosses in the gardens, offering prayers before gardening activity, building special houses in which cooperators could meet and eat, and collecting money for vague purposes. Even in the face of Mission reluctance and some Orokaiva opposition, Government finally stepped in to try to give it better direction; a Cooperative officer was trying to bring the situation under control when the volcano exploded.’ [5] The specialists serving the Taro Cult are known as Taro men: ’Orokaiva shamans, or "taro men" serve as healers, weather magicians, and sorcerers.’ [2] The movement has produced leaders of intertribal renown: ’While practically every one has been a willing convert to the Taro cult in so far as it meant participation in the song and feast, and while perhaps the majority have given way at some time or other to the pleasant abandonment of the jipari, there is a wide class of Taro experts or special exponents of the cult. It is impossible to set a definite limit to this class. There are some who are recognized as leaders and who are very strongly ‘possessed’, and others who are little more than laymen. However, it is possible to include them all under the name of ba-embo, which means literally ‘Taro man’. Such men, who, like the Baigona men, might be called priests of the cult, officiate and lead in the ceremonial feasting; they perform certain duties in the taro gardens; they make a special practice of jipari and similar contortions; and they subject themselves to certain taboos. The theory of their conduct is that of possession by a spirit, either of the taro itself or of the dead.’ [6] ’It is perhaps on law and organization that the Taro cult has the most significant effect, albeit a rudimentary and indefinite one. The voluntary acceptance of a new ritual, however lax, the observance of taboos, the necessity for probation, are all influences making for law and law-abidingness. More significant still is the elementary hierarchy which we have observed among the Taro men (p. 32). The existence of leaders in one tribe who are recognized by distant votaries of the cult in another tribe stands perhaps for a new idea among the Orokaiva. The absence of any political cohesion among and within the peoples of Papua has been remarked by others. It is conceivable that such a movement as Taro might give the initial impetus to some more or less spontaneous political organization.’ [7] The codes given above combine local practice with patterns of the Taro Cult, reflecting its importance within the framework of culture change. [1]: Chinnery, E. W. P., and Alfred C. (Alfred Cort) Haddon 1917. “Five New Religious Cults In British New Guinea”, 448 [2]: Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva [3]: Kearney, George E. 1966. “Cognitive Capacity Among The Orokaiva”, 6 [4]: Kearney, George E. 1966. “Cognitive Capacity Among The Orokaiva”, 5 [5]: Keesing, Felix Maxwell 1952. “Papuan Orokaiva Vs Mt. Lamington: Cultural Shock And Its Aftermath”, 19 [6]: Williams, F. E. (Francis Edgar) 1928. “Orokaiva Magic”, 10 [7]: Williams, F. E. (Francis Edgar) 1928. “Orokaiva Magic”, 95 |
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Speculative. "The stone sculpture known as the Priest-King wears an elaborately decorated robe, draped to expose his chest and right shoulder. This was possibly a garment worn only by rulers or senior priests. [...] North of the Great Bath, shut off from the outside world, was an accommodation block with bathrooms on the ground floor and presumably sleeping quarters above. Since the Great Bath was most probably a religious facility, it is likely that these nearby buildings provided the residential and administrative quarters of the priests who served here."
[1]
1. Senior priest (Priest-King?) 2. Priest [1]: (McIntosh 2008, 252) Jane McIntosh. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. |
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levels.
(1) Local Shamans (Oiun, Udagan) Shamans served local communities even after the spread of Christianity: ’As with other Siberian peoples, Yakut shamans (OIUN if male, UDAGAN if female) combine medical and spiritual practice. [...] In the nineteenth century a few Yakut leaders financed the building of Russian Orthodox churches, and many Yakut declared themselves Christian, but this did not mean that they saw Christianity and shamanism as mutually exclusive. The Yakut also believed in the spiritual power of blacksmiths.’ [1] ’Nevertheless, the outward conditions of life have hardly changed after the Russian conquest. There is always the same uncertainty of existence; the unsatisfactory conditions for men as well as for animals continue to exist. The sacrificial priests still everywhere and always hold position and duties of priests, physicians, and fortune-tellers (prophets).’ [2] ’In the Yakut district all Yakuts with rare exceptions have been baptized according to the ‘ancient faith’ [RCH: i.e. , Christianity] rite, or were born from parents of that faith. Yet one can hardly be sure that a Yakut, professing the ancient faith, has given up his shamanist creed, or that he does not have recourse to the latter. I have personally known two shamans, one of them in the Yakutsk district, the other on the Kytach island on the mouth of the Lena, who were both known as followers of the ‘ancient faith.’’ [3] There where black and white shamans: ’Supernatural power was attributed to blacksmiths, since their art was considered a divine gift. The old Sakha religion had many supernatural spirits, good and evil. Black shamans dealt with evil spirits and could be benevolent or harmful; white shamans were concerned with spiritual intercession for human beings. Two major religious festivals were celebrated with ritual use of koumiss (fermented mare’s milk), one in spring for good spirits and one in fall accompanied by blood sacrifices of livestock for evil spirits.’ [4] Shamans officiated at seasonal festivals: ’The most important festival among the Yakut is connected with the preparation and use of kumiss, and is called ysyax, or kumiss festival. It has both a social and a religious significance. During the summer, in olden times, every rich man arranged a kumiss festival, at which all members of the clan assembled and were entertained. Other people, and frequently whole clans, were invited; and during the festival, defensive and offensive leagues were concluded. Every such festival commenced with sacrifices, and was accompanied with songs, dances, games, horse and foot races, and other contests.’ [5] ’The first night of the festival is in honor of Big-Lord ( Ulu-Toyon ) and the evil spirits of the upper world subordinate to him. The second night is in honor of Axsan Duolai and his subordinates, the evil spirits of the lower world. To all of these evil spirits, in addition to the libations of kumiss made to the benevolent deities, blood sacrifices of cattle and horses are also made. This ceremony, according to Trostchansky, is superintended by nine male and nine female shamans.’ [6] Shamans were compensated for their services, but did not receive sufficient payments for their livelihood: ’I at least never heard anything about a wealthy shaman; on the contrary, the shaman often gets no more than 5 kopeks for healing a sick eye. And how little is this sum worth north of Yakutsk! Some Yakuts refused to accept a twenty kopeks coin for a hazel-hen I wanted to buy, saying that they could not manage to use the money; if it had an eye, they would have used it as a button; but as there was no such, I was to take it back. The smallest unit for them is the ruble.’ [7] [1]: Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut [2]: Priklonski, Vasilij, and Friedrich S. Krauss 1888. “Shamanism Among The Yakut”, 166 [3]: Priklonski, Vasilij, and Friedrich S. Krauss 1888. “Shamanism Among The Yakut”, 167 [4]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-people [5]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1906. “Kumiss Festivals Of The Yakut And The Decoration Of Kumiss Vessels”, 263 [6]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1906. “Kumiss Festivals Of The Yakut And The Decoration Of Kumiss Vessels”, 265 [7]: Priklonski, Vasilij, and Friedrich S. Krauss 1888. “Shamanism Among The Yakut", 175 |
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levels.
(1) Local Shamans (Oiun, Udagan) Shamans served local communities even after the spread of Christianity: ’As with other Siberian peoples, Yakut shamans (OIUN if male, UDAGAN if female) combine medical and spiritual practice. [...] In the nineteenth century a few Yakut leaders financed the building of Russian Orthodox churches, and many Yakut declared themselves Christian, but this did not mean that they saw Christianity and shamanism as mutually exclusive. The Yakut also believed in the spiritual power of blacksmiths.’ [1] ’Nevertheless, the outward conditions of life have hardly changed after the Russian conquest. There is always the same uncertainty of existence; the unsatisfactory conditions for men as well as for animals continue to exist. The sacrificial priests still everywhere and always hold position and duties of priests, physicians, and fortune-tellers (prophets).’ [2] ’In the Yakut district all Yakuts with rare exceptions have been baptized according to the ‘ancient faith’ [RCH: i.e. , Christianity] rite, or were born from parents of that faith. Yet one can hardly be sure that a Yakut, professing the ancient faith, has given up his shamanist creed, or that he does not have recourse to the latter. I have personally known two shamans, one of them in the Yakutsk district, the other on the Kytach island on the mouth of the Lena, who were both known as followers of the ‘ancient faith.’’ [3] There where black and white shamans: ’Supernatural power was attributed to blacksmiths, since their art was considered a divine gift. The old Sakha religion had many supernatural spirits, good and evil. Black shamans dealt with evil spirits and could be benevolent or harmful; white shamans were concerned with spiritual intercession for human beings. Two major religious festivals were celebrated with ritual use of koumiss (fermented mare’s milk), one in spring for good spirits and one in fall accompanied by blood sacrifices of livestock for evil spirits.’ [4] Shamans officiated at seasonal festivals: ’The most important festival among the Yakut is connected with the preparation and use of kumiss, and is called ysyax, or kumiss festival. It has both a social and a religious significance. During the summer, in olden times, every rich man arranged a kumiss festival, at which all members of the clan assembled and were entertained. Other people, and frequently whole clans, were invited; and during the festival, defensive and offensive leagues were concluded. Every such festival commenced with sacrifices, and was accompanied with songs, dances, games, horse and foot races, and other contests.’ [5] ’The first night of the festival is in honor of Big-Lord ( Ulu-Toyon ) and the evil spirits of the upper world subordinate to him. The second night is in honor of Axsan Duolai and his subordinates, the evil spirits of the lower world. To all of these evil spirits, in addition to the libations of kumiss made to the benevolent deities, blood sacrifices of cattle and horses are also made. This ceremony, according to Trostchansky, is superintended by nine male and nine female shamans.’ [6] Shamans were compensated for their services, but did not receive sufficient payments for their livelihood: ’I at least never heard anything about a wealthy shaman; on the contrary, the shaman often gets no more than 5 kopeks for healing a sick eye. And how little is this sum worth north of Yakutsk! Some Yakuts refused to accept a twenty kopeks coin for a hazel-hen I wanted to buy, saying that they could not manage to use the money; if it had an eye, they would have used it as a button; but as there was no such, I was to take it back. The smallest unit for them is the ruble.’ [7] Contact with Russian Orthodox priests was irregular: ’The aborigines seldom have an opportunity to see a priest of the ancient faith. In view of the enormous extension of the parishes, of the scattered settlements, and of the extraordinary difficulties in securing communications, he is hardly in a position to see each member of his faith once a year; and if he visits him in one of the settling-places he may not stay longer than two or three days because he must be through with his travel as long as the paths and roads are practicable. One may safely estimate that eight [probably eighty rather than eight, given the context: comment by RA] per cent of the aborigines population has never seen a Christian church. His eminency, the former Yakut bishop Dionysius even told me that sometimes priests had died without having communicated, leaving a written confession of sins.’ [3] Accordingly, the material is coded for Sakha rather than Orthodox institutions. [1]: Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut [2]: Priklonski, Vasilij, and Friedrich S. Krauss 1888. “Shamanism Among The Yakut”, 166 [3]: Priklonski, Vasilij, and Friedrich S. Krauss 1888. “Shamanism Among The Yakut”, 167 [4]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-people [5]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1906. “Kumiss Festivals Of The Yakut And The Decoration Of Kumiss Vessels”, 263 [6]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1906. “Kumiss Festivals Of The Yakut And The Decoration Of Kumiss Vessels”, 265 [7]: Priklonski, Vasilij, and Friedrich S. Krauss 1888. “Shamanism Among The Yakut", 175 |
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1. Pope
Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. [1] 1. Patriarch of Constantinople "Patriarchs were elected by the standing synod in Constantinople, which presented three names to the emperor. He was entitled to choose one of these, or, if unable to accept any of the candidates, to choose the new patriarch himself." [2] Five Patriarchs (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem). 2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." [2] "The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." [2] 3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops [1] "Chorepiskopoi (literally ’country bishops’) were assigned to rural communities and were subject to a bishop in a nearby city." [2] "After the fourth century, the powers and functions of chorepiskopoi were gradually restricted and they were allowed only to ordain clerics of the lower orders. After the second Council of Nicaea (787) which prohibited them from ordaining even readers (anagnostai) without episcopal assent (canon 14), this separate episcopal rank began to disappear (Jugie 1904)." [2] 3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." [2] 4. Deacon"Deacon (diakonos, ’servant’)" [3] "Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." [4] 4. Deaconess (diakonissa)Become more and more rare, would be of equal rank as deacon. [1] "The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." [4] 5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." [5] 6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." [5] 7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." [5] [1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication) [2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Cunningham 2008, 530) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [4]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [5]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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1. King?
2-3. Priests in temples. |
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levels.
(1) Local ceremonial specialists (Keepers of the Faith) and shamans (False Face Societies) Religious specialists were generally village-based: ’Full time religious specialists were absent, however, there were part-time male and female specialists known as Keepers of the Faith whose primary responsibilities were to arrange and conduct the main religious ceremonies. Keepers of the Faith were appointed by matrisib elders and were accorded considerable prestige.’ [1] ’Part time religious specialists known as Keepers of the Faith served in part to censure anti-social behavior. Unconfessed witches detected through council proceedings were punished with death, while those who confessed might be allowed to reform.’ [1] ’Illness and disease were attributed to supernatural causes. Curing ceremonies consisted of group shamanistic practices directed towards propitiating the responsible supernatural agents. One of the curing groups was the False Face Society. False Face Societies were found in each village and, except for a female Keeper of the False Faces who protected the ritual paraphernalia, consisted only of male members who had dreamed of participation in False Face ceremonies.’ [1] Christian attempts at proselytization were initially largely unsuccessful: ’The Iroquoian confederacy was organized sometime between 1400 and A.D. 1600 for the purpose of maintaining peaceful relations between the 5 constituent tribes. Subsequent to European contact relations within the confederacy were sometimes strained as each of the 5 tribes sought to expand and maintain its own interests in the developing fur trade. For the most part, however, the fur trade served to strengthen the confederacy because tribal interests often complemented one another and all gained from acting in concert. The League was skillful at playing French and English interests off against one another to its advantage and thereby was able to play a major role in the economic and political events of northeastern North America during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Iroquois aggressively maintained and expanded their role in the fur trade and as a result periodically found themselves at war with their neighbors, such as the Huron, Petun, and the Neutral to the West and the Susquehannock to the south. Much of the fighting was done by the Seneca, the most powerful of the Iroquoian tribes. From 1667 to the 1680s the Iroquois maintained friendly relations with the French and during this time Jesuit missions were established among each of the 5 tribes. However, Iroquois aggression and expansion eventually brought them into conflict with the French and, at the same time, into closer alliance with the English. In 1687, 1693 and 1696 French military expeditions raided and burned Iroquois villages and fields. During Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713) the Iroquois allied with the English and at the War’s end were acknowledged to be British subjects, though they continued to aggressively maintain and extend their middleman role between English traders at Fort Orange (Albany) and native groups farther west.’ [1] [1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois |
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levels.
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levels.
3 was the code for Abbasid Caliphate. Samanids were loyal to the Caliph. [1] 1. Caliph as head of the Sunni Muslim umma. 2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the muslim world. 3. The Umma, i.e all Muslims. [1]: (Hodgson 1977, 33) Hodgson, Marshall G. S. 1977. The Venture of Islam. Volume II. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. |
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levels.
Elite ancestor cult. Worship of Sun as state religion. akllawasi+ from Inca Roq’a* [1] +(House of the Cloistered Women) *c1350 CE Religious hierarchy [2] 1. Priests at principal temple (Coricancha) 2. Local level state priests The title intip churin (Son of the Sun) was added to paramount qhapaq/capac title during the imperial period. [2] Each ayllu attended to their own mortuary shrines. [3] Cieza de León (1985, p. 117 [c. 1550] Chapter 34) notes that Qhapaq Yupanki began to take women from conquered territories to serve a new state religion involving veneration of the Sun, and Sarmiento de Gamboa (1965, p. 223 [1572 Chapter 18]) mentions that he also delegated religious authority by naming an older brother, Kunti Mayta, as high priest of the cult. [4] : delegation of religious authority to the Inca’s relatives, and establishment of religious orders. [1]: (Covey 2006a, 118) [2]: (Covey 2006a, 119) [3]: (Andrushko 2007, 12) [4]: (Covey 2003, 352) |
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EWA: unknown
_ Abydos cult centre _ Abydos was the most significant cult centre. Kings of the 1st Dynasty were buried in the royal cemetery in the Umm el-Qa’ab area. There were funerary enclosures and a mortuary cult that supported an ideology of divine kingship. In the funerary enclosures priests and other personnel practiced king-cults. [1] 1. King. 2. Priests 3. Other _Town cult complex_ In the 1st Dynasty there were probably cult temple compounds within towns which "served a different function from those associated with the funerary complexes, which were located outside the towns." [2] 1. 2. 3. [1]: (Bard 2000, 64-69) [2]: (Bard 2000, 78) |
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levels.
Three coded for Saite Period. Any reason why the temples of this time should be less than three? 1. Priest in temple. "During the next six decades, indigenous kings ruled Egypt; this period is traditionally divided into three dynasties (Twenty-eighth to Thirtieth, 404-343 BC). A major characteristic of the period, and within it of the kings of the Thirtieth dynasty, is the amount in temple-building, which stands in contrast to the Persian period." [1] Example from Saite Period: 1. Chief Priest of Amun 2. Protector of the Priests of Amun of Teudjoi3. Priests Differentiation between priests:"Sizeable salary differentials existed amongst the priesthood in many temples. This is clear from papyri such as those from the Twelfth Dynasty royal mortuary temple at Lahun. Over a millennium later the Demotic papyri relating to Teudjoi again allow us a glimpse of the financial rewards available for priests at a regional temple of the Late Period. Revenue from temple lands was divided at 20 percent for each of the four phyles (of 20 priests), and the remaining 20 percent was assigned to the ‘‘Priest of Amun’’ and ‘‘Priest of the Ennead,’’ positions held by the same person in this instance (Vittmann 1998: 159, 490)." [2] [1]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) [2]: (Spencer 2010, 268) |
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1. Sultan 2. Ulama - religious scholars [1] 3. Imams ??? Under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. All Mamluk sultans performed a ritual demonstration of manumission at an inaugural ceremony. Manumission was performed at about 18 years old, following the Mamluk’s training. [2] "Under the Mamluks the state appointed judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy. Never did the state attempt to define the content of religious teaching. Thus, the "Mamluks extended the Saljuq-Iranian pattern of organized religious life to Syria and Egypt." [3] [1]: (Dols 1977, 153) [2]: (Oliver 1977, 39-67) [3]: (Lapidus 2012, 249) |
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1. Pharaoh
"Janssen (1979: 509) has remarked that the depiction of the Pharaoh in every temple in the land as the real high priest ’was no only an expression of a dogmatic theory, but also of the actual economic reality. The temples together with all their property were at the disposal of the Pharaoh." [1] "the temples served as state institutions; they were organized via the administrative machinery and were subject to frequent state intervention." [2] 2. Overseer of the Temples and Prophets of All the Gods New Kingdom3. High priest New Kingdom4. God’s servant New Kingdom5. Wab priest New Kingdom 5. Scroll carrier New Kingdom "The temples also had their own labour force, many of them renting land at a rate of 30 per cent of the crop." [1] the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE) "describes three categories for a physician based on rank." [3] 1. Great of the Palace Doctors "For a ’saw’ the highest position attainable would have been ’Great of the Palace Doctors.’" [3] "Not only was the physician responsible for treating the pharaoh but he was also responsible for the medical care of the country." [3] 2. saw"’The Guardian.’ A ’saw’ was generally educated and trained within the temple palace schools." [3] 3. wabw"’The Pure’ or ’Those who are ceremonially pure’" [3] 4. wr-swnw"Senior doctors". [3] 5. imy-r-swnw"Doctors". [3] 6. swnw"Junior doctors". [3] "Doctor of the People". [3] 4?. smsw-swnw"Registrar". [3] 4?. shd-swnw"Consultant". [3] 4?. (example they give appears to be the name of an individual from 5th Dynasty, Sekhetnankh)"specialist in a given field". [3] [1]: (Ezzamel 2004, 503) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications. [2]: (Ezzamel 2004, 504) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications. [3]: (Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley. |
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Level 1: shamanistic local figures, having religious and social authority, mediating the relationship between the commoners and "the supernaturalas an Other"
[1]
.
[1]: Mizoguchi, K., 2002. An archaeological history of Japan, 30,000 B.P. to A.D. 700Mizoguchi, K., 2002. An archaeological history of Japan, 30,000 B.P. to A.D. 700. University of Pennsylvania Press, 153-154. |
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levels.
Until Ghazan the Reformer the Ilkhans were pagan [1] although Teguder had converted to Islam before 1284 CE. [2] 1. The Khan. After Ghazan’s formal conversion to Islam he adopted the title padishah-i Islam which "expressed independence within the Mongol tradition and claims to pre-eminence in the Islamic world" [3] 2. Islamic judges. They were regulated under Ghazan’s administrative reforms. [4] 3. Imams [1]: (Marshall 1993, 228) Marshall, Robert. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. [2]: (Morgan 2015, 66) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. [3]: Beatrice Forbes Manz, ‘The Rule of the Infidels: The Mongols and the Islamic World’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 151. [4]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.147. |
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levels.
(1) Local Practitioners Ritual practices were initially confined to the household and community levels: ’The belief in ghosts and spirits is a predominant characteristic of the northern native. In almost every tribe I have observed the propitiation of family ghosts with individual offerings of food by ordinary persons to secure the vitality of their food supply, and by sorcerers to stimulate their charms. Ghosts are invoked during ceremonies by divination to reveal crimes and criminals. Food offerings to ghosts are made during death feasts and during certain initiation rites. The house of initiation and the paraphernalia of the dance are believed to have spiritual powers, and when the paraphernalia are thrown into the river at the completion of the rites, they are invoked to smite the enemies of the dancers.’ [1] ’The Orokaiva religious history is also particularly interesting here. Their traditional faith, Williams says, though in many respects vague and locally variable, concerned itself “primarily with the spirits of the dead” and their influence on the welfare of the living. Death was appraised with particular realism, although it was considered ultimately as the result of supernatural causes. Magic had a consistent place.’ [2] ’Orokaiva shamans, or "taro men" serve as healers, weather magicians, and sorcerers.’ [3] The spread of Christianity and the emergence of new supralocal religious movements did not predate colonization: ’The traditional beliefs of the Orokaiva, though in many respects vague and locally variable, focused primarily on the "spirits of the dead" and their influence on the living. The Orokaiva had no high god. Formerly, they were animists, believing in the existence of souls (ASISI) in humans, plants, and animals. The taro spirit was of particular importance and was the inspiration and foundation of the Taro Cult. The Orokaiva have been swept recently by a series of new cults, indicative of their religious adaptability in the face of fresh experience. Mission influence is strong in the Northern District. Religious training is provided almost exclusively by the Anglican church, although mission influence has not totally eradicated traditional beliefs, producing an air of mysticism about the resultant religious system.’ [3] ’Mission influence is strong in the Northern District. This is provided almost exclusively by the Anglican church and is of a fairly orthodox nature. Mission influence is mixed somewhat with traditional beliefs and there is an air of mysticism about the resultant religious system.’ [4] [1]: Chinnery, E. W. P., and Alfred C. (Alfred Cort) Haddon 1917. “Five New Religious Cults In British New Guinea”, 448 [2]: Keesing, Felix Maxwell 1952. “Papuan Orokaiva Vs Mt. Lamington: Cultural Shock And Its Aftermath”, 19 [3]: Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva [4]: Kearney, George E. 1966. “Cognitive Capacity Among The Orokaiva”, 6 |
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In Mycenaean states, the wanax is the head of the religious hierarchy.
[1]
Like the gods themselves he received offerings (e.g. perfumed oil) but he had not a divine status. He was assisted by a considerable priesthood.
[2]
[1]: Shelmerdine, C. W. and Bennet, J. 2008. "12: Mycenaean states. 12A: Economy and administration," in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, Cambridge, 293. [2]: Ventris, M. and Chadwick, J. 1973. Documents in Mycenaean Greek, London,128-29. |
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levels.
"Social differences and nascent inequalities are demonstrated by the design of Iron Age settlements in central Karnataka where residential spaces were built to be practically and symbolically distinct from one another. Labor investment, access patterns, elevation, and, in some cases, construction materials were all variables that appear to have defined the residential spaces of some social groups in Iron Age settlement communities as more exclusive than those of others (Bauer, in press; Johansen, 2008, 2011). Yet, the most direct expression of Iron Age social differences comes from the remarkable variation observed in the mortuary record, and in particular that among a new suite of commemorative and memorial practices involving the construction of a range of large (and not so large) stone features collectively referred to as megaliths. The production of this new suite of monumental features marked important changes in the character and purpose of ritual practices in southern India, from those of the open public performances of the Neolithic, which appear to have emphasized group solidarity, to those of the Iron Age, which were more labor-intensive, often but not always more exclusive, and which emphasized politically salient social differences." [1] "South Indian megaliths were distinctive and ubiquitous architectural features of Iron Age landscapes throughout most regions of South India (Figures 1 and 3). Megaliths include a wide range of commemorative-memorial stone and earth features such as dolmens, stone circles, cairns, menhirs, alignments, avenues, and passage chamber features, located in a variety of mortuary and non-mortuary contexts (Brubaker, 2001; Krishnaswami, 1949; Leshnik, 1974; Moorti, 1994; Morrison et al., in press; Rao, 1988; Sundara, 1975) (Figure 3). Megaliths are most frequently recorded in large mortuary complexes, but also occur in small groups or as isolated features (Brubaker, 2001). Large megalithic complexes are typically found within a short distance of settlements but individual features and small groups of megaliths also frequently occur in and around settlements as pre-abandonment and post-habitation occupations (Bauer, 2010, 2011; Brubaker, 2001; Johansen, 2009, 2011; Moorti, 1994; Morrison et al., in press; Sundara, 1975). The location of many recorded megalithic mortuary complexes close to settlements suggests that particular cemeteries were the relatively exclusive domain of specific settlement communities (see Bauer, 2010, 2011)." [1] "Megalithic construction and maintenance were intricately related to Iron Age death rituals and political claims to a variety of socio-symbolic resources. Their construction inscribed a range of important social meanings to places, through punctuated ritual practices involving the interment of the dead or small special offerings, burnings, feasting, and the creation or sanctification of precious pools and tanks of water (cf. Bauer, 2011; Bauer and Morrison, 2007; Bauer et al., 2007; Morrison et al., in press; Sinopoli, 2009)." [1]: (Johansen 2014, 1-28) Johansen, P. 2014. The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India. Journal of Social Archaeology. 0(0). |
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Many other faiths were practiced, and there were substantial religious communities of Buddhist, Hindi, and other faiths in the region. Sunni Islam was the politically dominant faith. In theory the Caliphate and their appointed governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) and aesthetics (Sufis) increasingly attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths was not clearly hierarchical and all were considered equal before Allah. In the Sind, a large percentage of the population were non-Muslim until 1250 CE. Shiaism was present in the Sind from an early period, but was not the dominant faith, which remained Sunni. In the early tenth century, Ishmailis practitioners became dominant, and the Fatimah Caliphs became the nominal head of the Islamic faith as practiced in the Sind. There is evidence of the repair and upkeep of Buddhist and Hindi places of religious worship.
[1]
Sunni/Ismailism: 1. Caliph as head of the Muslim umma 2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the Muslim world By the late 985 CE the Habari’s religious view as Sunni’s was increasingly challenged by the population of the Sind shifting its religious adherence from the Sunni Caliph to Fatimid anti-caliphs in Cairo, with the result that a portion of the population of Sind embraced the Isha’ilis Shi’ite faith. [2] [1]: Lapidus, History of Islamic Society p. 82,p. 215; Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 183 [2]: Wink, André. "Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 1." Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th-11th Centuries (1990)pp.212-213 |
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levels.
Roman Catholicism was the official state religion. [1] King chose important bishops through Conseil de conscience which eventually disintegrated into two members, the king and a Jesuit confessor. [2] Supreme authority divided uncertainly between the Pope, King, and Assembly of Clergy, dominated by bishops, which me every 5 years. [3] Levels 7-5 ordered in theory if not practice. 1. Pope 2. King3. Assembly of Clergy4. Archbishop in seeArchbishopric of Paris (founded 1622 CE) c1660-1700 CE had great influence at court 5. deputy called vicar-general? 5. Bishop in Dioceseover 120 bishoprics. due to King and Parlements not ratifying Council of Trent Bishops were free to choose own "rituals, catechism, and synodal statues"6. Archdeacon7. Parish priestover 30,000 parishes. cures, vicaires and priests [1]: (Chartrand and Leliepvre 1997) [2]: (Ladurie 1991, 132) [3]: (Briggs 1998, 161) |
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levels.
3 was the code for Abbasid Caliphate. "The new rulers accepted the nominal authority of the Abbasid caliphs and directly or indirectly promoted the spread of Islam among the populace of Transoxania, Kashgar, and the Tarim basin." [1] 1. Caliph as head of the Sunni Muslim umma. 2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the muslim world. 3. The Umma, i.e all Muslims. [1]: (Lapidus 2012, 230) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. |
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levels.
1. Pope Christian state after baptism Clovis 508 CE. Catholic church. [1] 1. King ("Like Constantine, the Merovingian King was considered the reflection of God on Earth. The succession to the kingship could never been anything but the expression of a higher will" [2] Kings involved in ecclesiastical legislation [3] Kings gave money for shrines of saints. [4] "Many bishops owed their position to the king" and "were royal servants with no known connections with their sees." [5] 2. Bishop in diocesesBishop in every civitas. Bishop’s church called ecclesia, other churches were basilicae. City had complex of religious buildings, usually included a number of churches, a baptistery, and the bishop’s home (domus ecclesiae). Other religious officials were the clergy. Outside the city were funerary basilicas, sacred sites (shrines called loca sancta), mausoleums, tombs and cemeteries. Authorities secular and often came into conflict with religious authorities. [6] Dioceses provided basic structure of Merovingian Church, "the ecclesiastical counterparts of the civitates" and in the same place, except in the north and east. [7] 3. Subordinate bishopsDioceses had provinces (like civitates) [7] 4. Priests5. Lesser clergy [1]: (Wood 1994, 72) [2]: (Schutz 2004, 18) Schutz, H. 2004. The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900. BRILL [3]: (Wood 1994, 105) [4]: (Wood 1994, 66) [5]: (Wood 1994, 78) [6]: (Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 252-253) [7]: (Wood 1994, 71) |
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levels. Religious control was exercised by the Kosmoi (Κόσμοι), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the Ecclesia (Εκκλησία), the body of free male citizens. Kosmoi were responsible for the construction and maintenance of the sanctuaries, the organization of large religious festivals, and the offering of sacrifices. Cult was performed by priests annually elected by the Ecclesia (Εκκλησία).
[1]
[2]
[1]: Willetts, M. A. 1955. Ancient Crete. A Social History, London and Toronto, 56-75 [2]: Chaniotis, A. 1897. "Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη," in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, Heraklion, 192-203. |
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levels. 1-3 The wanax is the head of the religious hierarchy.
[1]
Like the gods themselves he received offerings (e.g. perfumed oil) but he had not a divine status. He was assisted by a considerable priesthood.
[2]
[1]: Shelmerdine, C. W. and Bennet, J. 2008. "12: Mycenaean states. 12A: Economy and administration," in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, Cambridge, 293. [2]: Ventris, M. and Chadwick, J. 1973. Documents in Mycenaean Greek, London,128-29. |
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levels. "The circa 1500-1600 B.P. inscriptions at Kutai, East Borneo, and Taruma, Jakarta bay, refer to the kings’ gifts to their newly arrived Brahmans. Given the lack of wider direct archaeological evidence on religious specialization, we must revert to generalized Austronesian ethnographic analogy to imagine the late prehistoric situation. In that case, the single required qualification in egalitarian communities, of enhanced mystical prowess, would have increasingly been overshadowed by the religious authority of the head of the extended family in ranked societies, and the chief in kinship-centralized societies. Specialist priesthoods no doubt emerged along with other occupational specialists in the largest societies and so paved the way for the ready incorporation of Buddhist and Brahmanic concepts in the historical Indianized states."
[1]
" Purnavarman’s Brahmans, or the Indian Buddhist pilgrim Gunavarman who preached Buddhism in Ho-ling (Central Java) in 1538 B.P. (Hall 1985: 104-107), presumably had to content themselves with limited headway, as the earliest Indic religious architecture (at least, as preserved) post- dates 1300 B.P. (Van Bemme11994: 5). It can be assumed that specialist religious practicioners attached to the courts, and distributed through the countryside in various capacities, would have resisted the incursion of any Indian ideas that might have challenged the priests’ authority or conflicted with traditional beliefs."
[2]
At the onset of the next period: "Like Sanjaya, initially the Sailendra leaders were rakrayan, or regional leaders, rulers of a watak that integrated village clusters (wanua) participating in a regional irrigation and/or otherwise networked society. As rakrayan, these earliest Sailendra rulers provided the political stability necessary to maintain the local irrigation and marketing networks, and through their patronage of Indic religion they constructed sacred cults to legitimize the regional integration of wanua into watak." [3] Range of [1-2] given to reflect the presence of religious specialists but the possible absence of religious hierarchy. [1]: (Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 88) [2]: (Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 106) [3]: (Hall 2011, 123) |
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levels.
_Hinduism_ There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism [1] . However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. [2] ), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels. _Jainism_ NOTE: I have found two equally authoritative sources on Jain hierarchy: (1) [3] 1. Arihants (ones who have conquered their inner enemies)2. Siddhas (Liberated Ones)3. Acharyas (who head the Order)4. Upadhyays (who teach the message)5. Sadhus (Monks/Seekers) (2) [4] 1. Guru (teacher)2. Monks 2. Male figure (not specified by author whether a monk) in charge of nuns3. Pravartini or ganini (aides to the male figure in charge of nuns)4. Nuns _Buddhism_ "Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to ’pure’ teachings and exemption from ’impure’ duties." [5] . [1]: http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556 [2]: G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4 [3]: Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319 [4]: M. Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka (2006), pp. 269-276 [5]: P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628 |
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levels. At least three: (1) Sanga/Shangum (2) Senior staff (diviners, exorcists, lamentation priests), (3) Snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, singers, barbers, chefs.
"The more important or specialist cultic officials (“priests,” although there was no blanket Mesopotamian term with this meaning), administrative staff, scribes, and artisans would have been permanent employees of the temple[...] At their head was the sanga / shangum (chief priest), whose role was as much administrative as religious. Others had a more exclusively ritual role, headed by the en priest or en / entum priestess, who was the spouse of the city deity: This post lapsed after the OB period, although it was revived by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadrezzar II. Other cultic personnel included snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, and singers, and more senior staff included diviners, exorcists, and lamentation priests". [1] [1]: (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. |
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levels.
In the later Uruk phase "Urban Revolution" c3800-3000 BCE that the following quote refers to religious ideology became more complex, so can infer still low level religious complexity in this period: "Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality." [1] [1]: (Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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In theory the Caliphate and governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths were not clearly hierarchical as all were theoretically equal before Allah. The period also saw the rise of the religious sects.
[1]
1. Caliph as head of the Sunni Muslim Umma. 2. Imams: successors of the prophet and leaders of the Muslim world. [1]: (Lapidus 2002, 82, 215) |
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levels.
"once the court moved to Ravenna, its bishops likewise rose in the hierarchy of the Italian church, eventually holding the rank of archbishop, ranking second after the pope and making periodic bids for autocephaly, or independence from the papal see." [1] 1. Pope Pope was the fifth patriach. [2] 1. Exarch of Ravenna 701 CE Pope John VI was elected against approval of the Byzantine Exarch. He was the choice of the native Romans. The choice was enforced by the soldiers of the Papacy. [3] 1. Bishop of a patriarchate "The churches organized themselves along the lines laid down by the geography and political order of the empire. A city (civitas), along with its surrounding rural perimeter, the foundation of imperial organization, also formed the basic unit of ecclesiastical structure. Virtually every Roman city, many of them quite small, had its own bishop. He exercised his authority over a "diocese" that ordinarily coincided with the boundaries of the civitas. These dioceses were then grouped into provinces, over which a metropolitan, the bishop of a province’s principal city, held sway. Eventually, provinces themselves were organized into large "patriarchates," each lead by one of the five preeminent bishops of the church: those in Rome, Constantinople (called "New Rome," second in prestige to the Old), Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem." [4] 2. Metropolitan, with authority over a province 3. Bishop in civitas, with authority over a diocese 4. Presbyters or priests (elders)"Evidence from the second century suggests that a wide variety of models for local clergy existed throughout the Roman Empire. Yet the one to prevail was a three-tiered, hierarchical. In this model, the bishop served as leader of the local community and was assisted by presbyters or priests (elders) and deacons. Again, this model was established in the Antioch of Ignatius, as he underscores emphatically the necessity of gathering for learning, ritual, and teaching around a single bishop. By the end of the century this three-tiered form of ministry had spread to most early Catholic communities throughout the empire, and it would soon become the sole authoritative manner of organizing local ecclesial communities." [5] 5. Deacons [1]: (Deliyannis 2010, 3) Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [2]: (Deliyannis 2010, 211) Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [3]: (Trevor, 1869, 113) [4]: (Madigan 2015, 21) [5]: (Madigan 2015, 14) |
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levels.
At time of Concordat of Worms (1122 CE). "Now the clergy were organized in a hierarchical line under the direction of the pope, who could trump the power of local custom, tradition, and even episcopal power. Below the pope stood the bishop. Responsible for maintaining clerical discipline and for overseeing the property of the church, he was answerable only to the pope. Only he could perform all the sacraments; he alone performed the sacrament of confirmation and by the sacrament of ordination passed on his power to others. Theoretically, canon law held that he would be elected by the clergy and people of his diocese. In practice, he was elected only by the canon priests attached to the cathedral. Considered high clergy, the canons aided the bishop in furthering his agenda, administering the diocese and performing rituals at the cathedral church. At their head was the dean, the highest officer in the diocese. A diocesian chancellor supervised the cathedral school and issued licenses allowing clerics to teach and preach in the diocese. A treasurer oversaw finances, while a precentor managed the choir and organized the cathedral’s musical program. Each diocese was divided into administrative districts, over which presided the archdeacons. Practically, these were powerful men; they were the bishop’s legates, charged with enforcing discipline among the lower clergy, and therefore they were often quite unpopular. ... The parish priests were answerable to them." [1] 1. Pope 2. Archdeacon, of a dianocal collegeArchdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. [2] Following the 1059 decree Decretum in Nomine Domini, only cardinals could elect a new pope. [3] . Furthermore, only cardinals could become popes. Silvester IV (1105-1111), an anti-pope, was the last pope who was not a cardinal before his elevation. [4] 3. Deacons, of a dianocal collegeThere were seven regional deacons of Rome. [5] 4. Subdeacon, of a college of subdeaconsThere was a college of subdeacons. [2] Regionary sub-deacons. [6] 5. AcolytesRome’s ecclesiastical structure contained a diaconal college with seven regional deacons of Rome, possessing in turn a staff of subdeacons and acolytes. These subdeacons dealt with property and relief for poor. The number increased as responsibilities of Papacy increased. 19 by Gregory I. [5] 2. Archpriest, of a collegePapal administration was collegiate: priests formed a college, headed by the archpriest, which was less important than dianocal college headed by archdeacon. Archdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. [2] 3. Priests, of a college 2. Metropolitan see"Santiago was in 1120 made a metropolitan see by the pope." [7] Metropolitan had authority over a province [8] 3. Bishops in diocese 4. Dean 5. Canon priests attached to cathedral 5. Diocesian chancellor 6. Diocesian clergy"After 2015 ... cathedral chancellors were required to furnish their diocesan clergy with some instruction in theology." [9] 5. Treasurer 5. Precenter 4. Archdeacons of administrative districts 5. Priests in ParishThere were multiple parishes in each episcopal diocese, and dozens or hundreds in larger dioceses such as the city of Rome. "by the year 1000 it was the priest who really emerged as the religious and even educational leader of the local church." [10] _Proprietary Churches_ "In 1000 CE ... western Europe had not yet been clearly divided into well-defined territorial parishes with resident priests chosen, ordained, and supervised by the local ordinary, who was in turn directed by the papacy. Indeed, the parish in the year 1000 was far from that ideal, ordered, hierarchical model. Instead, many different (often competing) churches, structures, and people overlapped in the organization of local religious life." [11] "Actually, the most common type of church in the year 1000 was one founded - and governed - by a local lay lord rather than a bishop. ... It is impossible to calculate precisely how many of these churches there were, but they surely numbered in the tens of thousands. Indeed, they far outnumbered the Baptismal churches controlled by the bishops (many of which had passed into the hands of lay lords). ... Because of the force exerted by the ancient, hierarchical, episcopal Roman tradition, this model, which was based on German property law, never took root in central and southern Italy. ... Proprietary churches served very small communities, encompassing perhaps a village or two." [12] [1]: (Madigan 2015, 144-145) [2]: (Richards 1979, 290-292) [3]: di Carpegna Falconieri, 65 [4]: di Carpegna Falconieri, 64 [5]: (Richards 1979, 293) [6]: (Partner 1972, 1) [7]: (Madigan 2015, 333) [8]: (Madigan 2015, 14) [9]: (Madigan 2015, 310) [10]: (Madigan 2015, 83) [11]: (Madigan 2015, 80-81) [12]: (Madigan 2015, 81-83) |
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Official cult of Amun established c780-760 BCE under Alara, whose sister was made a priestess.
[1]
High priests.
[2]
Temples were centres of territorial administration. [3] Peye claimed divine legitimacy, as written on one Stele: “Amon of Napata has made me sovereign over every people.” [4] Priests of temple of Amum had “enormous influence.” [5] "The highest ranks in the priestly offices of Thebes were those of Gods’ Wife of Amun and the High Priest (First Prophet) of Amun." "Of the other major priesthoods of Amun at Thebes some, such as that of Second Prophet," seem to have ’gaps’ in the recorded holders." There was also a rank of Third Prophet and Fourth Prophet. [6] 1. King?2. Gods’ Wife of Amun3. High Priest or First Prophet of Amun4. Second Prophet5. Third Prophet6. Fourth Prophet ... ? ...... ? ... "A cult that may be specifically Twenty-fifth Dynasty in date is that of the Wadjty, the Two Serpent Goddesses: this may be connected with the two cobras worn by the Kushite kings. The priests of this cult also carry the title "Royal Friend," suggesting a close connection with the kingship." [7] [1]: (Török 1997, 144) [2]: (Török 1997, 179) [3]: (Török 1997, 171) [4]: (Mokhtar ed. 1981, 280) [5]: (Mokhtar ed. 1981, 318) [6]: (Morkot 2013, 962) [7]: (Morkot 2014, 11) Morkot, Robert G. Thebes under the Kushites. in Pischikova, Elena. ed. 2014. Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. American University in Cairo Press. |
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levels. At least three: (1) Sanga/Shangum (2) Senior staff (diviners, exorcists, lamentation priests), (3) Snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, singers, barbers, chefs.
"The more important or specialist cultic officials (“priests,” although there was no blanket Mesopotamian term with this meaning), administrative staff, scribes, and artisans would have been permanent employees of the temple[...] At their head was the sanga / shangum (chief priest), whose role was as much administrative as religious. Others had a more exclusively ritual role, headed by the en priest or en / entum priestess, who was the spouse of the city deity: This post lapsed after the OB period, although it was revived by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadrezzar II. Other cultic personnel included snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, and singers, and more senior staff included diviners, exorcists, and lamentation priests". [1] [1]: (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. |
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"The god Aššur and the city of Aššur are inseparable, as the deity is the personification of the rocky crag that towers high above a bend of the river Tigris."
[1]
1. KingAssur’s representative on Earth and the highest priest. [2] 2. High Priests 3. Other priestsPriests and astrologers. [3] Priests and diviners. Sacrifices. Sheep livers examined for omens. [4] [1]: (Radler 2014) [2]: (Chadwick 2005, 75-76) [3]: (Davidson 2012, 28) [4]: (Chadwick 2005, 77) |
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levels.
Hindu religion. "Followers of both Siva and Visnu, referred to as Mahesvaras and Bhagavatas respectively, were prevalent among the upper classes and each probably occurred with equal frequence, among the elite + the kings. (Impressive sculptures of Brahma have also been found, but nothing is said about his cult.) ... Village worshippers favoured the Devi (goddess)" [1] "Some kings ... adopted the title ’Dharmamaharaja’ which suggests, in the absence of any clear indications of their religious allegiance, at the very least their ecumenical attitude to all faiths (and it might allow speculation about their Buddhist leanings since there is evidence that they were great patrons of the Buddhist Sangha)." [1] Royal court patronised religious institutions and foundations. This could be through financing building projects or gifts of money or land. The Gupta’s "patronage extended to religions other than their personal persuasions, thus spreading an atmosphere of religious tolerance throughout the realm." [2] Rudrasena II of the Vakatakas, possibly inspired by the Guptas (he was married to a Gupta princess), "initiated a tradition of large-scale religious patronage within the Vakataka kingdom." [2] Gupta-Vakataka age: "The followers of the different religions, however, lived in harmony and there was complete toleration. Hindu kings endowed Buddhist monasteries. Buddhist kings performed Hindu rituals. In the same family some members followed the Buddhist, and some the Vedic religion." [3] "The hill of Ramtek in Maharashtra was a major religious centre of the Vakataka dynasty during the Gupta-Vakataka period, which is considered a time of momentous change in Indian history with significant cultural, political and religious developments." [4] [1]: Karel, Werner. 1998. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. 8. pp 459-461. The Vakaṭakas. An Essay in Hindu Iconology. By Hans T. Bakker. (Gonda Indological Studies, Vol V). 1997. pp. xiv, 211. Pl. xlvii. [2]: Bakker, Hans. October 2010. Royal Patronage and Religious Tolerance: The Formative Period of Gupta-Vakataka Culture. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Third Series. Vol. 20. No. 4. pp.461-475. [3]: (Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 9) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. [4]: Lacey, Harriet. Department of Archaeology. Durham University. https://www.dur.ac.uk/research/directory/staff/?mode=staff&id=10069 |
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levels.
1. King Naram-Sin may have been a high priest at the Eulmash temple in Agade. [1] 2. Priests and Priestesses of eight sanctuaries "listed in Naram-Sin’s inscription recording his deification" [1] "Naram-sin placed three of his daughters in key cultic positions. One of them, Tutanabsham, became high priestess of Enlil at Nippur; so important was this event that a year was named after it, which states that she was chosen by divination. A second, Enmenanna, became high priestess of the moon-god at Ur, successor to her great-aunt Enheduanna. A third, Shumshani, became high priestess of the sun-god at Sippar. Since these three sanctuaries are among the eight listed in Naram-Sin’s inscription recording his deification, it is tempting to speculate that progeny or close relatives of Naram-Sin may have served in the other five, creating a network of family alliances linking Naram-Sin with the gods." [1] 3. Sanga (leading administrator subordinate to local governor)4. Lay personnel (Stewards, weavers, herdsmen etc.)5. Lay personnel 3. Lesser priest?4. Professional cult singers, dream interpreters, performers of rituals Temples usually largest building in a Sumerian city. "organized as manors, with an enclosed central complex for religious rites, as well as ancillary buildings, including staff residences, barns, and storage buildings. The leading cultic figure was a high priest or priestess, and the leading administrator was the sanga. The sanga had previously overseen the temple lands, gardens, herds, flocks, and other resources, but now, in Sumer at least, he was subordinate to both the local governor and the representatives of the king’s household. ... Temple personnel numbered in the hundreds. There were stewards, herdsmen, building attendants, weavers, cultivators, and boatmen,as well as laborers, some of whom were dedicated to temple service by their families. ... such professionals as cult singers, dream interpreters, and performers of rituals." [2] tablets that refer to the administration of the temple of Tishpak tell of boys and girls entering temple service, girls who learn singing in the temple conservatory. [3] "Akkadian ruler’s assumption of the right to appoint high priestesses and other key cultic personnel." [4] In governor’s records at Lagash reference to high priestess of Ilaba, "one of the patron deities of Agade", who held over 400 hectares of arable land, which was administered by the local governor." [5] "The ancient city-states were reorganized into provinces, and the ancient temples were now dependent on the Akkadian king for support, renovation, dedications and gifts." [6] in centre: north/south religious split. "The new deification of the king and the role of the goddess of Akkad, Ishtar, characterised the north. On the contrary, the south was still centred on the authority of city-gods and of the supreme Sumerian deity, Enlil, god of Nippur. The kings of Akkad paid considerable attention to Enlil and Nippur." [7] [1]: (Foster 2016, 22) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. [2]: (Foster 2016, 42-43) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. [3]: (Foster 2016, 57) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. [4]: (Foster 2016, 46) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. [5]: (Foster 2016, 42) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. [6]: (Foster 2016, 44) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. [7]: (Leverani 2014, 138) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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levels.
"Communities were united and motivated by common religious beliefs, visible from the various cultic artefacts and objects found ... This religiosity had two main complementary aspect: a funerary aspect, linked, through ancestral cults, to the patriarchal structure of these communities (an aspect that was already visible in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B); and a fertility aspect (human, animal and agrarian), brought to the fore by the development of food production techniques." [1] In the later Uruk phase "Urban Revolution" c3800-3000 BCE that the following quote refers to religious ideology became more complex, so can infer still low level religious complexity in this period: "Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality." [2] [1]: (Leverani 2014, 42) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [2]: (Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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levels.
In the 7000-6000 BCE period we get first reference that: "Communities were united and motivated by common religious beliefs, visible from the various cultic artefacts and objects found ... This religiosity had two main complementary aspect: a funerary aspect, linked, through ancestral cults, to the patriarchal structure of these communities (an aspect that was already visible in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B); and a fertility aspect (human, animal and agrarian), brought to the fore by the development of food production techniques." [1] [1]: (Leverani 2014, 42) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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levels.
King "The king himself was not only his kingdom’s war leader, but also its supreme judicial authority and chief priest." [1] Priests SANGA (het. sankunni-). The distinction of priests of the great (SANGA GAL) and priests minor (SANGA TUR) was made. [2] Eg. priest GUDU, priestess "lady of daity" (EREŚ.DINGER), priestess "mother of God" (AMA DINGIR). [3] Different priests (eg. priest tazzeli, priest hamina-). [3] [1]: (Bryce 2007, 11) [2]: Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 206, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259 [3]: Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 207, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259 |
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levels.
In the 7000-6000 BCE period we get first reference that: "Communities were united and motivated by common religious beliefs, visible from the various cultic artefacts and objects found ... This religiosity had two main complementary aspect: a funerary aspect, linked, through ancestral cults, to the patriarchal structure of these communities (an aspect that was already visible in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B); and a fertility aspect (human, animal and agrarian), brought to the fore by the development of food production techniques." [1] [1]: (Leverani 2014, 42) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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levels.
1. Holy manThe cremated remains of what appears to have been a ritual specialist at Osteria dell’Osa have been found, accompanied by a small figurine depicting a human making an offering, as well as a miniaturised sacrificial knife, a ritually broken pot and miniaturised vessels of the kind that were used to make ritual offerings [1] . [1]: T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 52 |
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levels. Ethnohistoric records written by the Spanish after 1520 describe the presence of full-time priests, or bigaña, during this period.
[1]
The bigaña were ranked beneath the uija-táo (or great seer) and above the ueza-eche, huetete colanij (sacrifice or diviner),
[2]
although the extent to which these ranks can be inferred back to the whole period are not known.
1. First rank-uija-táo-“great seer” 2. Second rank-vuijatáo copa pitáo bigaña-“priest”/ bigaña-“young priest” or “student priest”3. Third rank-ueza-eche, huetete colanij-“sacrifice” or “diviner” [1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). "Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos." American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p376 [2]: Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People. New York. p350 |
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"many religions flourished within the Parthian empire; in addition to Judaism, various Hellenistic, Babylonian, and other cults were observed in the cities of Dura, Palmyra, and elsewhere. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the Good Religion of the Mazdayasnians continued to be cultivated. Though Zoroastrianism as we know it from Sasanid times may have taken shape in the Arsacid period, we have no way to trade its developent. In general, the Parthians were as flexible and tolerant in religious matters as they were in politics and, at best, in Frye’s judgment, we may speak of a ’general Mazdayasnian religious predominace,’ within which were many subdivisions and even aberrations. Nonetheless, the dominant influence in Parthian religion was that of the Magi, who were, as in later periods, in charge of formal rites and cultic acitivities, though their influence on the religions of the Babylonian area was limited by the existence of powerful competing traditions."
[1]
_Mazdayasnianism_ _Zoroastrianism_ "... the part played by Zoroastrianism in the Parthian state has not been entirely clarified." [2] 1. Chief priest 2. Priest3. ? _Christianity_ Religions and full-time religious professionals were present within the Parthian realm including Christian bishops. [3] Can we code for Christian church? 1. ? 2. Bishop3. ? _Mithraism_ Cult of Mithra spread from the Parthian Empire to Rome (originated in India? bronze age?). "Contrary to other religions of the same type, such as the cults of Isis and Osiris, Serapis, Dionysus (all well-known examples), Mithraicism eschewed any external manifestations and depended only on its initiatory nature to recruit its followers. ... it gradually became a common faith for soldiers, civil servants, merchants ... The members joined a spirituality of an initiatory type ... shared with a large group of solar faiths ... that promised both a life near to the deity and a personal redemption." [4] "From the end of the first century B.C.E. we have evidence of a cult coming from the East and gradually and discretely conquering the Roman army and administration (Daniels). This god, previously unknown to the Romans, was called Mithra. Some historians believe (see Plutarch, Pomp. 24.7) that the notorius Cilician pirates defeated by Pompeius propagated this cult when deported in Calabria. We now believe that it was a late transformation of the god Mithra, the friendly protector of contracts .... and defender of true and just causes." [5] "We must also stress that this god retained, in his manifestation in the Roman Empire, his essential characteristics of friend and guardian of contracts." [6] In Rome "Mithra probably won over even the imperial house. We are wary about the well-known initiation of the emperor Nero to the mysteries of the Magi through Tiridates (see Turcan 1989:237). However, it seems that the emperor Commodus (192) was an unworthy adept of the mysteries, because he was suspected of having killed a fellow-adept during a ceremony simulating a ritual sacrifice. The imperial house had a much worthier adept in Diocletian and his colleagues of the Tetrarchy: Galerius and Licinius. The god is then called the fautor imperii sui, the "protector of the imperial power" (Inscription of Carnuntum in 307)." [7] Mithracism was very successful in the Parthian Empire. Mithracism: "on the social level people learned, in the ’Persic Cavern’, to respect the contract linking the human being to the cosmos and to the gods, and then, at least in an implicit way, to respect the emperors, who were divine beings, as intermediaries between the sky and the earth. The faithfulness to a vivifying cosmic order was thus accompanied by faithfulness to the one representing this order on earth. It is not surprising, then, that Mithra was invoked as Jupiter Dolichenus for the salvation of the emperor. In time, a cult ascribed to the enemies gets mixed up with the worship of the protecting gods of Rome!" [7] [1]: (Neusner 2008, 19) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. [2]: Lukonin, V.G., ‘Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol. III, P.713. [3]: (Raschke 1976, 824) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter. [4]: (Decharneux (2004, 94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [5]: (Decharneux 2004, 93) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [6]: (Decharneux 2004, 93-94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [7]: (Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. |
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"many religions flourished within the Parthian empire; in addition to Judaism, various Hellenistic, Babylonian, and other cults were observed in the cities of Dura, Palmyra, and elsewhere. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the Good Religion of the Mazdayasnians continued to be cultivated. Though Zoroastrianism as we know it from Sasanid times may have taken shape in the Arsacid period, we have no way to trade its developent. In general, the Parthians were as flexible and tolerant in religious matters as they were in politics and, at best, in Frye’s judgment, we may speak of a ’general Mazdayasnian religious predominace,’ within which were many subdivisions and even aberrations. Nonetheless, the dominant influence in Parthian religion was that of the Magi, who were, as in later periods, in charge of formal rites and cultic acitivities, though their influence on the religions of the Babylonian area was limited by the existence of powerful competing traditions."
[1]
_Mazdayasnianism_ _Zoroastrianism_ "... the part played by Zoroastrianism in the Parthian state has not been entirely clarified." [2] 1. Chief priest 2. Priest3. ? _Christianity_ Religions and full-time religious professionals were present within the Parthian realm including Christian bishops. [3] Can we code for Christian church? 1. ? 2. Bishop3. ? _Mithraism_ Cult of Mithra spread from the Parthian Empire to Rome (originated in India? bronze age?). "Contrary to other religions of the same type, such as the cults of Isis and Osiris, Serapis, Dionysus (all well-known examples), Mithraicism eschewed any external manifestations and depended only on its initiatory nature to recruit its followers. ... it gradually became a common faith for soldiers, civil servants, merchants ... The members joined a spirituality of an initiatory type ... shared with a large group of solar faiths ... that promised both a life near to the deity and a personal redemption." [4] "From the end of the first century B.C.E. we have evidence of a cult coming from the East and gradually and discretely conquering the Roman army and administration (Daniels). This god, previously unknown to the Romans, was called Mithra. Some historians believe (see Plutarch, Pomp. 24.7) that the notorius Cilician pirates defeated by Pompeius propagated this cult when deported in Calabria. We now believe that it was a late transformation of the god Mithra, the friendly protector of contracts .... and defender of true and just causes." [5] "We must also stress that this god retained, in his manifestation in the Roman Empire, his essential characteristics of friend and guardian of contracts." [6] In Rome "Mithra probably won over even the imperial house. We are wary about the well-known initiation of the emperor Nero to the mysteries of the Magi through Tiridates (see Turcan 1989:237). However, it seems that the emperor Commodus (192) was an unworthy adept of the mysteries, because he was suspected of having killed a fellow-adept during a ceremony simulating a ritual sacrifice. The imperial house had a much worthier adept in Diocletian and his colleagues of the Tetrarchy: Galerius and Licinius. The god is then called the fautor imperii sui, the "protector of the imperial power" (Inscription of Carnuntum in 307)." [7] Mithracism was very successful in the Parthian Empire. Mithracism: "on the social level people learned, in the ’Persic Cavern’, to respect the contract linking the human being to the cosmos and to the gods, and then, at least in an implicit way, to respect the emperors, who were divine beings, as intermediaries between the sky and the earth. The faithfulness to a vivifying cosmic order was thus accompanied by faithfulness to the one representing this order on earth. It is not surprising, then, that Mithra was invoked as Jupiter Dolichenus for the salvation of the emperor. In time, a cult ascribed to the enemies gets mixed up with the worship of the protecting gods of Rome!" [7] [1]: (Neusner 2008, 19) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. [2]: Lukonin, V.G., ‘Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol. III, P.713. [3]: (Raschke 1976, 824) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter. [4]: (Decharneux (2004, 94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [5]: (Decharneux 2004, 93) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [6]: (Decharneux 2004, 93-94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. [7]: (Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra’s Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL. |
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levels.
At time of Concordat of Worms (1122 CE). "Now the clergy were organized in a hierarchical line under the direction of the pope, who could trump the power of local custom, tradition, and even episcopal power. Below the pope stood the bishop. Responsible for maintaining clerical discipline and for overseeing the property of the church, he was answerable only to the pope. Only he could perform all the sacraments; he alone performed the sacrament of confirmation and by the sacrament of ordination passed on his power to others. Theoretically, canon law held that he would be elected by the clergy and people of his diocese. In practice, he was elected only by the canon priests attached to the cathedral. Considered high clergy, the canons aided the bishop in furthering his agenda, administering the diocese and performing rituals at the cathedral church. At their head was the dean, the highest officer in the diocese. A diocesian chancellor supervised the cathedral school and issued licenses allowing clerics to teach and preach in the diocese. A treasurer oversaw finances, while a precentor managed the choir and organized the cathedral’s musical program. Each diocese was divided into administrative districts, over which presided the archdeacons. Practically, these were powerful men; they were the bishop’s legates, charged with enforcing discipline among the lower clergy, and therefore they were often quite unpopular. ... The parish priests were answerable to them." [1] 1. Pope From Innocent III, title "Vicar for Christ" became standard. [2] "the prestige of the papacy grew steadily in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Popes were now without doubt the heads of the churches and the entire body of Christians, called Christendom (Christianitas). More and more, Christians felt a primary allegiance to this supranational, supernatural corporate body, an allegiance that, many came to feel, superseded their fidelity and obligations to local or regional communities." [3] 2. Archdeacon, of a dianocal collegeArchdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. [4] Following the 1059 decree Decretum in Nomine Domini, only cardinals could elect a new pope. [5] . Furthermore, only cardinals could become popes. Silvester IV (1105-1111), an anti-pope, was the last pope who was not a cardinal before his elevation. [6] College of cardinals. [7] 3. Deacons, of a dianocal collegeThere were seven regional deacons of Rome. [8] 4. Subdeacon, of a college of subdeaconsThere was a college of subdeacons. [4] Regionary sub-deacons. [9] 5. AcolytesRome’s ecclesiastical structure contained a diaconal college with seven regional deacons of Rome, possessing in turn a staff of subdeacons and acolytes. These subdeacons dealt with property and relief for poor. The number increased as responsibilities of Papacy increased. 19 by Gregory I. [8] 2. Archpriest, of a collegePapal administration was collegiate: priests formed a college, headed by the archpriest, which was less important than dianocal college headed by archdeacon. Archdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. [4] 3. Priests, of a college 2. Metropolitan"Santiago was in 1120 made a metropolitan see by the pope." [10] Metropolitan had authority over a province [11] 3. Bishops in diocese "the slow monopolization of ecclesiastical benefices by papal provision, from the highest (archbishoprics) to the lowest (cures for village churches)." [12] 4. Dean 5. Canon priests attached to cathedral 5. Diocesian chancellor 6. Diocesian clergy"After 2015 ... cathedral chancellors were required to furnish their diocesan clergy with some instruction in theology." [13] 5. Treasurer 5. Precenter 4. Archdeacons of administrative districts 5. Priests in ParishThere were multiple parishes in each episcopal diocese, and dozens or hundreds in larger dioceses such as the city of Rome. "by the year 1000 it was the priest who really emerged as the religious and even educational leader of the local church." [14] "the slow monopolization of ecclesiastical benefices by papal provision, from the highest (archbishoprics) to the lowest (cures for village churches)." [12] [1]: (Madigan 2015, 144-145) [2]: (Moore 2003, 29) [3]: (Madigan 2015, 145) [4]: (Richards 1979, 290-292) [5]: di Carpegna Falconieri, 65 [6]: di Carpegna Falconieri, 64 [7]: (Kleinhenz 2004, 853) [8]: (Richards 1979, 293) [9]: (Partner 1972, 1) [10]: (Madigan 2015, 333) [11]: (Madigan 2015, 14) [12]: (Madigan 2015, 295) [13]: (Madigan 2015, 310) [14]: (Madigan 2015, 83) |
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Theodoric was an Arian Christian but the people remained Roman Catholic. Bishop Epiphanius moderated Theodoric’s view of Romans
[1]
The Arian church had "bishops, priests, even a few scholars commenting on the scriptures"
[2]
However, Burns argues, due to retention of pagan belief system among nobility and commoners, "it is necessary to understand their Arianism as a tribal religion and not as some lingering form of Alexandrian heresy."
[3]
_Catholic Church_ 1. Emperor in Constantinople "The first seven "ecumenical" ... councils were gathered by the Roman (or, later, Byzantine) emperors." [4] 1. Bishop of a patriarchate "The churches organized themselves along the lines laid down by the geography and political order of the empire. A city (civitas), along with its surrounding rural perimeter, the foundation of imperial organization, also formed the basic unit of ecclesiastical structure. Virtually every Roman city, many of them quite small, had its own bishop. He exercised his authority over a "diocese" that ordinarily coincided with the boundaries of the civitas. These dioceses were then grouped into provinces, over which a metropolitan, the bishop of a province’s principal city, held sway. Eventually, provinces themselves were organized into large "patriarchates," each lead by one of the five preeminent bishops of the church: those in Rome, Constantinople (called "New Rome," second in prestige to the Old), Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem." [4] 2. Metropolitan, with authority over a province 3. Bishop in civitas, with authority over a diocese 4. Presbyters or priests (elders)"Evidence from the second century suggests that a wide variety of models for local clergy existed throughout the Roman Empire. Yet the one to prevail was a three-tiered, hierarchical. In this model, the bishop served as leader of the local community and was assisted by presbyters or priests (elders) and deacons. Again, this model was established in the Antioch of Ignatius, as he underscores emphatically the necessity of gathering for learning, ritual, and teaching around a single bishop. By the end of the century this three-tiered form of ministry had spread to most early Catholic communities throughout the empire, and it would soon become the sole authoritative manner of organizing local ecclesial communities." [5] 5. Deacons [1]: (Bradley 2005, 153) [2]: (Burns 1991, 161) [3]: (Burns 1991, 160-161) [4]: (Madigan 2015, 21) [5]: (Madigan 2015, 14) |
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levels. Pope; cardinals; archbishops; bishops, abbots, and directors of the religious orders; parish priests and rank and file of the religious orders; deacons
1. Pope: The undisputed head of the Roman Catholic Church, and pontifex maximus 2. Cardinals: Since the Middle Ages, they had assumed ever-greater powers in the Church, electing popes, overseeing dioceses in some cases, and handling theological disputes 3. Archbishops: Overseers of suffragan bishoprics; some archbishops were cardinals 4. Bishops, abbots, directors of the religious orders: Bishops of individual dioceses (such as the bishop of Lucca); abbots, heads of abbeys; directors of the religious orders: The leaders of orders such as the Jesuits, Carmelites, and Franciscans. 5. Parish priests and the rank and file of the orders: The quotidian representatives of the Church, corresponding to the parish. 6. deacons: usually, charged with the upkeep of churches; the Roman deacons still probably played a role in the upkeep of the city. |
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Very little is known about religious system during Old Assyrian Colony period in Anatolian kingdoms. Published cuneiform tablets often mention names of gods, but as the role of temples in the economic system is unclear, and hardly ever spoken about, there is not much trace of religious hierarchy. Priests are called kumurum and knowledge about their existence comes from tablet on which they are mentioned as witnesses to the economic transactions.
[1]
[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 139 |
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levels. These levels apply to the temple state in Cappadocia, as described by Strabo: “It is a considerable city; its inhabitants, however, consist mostly of ‘divinely inspired’ people and the sacred slaved who live in it. Its inhabitants are Kataonians, who, though in a general way classified as subjects of the king, are in most respects subject to the priest. The priest is master of the temple, and also of the sacred slaved, who, on my sojourn there, were more than six thousand in number, both men and women together. Also, considerable territory belongs to the temple, and the revenue is enjoyed by the priest. He is second in rank in Cappadocia after the king. (12.2.3)”
[1]
1. King 2. Priests, of the temple state, who ruled over the temple servants and were second only to the king [2] 3. Temple servants4. Sacred slaves (hierodouloi) - the slaves belonged to the temple state (not even the priests could sell them) [3] [1]: Potter, D. (2003) Hellenistic Religion. In, Erskine, A. (ed.) A Companion to the Hellenistic World. Blackwell: Malden, Oxford, pp 407-430. p424-425 [2]: Sökmen, E. (2009) Characteristics of the Temple States in Pontos. In, Højte, J. M. (ed.) Mithridates VI and the Pontic Kingdom. Aarhus University Press. p279-280 [3]: Sökmen, E. (2009) Characteristics of the Temple States in Pontos. In, Højte, J. M. (ed.) Mithridates VI and the Pontic Kingdom. Aarhus University Press. p280 |
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[1]
[2]
[3]
1. Pontifex maximus 2. Colleges (flamines, augurs, pontifices, vestals)Three colleges of religious officials. 1. augurs 2. decemviri sacris faciundis 3. pontifices 3. high priests of imperial cult in provinces4. priests for a deity (running a specific temple or sanctuary) "Freelance" religious officials (soothsayers, oracles, seers, etc). This hierarchy refers to the state religion only. Six Vestals, appointd by pontifex maximus. Girls 6-10 with two living parents served 30 years during which time had to remain chaste. After 30 released and free to marry. Duties included: tend sacred fire and sacred objects "on which the survival of Rome depended (such as the ’palladium’)"; making salt cakes used at sacrifices; various rituals and ceremonial appearances. Vestals had unique "old-fashioned and heavy" costumes and impressive hairstyles "which other women only wore on their wedding". "Because a vestal’s person was sacrosanct, she could not be executed. Instead, she was entombed in an underground chamber with a bed, a lamp, and some food and water, and left to die. Male accomplices were publicly flogged to death." [4] "The vestal virgins were responsible for maintaining the temple of Vesta and performing the rites of the goddess. They ensured that her holy flame, said to have been brought from Troy, was not extingished." [4] The vestal virgins had many privileges: "Wills and treaties were in their keeping, and they themselves could make a will. They could conduct business in their own name. They could give evidence in court without taking an oath. ... If they accidentally met a criminal on his way to execution, he was spared." [4] ; "any injury to them was punishable by death; they could own and administer their own property ...; when they went out they were preceded by a lictor and had complete right of way on the streets; they could even drive in carriages within the city limits (otherwise only permitted to empresses)." [5] ; given prominent seats at games. [6] [1]: (Stearns 2001) [2]: (Rives 2007) [3]: (North and Price 2011) [4]: (McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World’s Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [5]: (Claridge 1998, 103) Claridge, Amanda. 1998. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [6]: (McKeown 2010, 15) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World’s Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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Inferred continuity with preceding polity.
1. Master 2. Disciple |
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levels. Paganism.
1. King "Their religion is paganism and the worship of idols. When their king dies they construct over the place where his tomb will be an enormous dome of acacia wood." [1] 2. Sorcerers"In the king’s town and not far from his court of justice, is a mosque where the Muslims who arrive at his court pray. Around the king’s town are domed buildings and groves and thickets where the sorcerers of these people, men in charge of the religious cult, live." [2] ?. Heads of clans"the basic social and political unit appears in the past to have been the small local group, bound together by ties of kinship. When a number of groups came together they formed a clan. The heads of local clans were usually responsible for certain religious rites connected with the land." [3] Not Islamic until end of polity "In former times the people of this country professed paganism until the year 469/1076-1077 when Yahya b. Abu Bakr the amir of Masufa made his appearance." [4] "In Ghana king and commoners remained loyal to their ancestral religion." [5] "For the sake of administrative support, legitimization, and commercial contacts, the rulers of Kawkaw, Takrur, Ghana, and Bornu adopted Islam in the late tenth and eleventh centuries. Islam became an imperial cult and the religion of state and trading elites, while the agricultural populations maintained their traditional beliefs." [6] Islam in Kumbi-Saleh "mosques and religious functionaries including imams, muezzins, Quran reciters, and scholars. The Muslims provided the ruler with interpreters and officials." [7] King was supreme judge "Au sommet de l’Etat, on a le roi; on le designe sous plusieurs appellations Kaya Maghan qui signifie roi de l’or en langue Ouakare, Tounka qui veut dire Seigneur ou Dieu. Ses pouvoirs etaient tres etendus: il etait le juge supreme. Il rendait la justice en tenant compte de l’appartenance religieuse. Ses sujets qui dans l’ensemble appartenaient à la religion traditionnelle etaient juges selon la coutume,les musulmans, eux, l’etaient sur la base du Coran." At the top of the state, was the King; means the under several names "Kaya Maghan" meaning gold king in language Ouakaré "Tounka" meaning Lord or God. His powers were very extensive: he was the supreme judge. He dispensed justice in the light of religious affiliation. His subjects in all belonged to the traditional religion were judged according to custom, Muslims, themselves, were based on the Koran. [8] [1]: (Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 16) [2]: (Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 15) [3]: (Bovill 1958, 53) [4]: (Al-Zuhri c1130-1155 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 24-25) [5]: (Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 10) [6]: (Lapidus 2012, 590) [7]: (Lapidus 2012, 591) [8]: (Kabore, P. http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/) |
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levels. Temples were constructed at the primary and secondary centres of the valley, with potential public buildings also at tertiary centres which may have had a religious function. The primary and secondary temples followed a standard plan, suggesting religious uniformity between these centres.
[1]
[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York, p82 |
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The Venetian religious policy "expected the Greeks to abandon their traditional form of Christianity and accept Latin rites and doctrines."
[1]
Using same code as for Papal States of this period, which was coded and referenced by our expert Joe Figliulo-Rosswurm. Pope; Cardinals and legates; archbishops; bishops and abbots; parish priests and members of the religious orders; deacons. 1. Pope: The pope was, of course, the universally-acknowledged leader of Latin Christendom. This does not contradict the fact that who exactly was the legitimate pope was often contested during the period 1378-1418, during the Great Schism. During this period the papacy arrogated to itself the right to appoint bishops, negating the tradition of bishops being elected by their flock in conjunction with the priesthood. [2] 2. Cardinals and legates: The cardinalate was crucial in theological decision-making and the religious aspects of papal government; legates, similarly, handled religious matters abroad on occasion. 3. Archbishops: To a certain extent, archbishops were equivalent to cardinals, but there were more of them, distributed throughout Christendom. They supervised their suffragan bishops and bishoprics, while also overseeing their own (a good example is the Archbishop of Milan). 4. Bishops and abbots: Bishops were the crucial link between local religion and the papacy. There were 263 bishoprics in 14th century Italy. [3] Abbots sometimes played a role beyond the walls of their monasteries, although by this point once-powerful regional centers such as Farfa were in decline in Lazio. 5. Parish priests and members of the religious orders: These constituted the mundane religious level. Parish priests embodied Christianity for their flock, for the most part, since they said Mass, heard confession and, in general, were (supposed to) serve as the quotidian face of the organized Church. Members of the religious orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, and so forth) also were a common part of the Church’s presence, especially in the towns. [4] [1]: (McNeill 1986, 33-34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. [2]: Peterson, [3]: Najemy, 62 [4]: For Franciscan activity in the Tuscan countryside in a slightly early period, see de La Roncière. |
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The Venetian religious policy "expected the Greeks to abandon their traditional form of Christianity and accept Latin rites and doctrines."
[1]
Using same code as for Papal States of this period, which was coded and referenced by our expert Joe Figliulo-Rosswurm. Pope; Cardinals and legates; archbishops; bishops and abbots; parish priests and members of the religious orders; deacons. 1. Pope: The pope was, of course, the universally-acknowledged leader of Latin Christendom. This does not contradict the fact that who exactly was the legitimate pope was often contested during the period 1378-1418, during the Great Schism. During this period the papacy arrogated to itself the right to appoint bishops, negating the tradition of bishops being elected by their flock in conjunction with the priesthood. [2] 2. Cardinals and legates: The cardinalate was crucial in theological decision-making and the religious aspects of papal government; legates, similarly, handled religious matters abroad on occasion. 3. Archbishops: To a certain extent, archbishops were equivalent to cardinals, but there were more of them, distributed throughout Christendom. They supervised their suffragan bishops and bishoprics, while also overseeing their own (a good example is the Archbishop of Milan). 4. Bishops and abbots: Bishops were the crucial link between local religion and the papacy. There were 263 bishoprics in 14th century Italy. [3] Abbots sometimes played a role beyond the walls of their monasteries, although by this point once-powerful regional centers such as Farfa were in decline in Lazio. 5. Parish priests and members of the religious orders: These constituted the mundane religious level. Parish priests embodied Christianity for their flock, for the most part, since they said Mass, heard confession and, in general, were (supposed to) serve as the quotidian face of the organized Church. Members of the religious orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, and so forth) also were a common part of the Church’s presence, especially in the towns. [4] [1]: (McNeill 1986, 33-34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. [2]: Peterson, [3]: Najemy, 62 [4]: For Franciscan activity in the Tuscan countryside in a slightly early period, see de La Roncière. |
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levels.
_Great Temple in Hattusa_ 1. King "The king himself was not only his kingdom’s war leader, but also its supreme judicial authority and chief priest." [1] "the gods’ agent-in-chief on earth." [2] 2. Tawananna "reigning queen and chief consort of the king, high priestess of the Hittite realm and sometimes a politically powerful figure in her own right, who retained her status until the end of her life even if she outlived her husband." [2] 3. Priests of the great4. Preists of the minor Priests SANGA (het. sankunni-). The distinction of priests of the great (SANGA GAL) and priests minor (SANGA TUR) was made. [3] ?. Scribes "In the thirteenth century some fifty-two scribes (including thirty-three scribes of the wooden tablets) were attached to the service of the Great Temple in Hattusa, making up just over a quarter of the temle’s total cult personnel." [4] ?. Scribes of the wooden tablets "In the thirteenth century some fifty-two scribes (including thirty-three scribes of the wooden tablets) were attached to the service of the Great Temple in Hattusa, making up just over a quarter of the temle’s total cult personnel." [4] Eg. priest GUDU, priestess "lady of daity" (EREŚ.DINGER), priestess "mother of God" (AMA DINGIR). [5] Different priests (eg. priest tazzeli, priest hamina-). [5] [1]: (Bryce 2007, 11) [2]: (Bryce 2002, 21) [3]: Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 206, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259 [4]: (Bryce 2002, 60) [5]: Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 207, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259 |
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For the administrative history, I would recommend C. IMBER, The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke. 2009.
[1]
Ulema Imams Ulema means "scholars" - they are scholars of the Quran and the holy law, but not priests in the sense of rituals etc. But one should discuss this categorisation with an expert on Islam. [1] [1]: Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences. |
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[1]
1. Sultan Suleiman I called himself "caliph of all the Muslims in the world" [2] 2. Chief Mufticalled seyhulislam. Part of the ulema religious establishment. 3. Inner Circlecalled ilmiye. Part of the ulema religious establishment. 4. Imams "The population of the Empire was heterogenous in religion, language and social structure. As the Faith of the sultans and of the ruling elite, Islam was the dominant religion, but the Greek and Armenian Orthodox Churches retained an important place within the political structure of the Empire, and ministered to large Christian populations which, in many areas, outnumbered Muslims." There were also Jews (especially after expelled from Spain 1492), Maronites and Druzes. [3] [1]: (Palmer 1992) [2]: (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 20) [3]: (Imber 2002, 1-2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. |
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levels.
Same as earlier period as no new information to code higher. |
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levels.
Timur "Although he came from a conventional Sunni tradition, his Sufi credentials were bolstered through his patronage of the Naqshbandi order, centred in Bukhara, and his cultivation of the Sufi shaykhs of Mawarannahr and Khorasan, who enjoyed a prominent position in his court" [1] However, "Temur could just as easily pose as protector of the Shi’a tradition. [1] "The five daily prayers were a regular feature of life at Temur’s court. Wherever he campaigned, with him went the imams and the royal mosque, a sumptuously appointed pavilion made of the finest silk." [2] [1]: (Marozzi 2004, 93) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. [2]: (Marozzi 2004, 94) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. |
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levels.
(1) purohita (chief priest of the king)(2) royal hotar (sacrificer)(3) religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas(4) local priests ’Because all the Classic inscriptions deal with matters that are fundamentally religious in nature [...] we have much information on the central religious hierarchy, but little about the secular one. [...] The religious authorities and functionaries in the royal court were certainly almost entirely Brahmin caste [Level 2], although some priests in the provinces and villages [Level 1] may not have been so. Most of them may have received the honorific Khmer title of sten an, reserved for learned men. We already run across the purohita [Level 4]. In peninsular India, this Sanskrit word indicated a family priest or chaplain; in Classic Angkor, this important individual was the chaplain and chief priest of the king and, at least according to the self-serving Sdok Kak Thom stela, was a hereditary officer charged with maintaining the cult of the devajara. The Sanskrit title of hotar or ’sacrificer’ occurs frequently in the texts; this is also supposed to indicate ’royal chaplain’ - but the exact scope of the term is unclear since while the royal purohita of the devaraja was a hotar, there were other hotars [Level 3]. Most of these may have had important administrative roles. There were many religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas [Level 2]. As with many Classic Khmer titles, there is little information on whether these were or were not interchangeable.’ [1] [1]: (Coe 2003, 144) |
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levels. levels. Inferred continuity with previous stages.
(1) purohita (chief priest of the king)(2) royal hotar (sacrificer)(3) religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas(4) local priests ’Because all the Classic inscriptions deal with matters that are fundamentally religious in nature [...] we have much information on the central religious hierarchy, but little about the secular one. [...] The religious authorities and functionaries in the royal court were certainly almost entirely Brahmin caste [Level 2], although some priests in the provinces and villages [Level 1] may not have been so. Most of them may have received the honorific Khmer title of sten an, reserved for learned men. We already run across the purohita [Level 4]. In peninsular India, this Sanskrit word indicated a family priest or chaplain; in Classic Angkor, this important individual was the chaplain and chief priest of the king and, at least according to the self-serving Sdok Kak Thom stela, was a hereditary officer charged with maintaining the cult of the devajara. The Sanskrit title of hotar or ’sacrificer’ occurs frequently in the texts; this is also supposed to indicate ’royal chaplain’ - but the exact scope of the term is unclear since while the royal purohita of the devaraja was a hotar, there were other hotars [Level 3]. Most of these may have had important administrative roles. There were many religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas [Level 2]. As with many Classic Khmer titles, there is little information on whether these were or were not interchangeable.’ [1] [1]: (Coe 2003, 144) |
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levels. Ritual “Men’s Houses” at San José Mogote suggest that some members of the community may have had ritual roles during this phase.
[1]
[2]
[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). "The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11802 [2]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York, p48 |
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[1]
1. Sultan Suleiman I called himself "caliph of all the Muslims in the world" [2] 2. Chief Mufticalled seyhulislam. Part of the ulema religious establishment. 3. Inner Circlecalled ilmiye. Part of the ulema religious establishment. 4. Imams "The population of the Empire was heterogenous in religion, language and social structure. As the Faith of the sultans and of the ruling elite, Islam was the dominant religion, but the Greek and Armenian Orthodox Churches retained an important place within the political structure of the Empire, and ministered to large Christian populations which, in many areas, outnumbered Muslims." There were also Jews (especially after expelled from Spain 1492), Maronites and Druzes. [3] [1]: (Palmer 1992) [2]: (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 20) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. ’General Introduction’ in An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire. Volume One: 1300-1600 edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [3]: (Imber 2002, 1-2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. |
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levels.
1. Caliph. 2. Sultan. The title ’sultan’, "carried with it the notion of defender of the faith, but ... did not commit them to holy war". [1] 3. Jurists. The central concern of the madrasa was the study of law in this period. [2] 4. Imams [1]: Michael Brett, ‘State Formation and Organisation’, in Maribel Fierro (ed.), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 562. [2]: Muhammad Qasim Zaman, ‘Transmitters of Authority and Ideas across Cultural Boundaries, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 582-610. |
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levels.
The first Rasulid Sultan, Nur al-Din, caused "prayers to be said in his name in the mosques" although he sought and gained "formal authentication of his rule from the Abbasid caliph." [1] 1. Abbasid Caliph 2. Rasulid Sultan3. Imam4. ? [1]: (Stookey 1978, 108) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. |
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levels. All excavated sites have yielded evidence of local ritual practice, which has been interpreted as decentralized religious practices at the household, lineage, or village levels (and there have been no arguments for a religious hierarchy).
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[1]: Santley, Robert S. (1977). "Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico." Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425. [2]: Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization. Academic Press, New York, pg. 94-7, 305-334. [3]: Niederberger, Christine. (2000) "Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC." In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192. [4]: Paul Tolstoy. (1989) "Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico", In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, Robert J. Sharer & David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 87-121. |
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levels. There was a progressive change in religious cults in the area of Funan, the most radical one being the abandonment of inhumation practices in favour of cremation. The funerary practices incorporated gold leaves decorated with human forms with raised hands, one of which appears to represent Harihara, the combined image of Shiva and Vishnu.
[1]
This change seems to be in effect toward the 5th century CE, at the same time that Funanese rulers started to take on the Sanskrit honorific title of -varman (protected by, protege of). Indian gods were incorporated into the Funanese pantheon, particularly Siva, Visnu, and Buddha. The phallic symbol that represented Siva, the linga, was perceived as being the essence of the mandala.
[2]
. NOTE: data from ethnographic studies suggest that there was a pre-Indian religious strata that was eventually merged with Indian religions to become what today comprises the Khmer world view. In Khmer culture the world is divided into two landscapes that are marked by physical and psychological borders: the landscape of the village (srok) and the landscape of the wilderness (prei). The srok is the domesticated space of humans; the village, the paddy rice fields, a space of social organization
[3]
that is under the control of a Buddhist king
[4]
. The prei, on the other hand, is the forest, a place of uncertainty dominated by wild and dangerous spirits
[5]
[5]
beyond the control of Buddhism. This division is not immutable: forests can be cleared to create new srok, and a village may be overtaken by the forest and regain its position as prei. This perception of the world has been identified as the pre-Indian stratum of Khmer culture
[6]
. The term srok is recorded in the inscriptions as sruk, and defines a geographical/administrative entity.
[7]
Currently, the person in charge of establishing dialogues and interactions with the spirits is known as rup
[8]
. It is therefore possible to suggest that before merging Indian and local religions, the early Funanese people may have had a structured religious world view with levels, that is, with the presence of particular people who could act as intermediaries with the spirits. These hierarchical levels increased as the cult to Indian gods were incorporated. (RA’s guess).
[1]: (Higham 2004b, p. 29-31) [2]: (Higham 1989, p. 248) [3]: (Ang Choulean 2004, p. 58) [4]: (Aransen 2012, p. 54) [5]: (Forest 1992, p. 15-16) [6]: (Forest 1992) [7]: (Vickery 2003, p. 127) [8]: (Forest 1992, p.51) |
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levels. Temples were constructed at the primary and secondary centres of the valley, with potential public buildings also at tertiary centres which may have had a religious function. The primary and secondary temples followed a standard plan, suggesting religious uniformity between these centres.
[1]
For examples:
1. Head of the official cult, Monte Alban temple 2. Priest officiating from a secondary temple(3. Local priest officiating from a tertiary temple) However, there is no evidence that any existing religious hierarchy so closely matched settlement hierarchy. [1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York, p82 |
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levels.
"At Cahokia there may have been no difference between the religious and political hierarchy. They were interlocked, impossible to disentangle." [1] 1. Chief / Priest "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] "Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia." [3] "The central administrative complex represents the core of the Cahokian polity. The location of ridgetop mounds within this area may equate with kin groupings or other administrative units. East St. Louis, being newer, may have been a higher status community of isolated elites." [4] At Mound 72 "Analysis of the skeletal remains shows that certain burial groups were of higher status than others and that some may have come from places other than Cahokia." [5] New analysis of the skeletons in the burial suggest they were of a man and a woman. "’Now we realize we don’t have a system in which males are these dominant figures and females are playing bit parts,’ Emerson said. He explained that this interpretation of the beaded burial is more in line with what is known about the fertility and agricultural symbolism found in the rest of the ancient city." [6] "Ridge top mounds may also reflect ritual performances or “tableaus” associated with these mound and plaza complexes. In this control of ritual activity there may have also have been specialists in maintaining and performing specific rituals at various community levels." [7] 2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest? "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] "The answers provided by the working group seem to point to Cahokia being an urban settlement that was the center of a regional government, but the picture is not entirely clear." [3] "Regional political integration appears to have been an essentially ritual one; that is, the site hierarchy that is present appears to be more of a hierarchy of ritual spaces than of political jurisdictions." [3] "Cahokia was also the center of a regional government of some kind, at least for a short period of time." [3] "mound complexes may have been organized around sodalities rather than around kin groups. Perhaps these sodalities were secret societies" [2] "Mound and plaza groups may represent corporate (perhaps kin-based) political and ritual complexes, each of which would have been maintained by their own administrativespecialists or generalized leader." [7] "priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] 3. Elder / Religious functionary "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] kin group leaders [2] "lower-level religious functionaries" [2] [1]: (Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 23) [2]: (Iseminger 2014, 26) [3]: (Peregrine 2014, 31) [4]: (Peregrine/Emerson 2014, 14) [5]: (Iseminger 2010, 82) [6]: http://www.archaeology.org/news/4708-160805-cahokia-beaded-burial [7]: (Kelly 2014, 22) |
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From 1776 to 1910, the hierarchy of the Russian Orthodox Church, after the establishment of the Holy Synod in 1721, remained relatively consistent in its structure:
The Holy Synod (governing body in place of the Patriarch). Metropolitan (senior bishops overseeing large regions). Archbishop (overseeing archdioceses). Bishop (in charge of dioceses or eparchies). Priest (serving individual parishes). Deacon [1] [1]: Kallistos, The Orthodox Church, New ed. (London, England ; New York, N.Y: Penguin Books, 1993). Zotero link: LIM65SMM |
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Temples were present at this time but the standardised two-room temples was not yet present at Monte Alban, and so a permanent state religion of more than one organisational level cannot be inferred.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p161 |
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level. State religion existed during this period, based on evidence for two multi-room temples in neighbouring polity at El Palenque.
[1]
Standardised two-room temples were however not yet present at Monte Alban, and so a permanent state religion with more than one organisational level cannot be inferred.
[2]
[1]: Sherman, R. J., et al. (2010). "Expansionary dynamics of the nascent Monte Alban state." Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 29(3): 278-301, p282 [2]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p161 |
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levels. All excavated sites have yielded evidence of local ritual practice, which has been interpreted as decentralized religious practices at the household, lineage, or village levels (and there have been no arguments for a religious hierarchy).
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[1]: Santley, Robert S. (1977). "Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico." Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425. [2]: Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization. Academic Press, New York, pg. 94-7, 305-334. [3]: Niederberger, Christine. (2000) "Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC." In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192. [4]: Paul Tolstoy. (1989) "Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico", In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, Robert J. Sharer & David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 87-121. |
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levels. Clay figurines have been found but there is no evidence for a religious hierarchy at Mehrgarh.
[1]
“At Mehrgarh human figurines are miniature works of art in clay. The earliest human figurines in Periods I are seated or standing and schematically represented. They were formed from a single piece of clay, with minimal representation of arms and legs; a few were adorned with necklaces and belts applied to the basic figure. Some were decorated with red ochre. In general, they range in size from 1.5 to 10 centimeters. Many of the figurines have feminine characteristics - realistic breasts; one standing figure bears the hint of genitalia and is obviously male (Jarrige 2005: 30-31). Catherine Jarrige (1991, 2005) conducted extensive study of the Mehrgarh figurines. As she points out, their frequent presence in trash deposits gives the impression they were discarded haphazardly. However, there are several clues that may lead to an understanding of their significance to the people at Mehrgarh. One is reflected in the locations of trash deposits. Since many of the deposits are found in household areas, they may represent a domestic cult, perhaps associated with “representations of tutelary deities for the family, the clan or a relevant profession” (Jarrige 1991: 92). Another possibility is their use for magical practices, as is frequently the case in agrarian societies (Jarrige 1991: 92). The recent discovery of one of the pierced human figurines in a grave from Period I, in which the figurine was held to the dead woman’s face in clasped hands, may indicate something about the role she played in society (Jarrige 2005: 34). [1]: Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge |
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levels. Clay figurines have been found but there is no evidence for a religious hierarchy at Mehrgarh.
[1]
“At Mehrgarh human figurines are miniature works of art in clay. The earliest human figurines in Periods I are seated or standing and schematically represented. They were formed from a single piece of clay, with minimal representation of arms and legs; a few were adorned with necklaces and belts applied to the basic figure. Some were decorated with red ochre. In general, they range in size from 1.5 to 10 centimeters. Many of the figurines have feminine characteristics - realistic breasts; one standing figure bears the hint of genitalia and is obviously male (Jarrige 2005: 30-31). Catherine Jarrige (1991, 2005) conducted extensive study of the Mehrgarh figurines. As she points out, their frequent presence in trash deposits gives the impression they were discarded haphazardly. However, there are several clues that may lead to an understanding of their significance to the people at Mehrgarh. One is reflected in the locations of trash deposits. Since many of the deposits are found in household areas, they may represent a domestic cult, perhaps associated with “representations of tutelary deities for the family, the clan or a relevant profession” (Jarrige 1991: 92). Another possibility is their use for magical practices, as is frequently the case in agrarian societies (Jarrige 1991: 92). The recent discovery of one of the pierced human figurines in a grave from Period I, in which the figurine was held to the dead woman’s face in clasped hands, may indicate something about the role she played in society (Jarrige 2005: 34).
[1]: Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge |
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1. Ritual specialist
Clay figurines have been found but there is no evidence for a professional priesthood at Mehrgarh. [1] In the broader Early Harappan tradition there is evidence that there were priests, and Kenoyer refers to "ritual specialist". Howeverm Possehl says there is no evidence for a state religion. [2] [3] [1]: Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge [2]: Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark, ‘The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India’, Journal of World Prehistory, 5 (1991), 370 [3]: Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 6. |
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There is no evidence of a systematic religion at Pirak at this time.
[1]
There is little evidence for an integrated religious system, as regional cultures split from the previous Mature Harappan system.
[2]
[3]
In the broader context of the Mature Harappan there is evidence for priests, and Kenoyer refers to "ritual specialist".
[4]
[5]
[1]: Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard. [2]: Wright, R. P. (2010) The Ancient Indus: urbanism, economy and society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press [3]: Possehl, G. L. (2002) The Indus Civilization, A contemporary perspective. AltaMira Press: Walnut Creek. [4]: Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark, ‘The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India’, Journal of World Prehistory, 5 (1991), 370 [5]: Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 6. |
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levels.
_Hinduism_ There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism [1] . However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. [2] ), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels. _Jainism_ NOTE: I have found two equally authoritative sources on Jain hierarchy: (1) [3] 1. Arihants (ones who have conquered their inner enemies)2. Siddhas (Liberated Ones)3. Acharyas (who head the Order)4. Upadhyays (who teach the message)5. Sadhus (Monks/Seekers) (2) [4] 1. Guru (teacher)2. Monks 2. Male figure (not specified by author whether a monk) in charge of nuns3. Pravartini or ganini (aides to the male figure in charge of nuns)4. Nuns _Buddhism_ "Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to ’pure’ teachings and exemption from ’impure’ duties." [5] . [1]: http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556 [2]: G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4 [3]: Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319 [4]: M. Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka (2006), pp. 269-276 [5]: P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628 |
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levels.
Hindu temple structure |
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levels.
_Hinduism_ There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism [1] . However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. [2] ), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels. _Jainism_ NOTE: I have found two equally authoritative sources on Jain hierarchy: (1) [3] 1. Arihants (ones who have conquered their inner enemies)2. Siddhas (Liberated Ones)3. Acharyas (who head the Order)4. Upadhyays (who teach the message)5. Sadhus (Monks/Seekers) (2) [4] 1. Guru (teacher)2. Monks 2. Male figure (not specified by author whether a monk) in charge of nuns3. Pravartini or ganini (aides to the male figure in charge of nuns)4. Nuns _Buddhism_ "Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to ’pure’ teachings and exemption from ’impure’ duties." [5] . [1]: http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556 [2]: G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4 [3]: Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319 [4]: M. Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka (2006), pp. 269-276 [5]: P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628 |
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Many other faiths were practiced, and there were substantial religious communities of Buddhist, Hindu, and other faiths in the region. Sunni Islam was the politically dominant faith. In theory the Caliphate and their appointed governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) and aesthetics (Sufis) increasingly attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths were not clearly hierarchical and all were equal before Allah. In the Sind, a large percentage had converted by the beginning of the period. minority populations of followers of other faiths were most likely also present.
[1]
Sunni/Ismailism: 1. Caliph as head of the Muslim umma. 2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the Muslim world. The Samma were recent converts, and Hindu practitioners survived well after the initial period of conversion. [2] [1]: Lapidus, History of Islamic Society p. 82,p. 215; Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 183 [2]: Wink, André. "Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 1." Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th-11th Centuries (1990)pp.212-213 |
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Speculative. "The stone sculpture known as the Priest-King wears an elaborately decorated robe, draped to expose his chest and right shoulder. This was possibly a garment worn only by rulers or senior priests. [...] North of the Great Bath, shut off from the outside world, was an accommodation block with bathrooms on the ground floor and presumably sleeping quarters above. Since the Great Bath was most probably a religious facility, it is likely that these nearby buildings provided the residential and administrative quarters of the priests who served here."
[1]
1. Senior priest (Priest-King?) 2. Priest [1]: (McIntosh 2008, 252) Jane McIntosh. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. |
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levels.
[1]
1. Somdet Phra Sangharat (Supreme Patriarch) 2. Chao kana yai (Sangha general governors.There were three. 3. Phraracha kana"[T]he heads of monks in the capital and important provinces". [2] 4. Phra khru"The head monks of the lesser provinces". [2] 5. Abbots 6. Ordinary monks [1]: (Suksamran 1982, pp. 31-32) [2]: (Suksamran 1982, p. 32) |
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levels.
[1]
1. Somdet Phra Sangharat (Supreme Patriarch) 2. Chao kana yai (Sangha general governors.There were three. 3. Phraracha kana"[T]he heads of monks in the capital and important provinces". [2] 4. Phra khru"The head monks of the lesser provinces". [2] 5. Abbots 6. Ordinary monks [1]: (Suksamran 1982, pp. 31-32) [2]: (Suksamran 1982, p. 32) |
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Not mentioned by sources, would require expert input. Rituals in the Early Chalcolicthic include burials of all types. Most burials are located under the floors of houses, bodies stacked on the right side in hocker position. In many cases, the skull is missing. At Köşk Höyük, all burials have burial gifts such as vessels, beads, and obsidian tools. Anthropomorphic figurines have also been found, which are most probably connected to some unspecified rituals. Widespread standardisation and routinisation of ritual practices (e.g. burial, house burning, wall plastering) at Çatalhöyük suggests at least some religious hierarchy
[1]
.
[1]: Whitehouse, H. & Hodder, I. in Religion in the emergence of civilization: Çatalhöyük as a case study (ed. Hodder, I.) 122-145 (Cambridge University Press, 2010). |
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Many sources suggest that the people living in that era were worshiping their ancestors. There is also evidence for a cult linked with anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines. This was a common cult and the figurines related to this are found in many places. These figurines were made of clay and stone, sometimes painted with precision to show as many features as possible, and other times made schematically, not putting much emphasis on the details. The height of such figurines could vary from a few centimeters to even a meter or more. Interestingly, some of them do not have heads, and could have been intentionally deprived of them - thus suggesting a link with the cult of the skull, which started in the areas of Anatolia already in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A era.
|
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levels.
King1. "The king himself was not only his kingdom’s war leader, but also its supreme judicial authority and chief priest." [1] 2.Priests SANGA (het. sankunni-). The distinction of priests of the great (SANGA GAL) and priests minor (SANGA TUR) was made. [2] Eg. priest GUDU, priestess "lady of daity" (EREŚ.DINGER), priestess "mother of God" (AMA DINGIR). [3] 3. Different priests (eg. priest tazzeli, priest hamina-). [3] [1]: (Bryce 2007, 11) [2]: Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 206, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259 [3]: Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 207, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259 |
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levels.
No data. There were likely a number of religious levels in the temples. Have not read anything to suggest the king was the top priest (as in New Kingdom Hittite) but there are no literary records from this period and this might have been the case. However, since Lydia was a neo-Hittite state, it may be reasonable to code [3-4] based on the 4 levels coded for the New Kingdom Hittites. Croesus built the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. [1] [1]: (Rich 2012) Rich, Kurt M V. 2012. Chasing the Golden Hoard: A Tale of Theft, Repatriation, Greed & Deceit. Authorhouse. |
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levels.
1. Priest-king? 2. Priests appointed by king3. Lesser priests? "Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted." "The existence of at least one such temple of the Susian acropolis, known as the Acropole mound ... is attested by a collection of characteristic statueettes of worshippers, some indistinguisable in both form and execution from the ones recovered in Mesopotamian temples." [1] "During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, ’the great mother of the gods to the Elamites’ and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia." [2] [1]: (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 5) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. [2]: (Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. |
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levels.
At time of Concordat of Worms (1122 CE). "Now the clergy were organized in a hierarchical line under the direction of the pope, who could trump the power of local custom, tradition, and even episcopal power. Below the pope stood the bishop. Responsible for maintaining clerical discipline and for overseeing the property of the church, he was answerable only to the pope. Only he could perform all the sacraments; he alone performed the sacrament of confirmation and by the sacrament of ordination passed on his power to others. Theoretically, canon law held that he would be elected by the clergy and people of his diocese. In practice, he was elected only by the canon priests attached to the cathedral. Considered high clergy, the canons aided the bishop in furthering his agenda, administering the diocese and performing rituals at the cathedral church. At their head was the dean, the highest officer in the diocese. A diocesian chancellor supervised the cathedral school and issued licenses allowing clerics to teach and preach in the diocese. A treasurer oversaw finances, while a precentor managed the choir and organized the cathedral’s musical program. Each diocese was divided into administrative districts, over which presided the archdeacons. Practically, these were powerful men; they were the bishop’s legates, charged with enforcing discipline among the lower clergy, and therefore they were often quite unpopular. ... The parish priests were answerable to them." [1] 1. Pope 2. Archdeacon, of a dianocal collegeArchdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. [2] Following the 1059 decree Decretum in Nomine Domini, only cardinals could elect a new pope. [3] . Furthermore, only cardinals could become popes. Silvester IV (1105-1111), an anti-pope, was the last pope who was not a cardinal before his elevation. [4] 3. Deacons, of a dianocal collegeThere were seven regional deacons of Rome. [5] 4. Subdeacon, of a college of subdeaconsThere was a college of subdeacons. [2] Regionary sub-deacons. [6] 5. AcolytesRome’s ecclesiastical structure contained a diaconal college with seven regional deacons of Rome, possessing in turn a staff of subdeacons and acolytes. These subdeacons dealt with property and relief for poor. The number increased as responsibilities of Papacy increased. 19 by Gregory I. [5] 2. Archpriest, of a collegePapal administration was collegiate: priests formed a college, headed by the archpriest, which was less important than dianocal college headed by archdeacon. Archdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. [2] 3. Priests, of a college 2. Metropolitan see archbishop?"Santiago was in 1120 made a metropolitan see by the pope." [7] Metropolitan had authority over a province [8] 3. Bishops in diocese 4. Dean 5. Canon priests attached to cathedral 5. Diocesian chancellor 6. Diocesian clergy"After 2015 ... cathedral chancellors were required to furnish their diocesan clergy with some instruction in theology." [9] 5. Treasurer 5. Precenter 4. Archdeacons of administrative districts 5. Priests in ParishThere were multiple parishes in each episcopal diocese, and dozens or hundreds in larger dioceses such as the city of Rome. "by the year 1000 it was the priest who really emerged as the religious and even educational leader of the local church." [10] _Proprietary Churches_ "In 1000 CE ... western Europe had not yet been clearly divided into well-defined territorial parishes with resident priests chosen, ordained, and supervised by the local ordinary, who was in turn directed by the papacy. Indeed, the parish in the year 1000 was far from that ideal, ordered, hierarchical model. Instead, many different (often competing) churches, structures, and people overlapped in the organization of local religious life." [11] "Actually, the most common type of church in the year 1000 was one founded - and governed - by a local lay lord rather than a bishop. ... It is impossible to calculate precisely how many of these churches there were, but they surely numbered in the tens of thousands. Indeed, they far outnumbered the Baptismal churches controlled by the bishops (many of which had passed into the hands of lay lords). ... Because of the force exerted by the ancient, hierarchical, episcopal Roman tradition, this model, which was based on German property law, never took root in central and southern Italy. ... Proprietary churches served very small communities, encompassing perhaps a village or two." [12] [1]: (Madigan 2015, 144-145) [2]: (Richards 1979, 290-292) [3]: di Carpegna Falconieri, 65 [4]: di Carpegna Falconieri, 64 [5]: (Richards 1979, 293) [6]: (Partner 1972, 1) [7]: (Madigan 2015, 333) [8]: (Madigan 2015, 14) [9]: (Madigan 2015, 310) [10]: (Madigan 2015, 83) [11]: (Madigan 2015, 80-81) [12]: (Madigan 2015, 81-83) |
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1. Master
2. Disciple ‘Honen and, especially, Shinran present interesting cases in the problems of institutional development in the Kamakura schools. Both of them preached a form of salvation requiring total reliance on the power of Amida Buddha and complete denial of self. Implicit in that view is the repudiation of any qualitative difference between teacher and follower and, by logical extension, the rejection of the hierarchy necessary for setting up a religious organization. This attitude is exhibited in its purest form in Shinran’s assertion, preserved in the Tannisho, that he was on the same plane with other believers and that he shared with them the same faith. The resistance to formal religious organization intimated in Shinran’s statement was one of Kamakura Buddhism’s revolutionary characteristics. Notwithstanding these antiorganizational inclinations, religious bodies did take shape, with the Kamakura originators at their center. This process of formation is seen in the examples of Honen and Shinran alike. They themselves functioned as guides and advisers in matters of religious faith but around them revolved a great number of organizers and proselytizers.’ ’Because specialized training and understanding are part of Zen, it is impossible for ordinary members of the organization to stand above the teacher or master.’ [1] The following is also worth noting: ’With the exception of Zen in the early period, particularly the Soto Zen school of Dogen, all the schools of Kamakura Buddhism actively proselytized among lay people. Hence, as the religious organizations gained greater structure, groups of believers had considerable say in the school’s operation. The clerical organizers of the schools functioned primarily as leaders of ritual and religious practice, but the people who oversaw the organization’s economic affairs were often lay adherents. Through their combined efforts the Kamakura schools gained a high degree of institutional stability, though the power and vitality of their teachings were sometimes diluted by institutional concerns.’ [2] ’Shinran taught that all people are equal in the sight of Amida Buddha. He was critical of the clerical ideal that existed in the established Buddhist schools, and he described himself as neither priest nor layman. Because of this outlook, the Shinshu religious organization, during its formative period at least, consisted of nothing more than individual congregations. In congregational dojo there was no great difference between dojo leaders and ordinary believers, in either intellectual capacity or economic means. But this idyllic period of Shinran’s school did not last long, for a master-disciple relationship gradually evolved between the dojo head and the average adherent.’ [3] ’˜Details of the early gozan network are unclear, but the surviving records indicate that the Hojo regents in Kamakura took the initiative in honoring and regulating the new Zen monasteries that they were building, by adopting the Southern Sung practice of organizing an official three-tiered hierarchy of Zen monasteries.’ [4] [1]: Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.573 [2]: Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.578 [3]: Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.578-579 [4]: Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.598 |
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levels.
There were, apparently, three hierarchical levels in Sufi brotherhoods [1] : 1. Sheikh 2. Marabout 3. Novice However, Sufi brotherhoods were only one aspect of Islamic practice in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Morocco [2] , and indeed Islam does not technically have a priestly hierarchy [3] . [1]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 50-51 [2]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 50-54 [3]: J. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire (2003), p. lv |
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levels. Inferred from the following quote. "As demonstrated by the uniformity of their material culture and their presumed belief system, most prominently reflected by the terracotta sculptures, external contacts within their culture must have existed. However, such a larger social network apparently was not organised and maintained in a way as to infer social inequality, social hierarchies or other signs of internal demarcation traceable by available archaeological data. None of the numerous excavations brought to light architectural remains of specified buildings or the spatial organisation of housing areas that might have been occupied by high-ranking members of the community. Further, among the admittedly few features interpreted as graves there is no evidence of any heterogeneity pointing to a difference between burials of elite members or commoners. Nowhere, an accumulation of valuable objects neither of iron nor any other materials signifying inequality in terms of property or prosperity was found."
[1]
[1]: (Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 252) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R. |
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levels.
"At Cahokia there may have been no difference between the religious and political hierarchy. They were interlocked, impossible to disentangle." [1] 1. Chief / Priest "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] "Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia." [3] "The central administrative complex represents the core of the Cahokian polity. The location of ridgetop mounds within this area may equate with kin groupings or other administrative units. East St. Louis, being newer, may have been a higher status community of isolated elites." [4] At Mound 72 "Analysis of the skeletal remains shows that certain burial groups were of higher status than others and that some may have come prom places other than Cahokia." [5] "Ridge top mounds may also reflect ritual performances or “tableaus” associated with these mound and plaza complexes. In this control of ritual activity there may have also have been specialists in maintaining and performing specific rituals at various community levels." [6] 2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest? "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] "The answers provided by the working group seem to point to Cahokia being an urban settlement that was the center of a regional government, but the picture is not entirely clear." [3] "Regional political integration appears to have been an essentially ritual one; that is, the site hierarchy that is present appears to be more of a hierarchy of ritual spaces than of political jurisdictions." [3] "Cahokia was also the center of a regional government of some kind, at least for a short period of time." [3] "mound complexes may have been organized around sodalities rather than around kin groups. Perhaps these sodalities were secret societies" [2] "Mound and plaza groups may represent corporate (perhaps kin-based) political and ritual complexes, each of which would have been maintained by their own administrativespecialists or generalized leader." [6] "priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] 3. Elder / Religious functionary "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] kin group leaders [2] "lower-level religious functionaries" [2] [1]: (Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 23) [2]: (Iseminger 2014, 26) [3]: (Peregrine 2014, 31) [4]: (Peregrine/Emerson 2014, 14) [5]: (Iseminger 2010, 82) [6]: (Kelly 2014, 22) |
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Though there were many different types of ritual specialists in pre-contact Hawaii
[1]
, only one kind, the kahuna pule, was involved with state affairs. Other types include healing experts, sorcerers, and prophets
[1]
.
1. Kahuna nuiThe kahuna nui was the most important of the kahuna pule (see below), as he "carried the responsibilities for the king’s religious duties and looked after his temples and main gods." [1] 2. Kahuna pule"The priests who officiated at temples controlled by the king and major chiefs were the kahuna pule. These were subdivided into a number of specific orders or cults, especially those pertaining to Kū and Lono (mo’o Kū and mo’o Lono). These priests were drawn from high-ranking elite families, typically of papa rank (in which the person’s mother comes from one of the three highest ranks)." [1] [1]: (Kirch 2010, 57) |
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Isma’ilism was the state religion.
[1]
Majority of Egyptians were Sunni Muslims.
[2]
The Ismaili branch of Shi’ite Islam is "a sect within a sect."
[3]
"Under this dynasty these were two of the highest positions: the chief justice, termed the judge of judges (qadi al-qudat), was outranked only by the imam and the wazir. The head da’i, the da’i al-du’at, followed immediately below."
[4]
The Fatimids claimed "biological and spiritual descent from the Prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and her husband, the first Shia imam and fourth Sunni caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib" and "the Fatimids (who also called themselves ’Alawids’) challenged the rival caliphate of the Abbasids of Iraq, and asserted that they were the sole legitimate rulers of the Islamic world." [5] The da’wa was a "unique institution of religiopolitical proselytizing and education" [5] 1. First Imam / Caliph da’wa: international missionary movement, in principle directed by the Fatimid imam in Egypt, but the provincial leaders had virtually complete autonomy. [1] "The Imam "stood, for the Ismailis, in the very centre of their religious system; it was of overriding importance; on it depended the continuity of institutional religion as well as the personal salvation of the believer. ’Whosoever dies without recognising the Imam of his time, dies a pagan’s death’ is one of the most often quoted maxims of Ismailism." [6] Commander of the Believers [7] 2. Chief da’i [8] closely supervised by the Imam administrative head, appointed provincial da’i and influenced choice of da’i in non-Fatimid territories 3. Provincial da’i [8] in Damascas, Tyre, Acre, Ascalon, Ramla and some rural areas. 4. hujja (or naqib, lahiq or yad) in a jazira (region, or "island") [8] "assisted by a number of subordinate da’is of different ranks operating in the localities under his jurisdiction." e.g. China, Byzantium. 5. Subordinate da’is [8] 6. al ma’dhun, the licentate [8] assistant of the subordinate da’i ?? There were scholars (e.g. 11th CE al-Baghdadi in Farq bayna ’l-firaq) who alleged the Fatimids, Ismailis and Carmathians "were all Manichaean dualists, followers of the ancient religion of the Persians to the detriment of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam itself." [9] However, Brett suggests "we should probably think in terms of a number of different movements which eventually came together under the leadership of the Fatimids and the rubric of Isma’ilism. ... a world of many doctrines coalescing in the future rather than dividing in the past". [10] Provincial da’i in charge of actual provinces within the Caliphate, hujja in charge of regions outside the Caliphate, such as China and Byzantium. EC [1]: (Lapidus 2012, 242) [2]: (Oliver 1977, 12) [3]: (Man 1999) Man, J. 1999. Atlas of the Year 1000. Harvard University Press. [4]: (Walker 2006, 70) Paul E Walker. 2006. ’The Relationship Between Chief Qadi and Chief Da’i Under The Fatimids’ in Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies edited by Gudrun Kramer and Sabine Schmidtke. BRILL. [5]: (Qutbuddin 2011, 37) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles. [6]: (Stern 1951, 194) Stern, S. M. 1951. The Succession to the Fatimid Imam al-Amir, the Claims of the Later Fatimids to the Imamate, and the Rise of Tayyibi Ismailism. Oriens. Vol. 4. No. 2. December 31. pp. 193-255. [7]: (Raymond 2000, 35) [8]: (Daftary 2005, 74-75 "Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies: A Historical Introduction to an Islamic Community") [9]: (Brett 2001) Brett, Michael. 2001. The Rise of the Fatimids. The World of the Mediterranean & the Middle East in the Tenth Century CE. Koninklijke Brill. Leiden. [10]: (Brett 2001, 47) Brett, Michael. 2001. The Rise of the Fatimids. The World of the Mediterranean & the Middle East in the Tenth Century CE. Koninklijke Brill. Leiden. |
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At least 2.
Similar to Macedonian Empire? For the Macedonian Empire, the king was the chief priest and religious leader. Phillip II believed in "his special relationship with Zeus, maintained the cult of the Temenid family, and worshipped his his ancestor, Herakles, the son of Zeus." [1] After Alexander III, divine worship of king emerged. [2] [1]: (Gabriel 2010, 21) [2]: (Christesen and Murray 2010) |
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levels.
"At Cahokia there may have been no difference between the religious and political hierarchy. They were interlocked, impossible to disentangle." [1] 1. Chief / Priest In the Emergent Mississippian period: "perhaps the appearance of chiefs" [2] "Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia." [3] 2. Elder / Religious functionary kin group leaders [4] [1]: (Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 23) [2]: (Iseminger 2010, 26) [3]: (Peregrine 2014, 31) [4]: (Iseminger 2014, 26) |
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levels.
(1. Khan?) 2. Ulama (high clergy) 3. Imams "The ruling class included members of the ulama, (high clergy). Some of these were considered the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, which allowed them to claim the honorary title of sayyid and seek a high status accordingly. Another group of privileged individuals, calling themselves khwa ̄ja, claimed to be descended from one of the four immediate successors of Muhammad." [1] [1]: (Mukminova 2003, 53) |
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levels.
No data but distinct religious institutions would have had at least one level of hierarchy. Unlikely to have had much more due to small scale of the polity. "Reflecting the major social and political development of the region, this monumental architecture is evidence of a strong local state organization. The inner buildings of these courtyards are at present difficult to reconstruct. Although this question has still to be resolved, it would seem that the courtyards of Koktepe housed earlier religious and administrative institutions." [1] "The religious function of the western courtyard has been determined by the presence of a fireplace, the remains of which seem to have been intentionally collected in one of the ruined towers of the main southern gate" [2] [1]: (Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. [2]: (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. |
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levels.
"Up until about the fourth century AD almost all the inhabitants of Arabia were polytheists." [1] The cult of Athtar was widespread throughout Arabia, where the pantheon of gods known from surviving inscriptions contains over one hundred names (altough "many of these probably represent different aspects or manifestations of the same god" [2] ). "’Athtar almost always occupies first place in lists and his cult was spread throughout the region." [2] Different polities/people had their own god. "The patron deity (shym) of a people was of more immediate significance in south Arabia than the remoter figure of ’Athtar. The four principal peoples had as their patrons Almaqah (Sabaeans), Wadd (Minaeans), ’Amm (Qatabanians) and Sayin (Hadramites), and each people was collectively termed the ’chrildren of their respective patron deity." [2] The pagan religion of South Arabia "was in its essence a planetary astral system in which the cult of the moon-god prevailed. The moon, known in Hadramawt as Sin, to the Minaeans as Wadd (love or lover, father), to the Sabaeans as Almaqah (the health-giving god?) and to the Qatabanians as ’Amm (paternal uncle), stood at the head of the pantheon. He was conceived of as a masculine deity and took precedence over the sun, Shams, who was his consort. ’Athtar (Venus, corresponding to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, Phoenician ’Ashtart), their son, was the third member of the triad. From this celestial pair sprang the many other heavenly bodies considered divine." [3] The pagan Himyarites likely worshipped Almaqah from the time the kingdom was combined with Saba. Hitti writes that the "Himyarites were close kinsmen of the Sabaeans and, as the youngest branch of the sock, became the inheritors of the Minaeo-Sabaean culture and trade." [4] The Himyarites worshipped Almaqah, ’Athtar and other deities. [5] Philostorgius said of the Himyarites: ’They sacrifice to the sun and moon and spirits of the land.’" [5] The pagan Himyarites practiced dedications to temples [6] which were likely sufficiently complex to archive papyrus legal statements concerning the usage of tombs. [7] Minaean carvings in the temple ruins of al-Hazm, from the first millennium BCE, suggest dancing girls may have been included among the temple servants. [8] Sabaean temples are known to have received tithes at the federal and local levels and its financing may been the "divine assistance" behind construction projects. "Some Middle ’Sabaean’ temples may have acted as ’insurance companies’ ... Hence the presence of some kind of insurance company which would provide assistance (to build, say, a house after it had been destroyed) was really very practical and useful for most clans. By paying their tithe (’s2r) to the local temples, the tribesmen paid a sort of ’premium’ to this insurance company’, whereby they could expect to get their ’compensation’ when they needed it." [9] The religion of the Himyarites was pagan and polytheistic in the period 270-375 CE and Jewish or Judaistic monotheism in the period 375-525 CE when they "fell under the influence of Jewish proselytizers" [10] and by the late 4th century CE were rapidly converting from their pagan polytheistic belief system to monotheistic religious doctrines. [6] "There is significant archaeological evidence of the abandonment of pagan temples toward the conclusion of the fourth century and of the almost complete disappearance of expressions of devotion to the old tribal gods shortly thereafter." [11] "From the 4th century on the Himyarite kings were either full members or sympathizers of Judaism" and the Jewish faith became "the dominant religion" in South Arabia. [12] "Rome’s destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in A.D. 70 brought Jewish emigrants to South Arabia, as well as the Christian message." [13] Jews also may have emigrated to Yemen after the destruction of the First Temple of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. [14] In the later fourth century there was a Jewish dynasty of kings known as the Tabbai’a. [15] A list of Himyarite’s known Jewish kings include: Yassirum Yohre’am (from 270 CE); ’Amr-Shlomo ben David (325-330 CE); Malki Kariba Juha’min (378-385 CE); Abu Kariba As’as (385-420 or 445 CE); Shurihbi’il Yakkuf (468-480 CE); Martad Ilan (’Judaized’ 495-515 CE); Yusuf Ash’ar Dhu Nuwas (515-525 CE). [10] [15] The Himyarite army adopted Judaism as its official religion at the start of the fifth century CE. [10] Christianity also was present in Himyar at least from the first half of the 4th century [16] when the Christian missionary Theophilus arrived and "complained that he found a great number of Jews". [11] The Christian message was probably first carried to Arabia by hermits and traders; and, "since there was a significant Jewish presence in southern Arabia, especially in Najran, Jewish converts to Christianity could have brought the Christian message to Arabia." [17] "By the year 350 Christian communities were established. During the fourth and fifth centuries AD, missionaries systematically converted many Arabian tribes from their traditional polytheistic practices to monotheistic Christianity, which spread throughout the area later known as Yemen." [18] It is also suggested that the rulers were not Jewish but Monophysite Christians. According to Friedman (2006) Himyarite colonists, the Axumites, in the land of Cush (Ethiopia) "which they renamed Axum ... converted to Monophysite Christianity at the beginning of the fourth century. Between 340 to 378, the Axumites returned to Yemen and imposed their rule and religion over the Himyarites. Although the interregnum was short-lived, the impact of the Axumites was very profound. Yemen was a Christian land, with churches and a cathedral in San’a, and all but one of the restored Himyarite monarchs (378-525) were Monophysite Christians. The lone heretic was Dhu-Nuwas who, for unknown reasons, hated Christians and converted to Judaism." [19] Hitti also mentions the 340-378 CE period of Abyssinian rule. [20] Evans (2000) writes: "Christianity and Judaism both struggled for the allegiance of the Himyarite kings, and at Justin’s accession [518 CE], Christianity with the support of Axum had the upper hand. The king was a Christian and an Axumite vassal." [21] However, most scholars call the early monotheistic Himyarites Jewish or Judaistic. Christians were repressed due to a perceived association with influence of the Byzantine Empire: "in the 470s ... a priest named Azqir was executed for active proselytisation in Najran". [22] "Dhu Nuwas (515-25), a Himyarite king, changed the state religion to -> Judaism and began to massacre Christians." [13] McLaughlin (2007) says "the last Himyarite king changed it to Judaism and killed thousands of Christians at Najran." [23] Orlin (2016 writes that the process through which Himyar converted to Judaism is unclear - some have speculated that the influence of agents from the Palestinian Jewish community was at work - but the epigraphic proof of a transformation of the public official religion of the state is undeniable. [24] An inscription dated to 378 CE claimed "the completion of buildings by a Himyar monarch had been accomplished ’through the power of their lord of sky and heaven,’ and phrases such as ’the owner of the sky and earth,’ and the expression ’the Merciful’ also were used. [11] It has been suggested that the Himyarite "profession of monotheism, and later full-fledged Judaism, distanced the Himyarites from the Christianity of the Byzantines and their Ethiopian allies and the Zoroastrianism of the Persians" [11] so that their strategically located state had an independent or neutral identity. Written sources mention the presence of synagogues in Zafar and Najran. [15] _Judaistic_ 1. King 2. Priest3. ? [1]: (Hoyland 2001, 139) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London. [2]: (Hoyland 2001, 140) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London. [3]: (Hitti 2002, 60-61) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. [4]: (Hitti 2002, 56) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. [5]: (Finegan 1965, 478) Jack Finegan. 1965. The Archaeology of World Religions. Volume 3. Princeton University Press. [6]: (Kaye 2007, 168) L E Kogan. A V Korotayev. Epigraphic South Arabian Morphology. Alan S Kaye ed. 2007. Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. [7]: (Hoyland 2001, 126) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London. [8]: (Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. [9]: (Korotayev 1996, 65-66) Andrey Vitalyevhich Korotayev. 1996. Pre-Islamic Yemen. Socio-political Organization of the Sabaean Cultural Area in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD. Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden. [10]: (Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. [11]: (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. [12]: (Tubach 2015, 363-365) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden. [13]: (Fahlbusch et al. 2008, 824) Erwin Fahlbusch. Jan Milic Lochman. John Mbiti. Jaroslav Pelikan. Lukas Vischer. Geoffrey W Bomiley. David B Barrett. 2008. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Volume 5. Si-Z. Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Company. Grand Rapids. [14]: (Caton 2013, 45) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara [15]: (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden. [16]: (Tubach 2015, 363-363) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden. [17]: (Rassam 2006, 44) Suha Rassam. 2006. Christianity in Iraq: Its Origins and Development to the Present Day. Gracewing. Leominster. [18]: (Romano 2004, 13) Amy Romano. 2004. A Historical Atlas of Yemen. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York. [19]: (Friedman 2006, 106) Saul S. Friedman. 2006. A History of the Middle East. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson. [20]: (Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. [21]: (Evans 2000, 95) J A S Evans. The Age of Justinian. 2000. The Circumstances Of Imperial Power. Routledge. London.) [22]: (Hoyland 2001, 51) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London. [23]: (McLaughlin 2007, 9) Daniel McLaughlin. 2007. Yemen. Bradt Travel Guides Ltd. Chalfont St Peter. [24]: (Orlin et al. 2016, 424) Eric Orlin. Lisbeth S Fried. Jennifer Wright Knust. Muchael L Satlow. Michael E Pregill. eds. 2016. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Routledge. New York. |
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1. Caliphate
2. All Muslims In theory the Caliphate and governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths were not clearly hierarchical as all were theoretically equal before Allah. [1] 1. Ruler 2. Imam [1]: Lapidus 2002, p. 82, p. 215 |
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levels. The following reconstruction of small communities consisting of extended families based in autonomous homesteads suggests minimal social diffrentiation. ”For the first 400 years of the settlement’s history, Kirikongo was a single economically generalized social group (Figure 6). The occupants were self-sufficient farmers who cultivated grains and herded livestock, smelted and forged iron, opportunistically hunted, lived in puddled earthen structures with pounded clay floors, and fished in the seasonal drainages. [...] Since Kirikongo did not grow (at least not significantly) for over 400 years, it is likely that extra-community fissioning continually occurred to contribute to regional population growth, and it is also likely that Kirikongo itself was the result of budding from a previous homestead. However, with the small scale of settlement, the inhabitants of individual homesteads must have interacted with a wider community for social and demographic reasons. [...] It may be that generalized single-kin homesteads like Kirikongo were the societal model for a post-LSA expansion of farming peoples along the Nakambe (White Volta) and Mouhoun (Black Volta) River basins. A homestead settlement pattern would fit well with the transitional nature of early sedentary life, where societies are shifting from generalized reciprocity to more restricted and formalized group membership, and single-kin communities like Kirikongo’s house (Mound 4) would be roughly the size of a band.”
[1]
[1]: (Dueppen 2012: 27, 32) |
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levels. Inferred from the following quote. "As demonstrated by the uniformity of their material culture and their presumed belief system, most prominently reflected by the terracotta sculptures, external contacts within their culture must have existed. However, such a larger social network apparently was not organised and maintained in a way as to infer social inequality, social hierarchies or other signs of internal demarcation traceable by available archaeological data. None of the numerous excavations brought to light architectural remains of specified buildings or the spatial organisation of housing areas that might have been occupied by high-ranking members of the community. Further, among the admittedly few features interpreted as graves there is no evidence of any heterogeneity pointing to a difference between burials of elite members or commoners. Nowhere, an accumulation of valuable objects neither of iron nor any other materials signifying inequality in terms of property or prosperity was found."
[1]
[1]: (Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 252) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R. |
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levels. The following quote suggests at least one level. "The political power formerly residing at Mound 4 during Red I and Early Red II was largely disseminated within the community; however, their role as village founders who maintain the community’s relations with the local and ancestral divinities, as well as their symbolic position as the external face of the village community, remained unchanged and was simply detached from the iron cult."
[1]
[1]: (Dueppen 2012: 30) |
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levels. The following quote suggests at least one level. "The political power formerly residing at Mound 4 during Red I and Early Red II was largely disseminated within the community; however, their role as village founders who maintain the community’s relations with the local and ancestral divinities, as well as their symbolic position as the external face of the village community, remained unchanged and was simply detached from the iron cult."
[1]
[1]: (Dueppen 2012: 30) |
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levels. The following suggests at least one level of religious hierarchy. "At Kirikongo, increasing centralization is associated with a gradual co-option of iron metallurgy. Iron metallurgy as an avenue to inequality would provide an alternative spiritual power, derived from profound excavation and transformation in the realm of divinities (the earth). It is this power that today makes smiths held in high esteem and occasionally feared. The spiritual power of the Bwa smith is separate from the political process, but at Kirikongo the emergence of smith-elites at Mound 4 marks the possible combination of multiple spiritually derived sources of power, from those based upon their role as village founder (over nature and ancestry), to a new cult (iron) that may have been manipulated owing to its mysterious nature. In short, between Yellow II and Red I, the inhabitants of Mound 4 likely employed their ancestral priority to assume control of the village territory, then co-opted another source of authority using the spiritual power of iron."
[1]
[1]: (Dueppen 2012: 30) |
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_State cult_
1. King King’s title "Son of Heaven" gave him sole right to perform sacrifices and rituals related to agriculture and seasons. [1] Claimed descent from Hougi: "he who rules the millet." [2] Sacrifices could only be made by male family members. [1] 2. Ritual specialist3. ? _Ancestor worship_ Peasants worshipped their own gods. [1] [1]: (Kerr 2013, 22) [2]: (Cotterall 1995, 35) |
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levels. The following quote suggests the emergence of social differentiation in this period, but little appears to be understood about this phenomenon apart from the appearance of specialised smiths and the formation of senior and cadet social segments. "During Yellow II, the inhabitants of Mound 4 began a process that eventually led to centralization of iron production, as described in detail above. Iron ore extraction involves profound digging in the earth, the realm of spirits, and historically in Bwa society the practice is reserved solely for specialized smiths, who also excavate burials (see discussions below). The mid first millennium A.D. therefore witnessed a transformation from redundant social and economic roles for houses to specialization in at least one craft activity. While houses were still highly independent, even producing their own pottery, a formalized village structure was likely present with both cadet and senior social segments, founded upon common descent with a common ancestor."
[1]
[1]: (Dueppen 2012: 28) |
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levels. (1) Mambo/Ishe/Changamire, ‘paramount chief’; (2) Mambo/Ishe/Sadunhu, ‘lesser chiefs’; (3) Sadunhu, ‘leader of a group of villages’; (4) Samusha, ‘village head’; (5) Saimba, ‘head of a homestead.’ If the religious system of Great Zimbabwe was similar to the system of the Karanga in later times, as is expected, then the religious levels would mirror the social hierarchy as listed above and described by Chirikure, since it is one of the duties of social leaders to act in a religious capacity. “The Karanga chief serves as both political and religious leader…. His power was believed to derive from the link between the land and his ancestral spirits…, thereby making the chief’s ancestors of vital importance to the entire population…When a chief died, power passed to his male heir. The chief then became an important ancestor who had joined the rank [sic] of spirits offering guardianship and aid to the people…. As is the case among the Karanga today, recognition and propitiation of ancestor spirits at Great Zimbabwe seem to have been a central part of the belief system…. Karanga oral tradition suggests that the Mwari cult began at Great Zimbabwe.”
[1]
“In general, imba (plural: dzimba) under the leadership of the saimba, was the smallest and lowest level social unit. A collection of dzimba formed misha (singular: musha) under samusha (village head). A group of misha formed dunhu (plural: matunhu) under sadunhu…. A group of matunhu formed a state (nyika) under a chief (ishe/mambo/changamire)…. Each level performed administrative, economic, religious, and political roles consistent with rank.”
[2]
.
[1]: (Steadman 2009, 264-266) Sharon R. Steadman, The Archaeology of Religion: Cultures and Their Beliefs in Worldwide Context (London: Routledge, 2009). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/N4R4GHNJ/collection [2]: (Chirikure 2021, 267) Shadreck Chirikure, Great Zimbabwe: Reclaiming a ‘Confiscated’ Past (Routledge, 2021). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MWWKAGSJ/collection |
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levels. (1) Oba; (2) lesser house leaders; (3) lesser priests (inferred). This based on the following two quotes: (1) "These oba [rulers], however, did not only manage people and economic resources, especially land and labor. They also managed the temples, shrines, and festivals dedicated to their Houses’ deities and ancestors. Likewise, they managed conflicts, especially at the interhousehold and inter-House levels."
[1]
(") "The Ìjùgbè mega-House, for example, comprised Ìjùgbè—the alpha House—and four minor Houses: Eranyiba, Igbogbe, Ipa, and Ita-Asin, each with its own leader, who was also its chief priest.”"
[2]
The idea of a "chief priest" implies the existence of a lesser priest or ritual assistant.
[1]: (Ogundiran 2020: 51-52) [2]: (Ogundiran 2020: 53) |
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1) King (Ajahutonon); 2) High Priest; 3) Priests/spirit mediums. “The French in 1670 likewise believed that the king was at heart a Christian, but prevented from professing the religion openly by fear of the power of the "High Priest", whom they regarded as the most powerful person in the kingdom after the monarch.”
[1]
“According to recent tradition, prior to the Dahomian conquest in the 1720s the kings of Allada, in their capacity as Ajahutonon or priests of the dynastic ancestor Ajahuto, had the function of performing installation rituals for the kings of neighbouring dynasties which derived from Allada, including those of Dahomey itself (Lombard, 1966: 52).”
[2]
“Moreover, as the missionaries to Allada themselves noted, they were willing to describe themselves as "vodonu" – a term used locally for priest or spirit medium.”
[3]
[1]: Law, Robin. “Religion, Trade and Politics on the ‘Slave Coast’: Roman Catholic Missions in Allada and Whydah in the Seventeenth Century.” Journal of Religion in Africa, vol. 21, no. 1, 1991, pp. 42–77: 70. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/C4ZBEWMH/collection [2]: Law, Robin. “Ideologies of Royal Power: The Dissolution and Reconstruction of Political Authority on the ‘Slave Coast’, 1680-1750.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, vol. 57, no. 3, 1987, pp. 321–44: 327. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/VJPWCBM6/collection [3]: Thornton, J. K. (1988). On the Trail of Voodoo: African Christianity in Africa and the Americas. The Americas, 44(3), 261–278: 267. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JZQ46GB8/collection |
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levels. 1) Oluwo (head of the Ogoni), 2) Ogboni, 3) Iya Kere (senior palace Sango priestess), 4) Mogba (Sango cult officials), 5) Elegun (Sango possession priests), 6) other priestly roles (eg linked to Ogun rather than Sango). There may have been several more layers. Many priestly roles also served administrative purposes. “Outsiders without any natal claim to the throne, the ayaba – wives of the reigning king and his predecessors – were entrusted somewhat more safely with administrative functions and prerogatives. They served as the heads of empire-wide priesthoods, as royal advisors, as intermediaries between the king and subject chiefs, and as provincial representatives of the palace. Some of the ayaba were “wives” of the apotheosized king Sango as well (Alaafin Adeyẹmi III, personal communication, 17 October 1988; see also Morton-Williams 1964a:255) Other wifelike palace delegates, known as ilari, served as diplomatic observers, toll collectors, messengers, cavaliers, royal guards, and priests (Biobaku 1952:40).”
[1]
“The ilari palace deputies were prepared by Sango cult officials (mogba), much after the manner of possession priests and priestesses (elegun), whose defining characteristic is the periodic displacement of their personal will. […] In order to invest them with the royal will, the senior palace priestess of Sango – the Iya Kere – initiated ilari in her palace apartment. Their heads were shaved, incised, and planted with powerful substances.”
[2]
[1]: Matory, J. L. (2005). Sex and the Empire That Is No More: Gender and the Politics of Metaphor in Oyo Yoruba Religion. Berghahn Books: 9. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/C6VWWF8Q/collection [2]: Matory, J. L. (2005). Sex and the Empire That Is No More: Gender and the Politics of Metaphor in Oyo Yoruba Religion. Berghahn Books: 10–11. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/C6VWWF8Q/collection |
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levels. "Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977)."
[1]
Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: "Of the earliestperiod of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known."
[2]
Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable.
[1]: (Ogundiran 2005: 151-152) [2]: (Law 1977: 33) |
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levels. The following quotes suggests the existence of at least one level of priesthood among the Proto-Yoruboid. "However, the Creator God was a distant figure in the everyday religious lives of the proto-Yoruboid and other proto-Benue- Kwa groups. The focus of worship was on the territorial deities presiding over the hills, valleys, drainages, and other landscape features as well as on the ancestors—the deceased heads, priests, and priestesses of houses, families, villages, and communities. The ancestors were incorporated into the pantheon and called upon to intercede with the greater and more distant Creator God and the territorial deities during the daily devotions, seasonal festivals, and times of crisis."
[1]
[1]: (Ogundiran 2020: 38-39) |
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levels. 1) High priest at Ibini Ukpabi, 2) other high priests, 3) local/itinerant priests/priest-doctors/herbalists. “Let us note that in the Igbo traditional setting, the oracle held executive, legislative, and judicial powers.”
[1]
“The Arochukwu kingdom was an economical, political and a (sic) oracular center as it was home of the powerful long juju oracle, the Aro king Eze Aro, and highest priest.”
[2]
“Neither Akuma nor his Akpa followers objected when the Igbo priest-doctor, Nachi, took over and through his son, Okenachi, created an hereditary chieftaincy in Arochukwu.”
[3]
“It is noteworthy that the priest of Ala (Eze Ala) lived a mystical life, surrounding himself with elaborate taboos. According to scholars who have studied these taboos in detail, the Ezeala in the Ngwa area for example, was forbidden to eat some animals said to be unholy, including carnivorous animals, rabbits and snakes. Moreover, to ensure that his humanity was not be betrayed, the Ezeala was not allowed to eat in the presence of common people or sleep outside his temple. Similarly, he was forbidden to cut his hair in public or drink palm wine with non-titled men. It was also a taboo for the Ezeala to see corpses, cross the Imo River, and greet anybody in the morning of the four-day Igbo market week before presiding over the communal propitiation ceremony of Ala (Allen 1933)”
[4]
“Nonetheless, it is necessary to point out that the establishment of the Aro trade network contributed to immense changes in Igbo cosmology. Chuku, the high God of the Igbo pantheon, is believed to live in heaven and was worshipped through the intermediary of other gods. In fact, before slavery, it is likely that many Igbo communities did not have any shrines of the high God. But when the Aro began to expand their trade network in the hinterland, they claimed to be agents of Chukwu, and helped to establish his shrines (Ihu Chukwu) in many communities. The Aro increased their popularity through these claims, since Chukwu was said to be the author of all blessings including fertility, good health and prosperity. Individuals who could not afford to travel to Arochukwu to consult the oracle would be obliged to offer sacrifices to Chukwu in their local shrines. In addition to the local priests of Chuku, the Aro propagated the Ekpe/Okonko society in Southern Igboland, using its leading members and multi-title holders as an arm of their trade network”
[5]
“While specific data on Amikwo dibia are lacking, it was customary for Igbo priest-doctors to segregate into ranked spheres of responsibility, with herbal knowledge at the lower echelons of the profession and more serious physical and psychosomatic healing powers confined to well-trained specialists who might also be endowed with divinatory powers. Amikwo’s dibia may have corresponded with the latter category (Green 1947: 53ff; Uchendu 1965: 81-2; Dike 1975: 10”
[6]
“Studies show that the Igbo has been in the concept of worshipping Ani (the earth goddess) but has never at any time seen Ani as the supreme deity and the Aro came up to assume leadership. The reason for this sudden importance of Aro is not unconnected to the existence of Ibini Ukpabi (British long juju) which must have existed from unidentified ancient period as a natural creation. Ibini Ukpabi known as and called Chukwu okike Abiama (God the creator of wonders) was said to be found in a cave and, strategically residing by a waterfall in one of Aro villages. The site created some amount of mysterious interpretations and awe around the oracle of Ibini Ukpabi. Aro gradually earned the suffix Chukwu and started being known as and called Arochukwu, almost making Aro Okigbo and other praise name less prominent. Why this became possible is simple to understand. Ndi Igbo from all walks of life went to Aro to consult “God” and simply explained that they went to Aro-Chukwu.”
[1]
[1]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection [2]: Nwaezeigwe, D. N. T. (2013). THE ARO AND THE CONCEPT OF ARO-OKIGBO: FACTS AND FALACIES OF A HISTRIONIC IGBO HEGEMONY. 15, 12: 6.https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TU5APW74/collection [3]: Nwauwa, A. O. (1995). The Evolution of the Aro Confederacy in Southeastern Nigeria, 1690–1720. A Theoretical Synthesis of State Formation Process in Africa. Anthropos, 90(4/6), 353–364: 356. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G4DWA3GQ/collection [4]: Oriji, J. N. (2009). Transformations in Igbo Cosmology during Slavery: A Study of the Geneses of Place-Names, Totems & Taboos. Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 49(196), 953–967; 955. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KEADDRZW/collection [5]: Oriji, J. N. (2009). Transformations in Igbo Cosmology during Slavery: A Study of the Geneses of Place-Names, Totems & Taboos. Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 49(196), 953–967; 958. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KEADDRZW/collection [6]: Neaher, N. C. (1979). Awka Who Travel: Itinerant Metalsmiths of Southern Nigeria. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 49(4), 352–366; 354 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/W8VVXIMI/collection |
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1) Caliph (amir al-muminin, Commander of the Faithful); 2) Limamai (imams); 3) Islamic scholars; 4) Mallams (teachers of Islam). “SOKOTO. The capital of Sokoto State, with a population of approximately 500,000. It is historically significant for the Hausa and Fulani as the seat of the great Sokoto Caliphate between 1804 and 1903. Today, it is the home of the University of Sokoto, the sultan’s palace, and the Shehu Mosque. Of interest to historians are the Centre for Islamic Studies in Sokoto and the Waziri Junaidu History and Culture Bureau, which house manuscripts from Islamic scholars in Nigeria dating back to at least the 17th century.”
[1]
“The Caliphate was to be led by the Caliph as the amir al-muminin (Commander of the Faithful), assisted by his wazirai (advisers), alkalai (judges), a muhtasib (the officer charged upholding morals), the sa’i (in charge of the markets), the wali al-shurta (police chief), limamai, and military commanders.”
[2]
[1]: Falola, Toyin, and Ann Genova. Historical Dictionary of Nigeria. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2009: 331. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SJAIVKDW/collection [2]: Chafe, Kabiru Sulaiman. “Challenges to the Hegemony of the Sokoto Caliphate: A Preliminary Examination.” Paideuma, vol. 40, 1994, pp. 99–109: 101. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZANHCUFH/collection |
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levels. 1) Attah Igala (Sacred King/deity); 2) Atebo (Chief Priest); 3) Attama (shrine priests). “Of particular interest however is the fact, of which no explanation was forthcoming, that a modified form of the early morning rite is carried out by the Atebo (Chief Priest), who appeals to the ancestral spirits on behalf of the Ata-regnant. This official, to whom further reference will be made, is a person of great importance, and his office has acquired some of the element of divinity attaching to that of the Ata himself. Ape, the first to be accorded this title, was a priest in the household of Ayagba when the latter founded the Idah dynasty, and the office, which like most others is hereditary, passes in turn between the three branches of the family. Some indication of the status of the Atebo may be gained from the fact that he alone is excused obeisance to the Ata and addresses him standing up; it may however be less a question of status than of the fact that in his office and person he is representative of the religious aspect of the kingship, and contact with the earth by obeisance would mean a dissipation of dynamism. It is observed also that he is never without a cows-tail fly whisk in his hand which he " points " at the Ata when addressing him and, further, it is said that the Ata will allow the Atebo to scold him without remonstrance.”
[1]
“Successive chapters deal with sacred precincts, family and household religion, and village religion. The distinction between family and village religious systems is crucial to the latter part of the study, as the Igala were able to capitalize on it to enforce their control. The former deals predominantly with the arua or ancestor spirits, while the latter deals with the alusi, which are non-human spirit beings. The third part of the book ("Control and Adaptation") concerns the use of religious values and institutions in social control under the Igala colonial system and the resulting religious and social changes in Igbo life. From the Igala point of view, of course, social control was the crucial question. This they astutely achieved by replacing traditional Igbo shrine priests concerned with the alusi cults with Igala priests called attama. In this way, they seized control of the super- natural forces that had to do with any issues transcending one family or clan, for instance matters involving different clans in a village or village group. Since the Igala priests controlled the alusi, these became increasingly unpredictable and dangerous to the Igbo, and the Igbo were at the mercy of the Igala priests in all their relations with the alusi. From the Igbo perspective, the goal was to maintain identity and to maximize Igbo power. The strategy they used was complex. In the religious sphere, they emphasized (apparently more than in pre-conquest days) the cult of the arua, the ancestor spirits, who were by definition Igbo and whose worship enhanced the status of the Igbo headmen and elders. Parallel efforts to emphasize the worship of the High God and of the Earth Goddess, and to bring to prominence various Igbo and other non-Igala medicine shrines are judged by Shelton to have failed. In the social sphere, in the presence of a good deal of intermarriage, Igbo attempted to maintain their numerical strength by emphasizing, in the case of the children of Igala fathers and Igbo mothers, allegiance to the mother’s clan. This was, it will be evident, consistent with Igala tradition but in conflict with Igbo tradition. The Igala, who were interested in preserving the attama inheritance in pure Igala clans, pragmatically accepted the identification as Igbo of many mixed children.”
[2]
[1]: Clifford, Miles, and Richmond Palmer. “A Nigerian Chiefdom.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 66, 1936, pp. 393–435: 418. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TF7MM698/collection [2]: Taber, Charles R. “Review of The Igbo-Igala Borderland: Religion and Social Control in Indigenous African Colonialism.” American Anthropologist, vol. 75, no. 6, 1973, 1876–77: 1876. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/M65F6WG9/collection |
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levels. 1) Eze Nri (priest-king), 2) Ezeana (chief priest), 3) Ofo-carrying Nri priests. “Probably the more enduring contacts and interactions between the two predated the rise of Bini to imperial greatness, going back to those quieter days when Nri priests moved from one corner of the globe to the other (eluwa dum) spreading the gospel that they came down from the sky and that Chukwu had empowered them to crown kings, make yam medicine, remove nso, control the agricultural calendar and make peace in return for giving yam and other food crops to all peoples.”
[1]
“The Eze Nri (priest-kings of Nri) claim for themselves a status equivalent to that of the spirits. Every reigning Eze Nri is embued with the spirit of Eri, his first ancestor, who was sent down by Chukwu from heaven to organize the world. Eri dried up the water which covered the earth and thus organized the physical world. By sacrificing his son and daughter, he obtained yams and cocoyams, the main food and cash crop of the Igbo, thus introducing agriculture and agricultural rituals. He introduced ichi scarification, and the ozo chiefly-title system, thus reorganizing social life. Finally, he organized economic life by introducing the four Igbo market days.”
[2]
“The powers received by Eri from Chukwu include the ritual powers to control the worship of Ala who controls agriculture, Ife-jioku the yam deity, and Eke, Oye, Afor, and Nkwo, deities of the four Igbo market days of the same name. He has the ritual powers to establish, cleanse, and abrogate prohibitions connected with their cult. As symbols of his authority, Eri received from Chukwu the ofo (ritual staff) and the otonsi (ritual spear) used for the rites of establishing or cleansing alu (pollutions). Ofo-carrying Nri priests still visit or settle among different Igbo communities to provide pollution cleansing services. In Nri town itself, the cleansing rites are performed by the Ezeana, in the presence of Eze Nri who as a spirit never offers sacrifices.”
[3]
[1]: Afigbo, A. E. (1996). The Anthropology and Historiography of Central-South Nigeria before and since Igbo-Ukwu. History in Africa, 23, 1–15: 11. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/GHMXKX6X/collection [2]: Ikenga-Metuh, E. (1985). Ritual Dirt and Purification Rites among the Igbo. Journal of Religion in Africa, 15(1), 3–24: 7. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SFADDVVX/collection [3]: Ikenga-Metuh, E. (1985). Ritual Dirt and Purification Rites among the Igbo. Journal of Religion in Africa, 15(1), 3–24: 7-8. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SFADDVVX/collection |
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levels. 1) Chief Imam; 2) Mainin kenandi (Islamic advisor to the mai; this may be the same as the chief Imam role); 3) Imams (inferred present from reference to a chief Imam); 4) Village headman/teacher (alim/calim). “The warlike exploits of this Mai Idris Katagarmabe were recorded by his chief Imam, Sheikh Masfarma or Masbarma, in a work still known as the Tarikh Masbarma, a work on which the writer of this history, the Imam ibn Fartua, obviously drew for information concerning events which took place prior to the time which was within the memory of himself or people still alive in his day.”
[1]
“Ordinarily, a mallemti settlement would consist of the mahram grantee, his extended family, and a number of people not directly associated with the calim or his activities, but who may have been originally living in the area or have taken up residence in the mallemti after its establishment. The calim took the dual responsibilities of a village head-man and a teacher. As the village headman, he settled disputes between contending parties be they from his immediate circle or from other residents of the mallemti. As the principal teacher, he imparted knowledge and counselled troubled souls, and depending upon the ’efficacy of his prayers’ would, in his capacity as a spiritual counsellor, command a large following in the whole district.”
[2]
“Even though it is difficult to generalize the nature of political power for more than 1000 years of history, some features seem to have been present throughout the history of Bornu. The royal family was at the heart of the political system meaning that the head of the Sayfawa family was also the mai. […] However, political power was not solely in the hands of the ruling family as members of the council were also in charge of political affairs. It appears that there were around twelve members in this council and that apart from the descendants of the close advisors of the first Sayfawas, their office was not hereditary. It would be difficult to attribute a specific role to each of the members of the council over the centuries but some office-holders seem to exert the same roles. For example, the mainin kenandi was the Islamic advisor of the mai whereas the kaigama was in charge of the armies of Kanem-Bornu.”
[3]
[1]: Fartua, Ahmed Ibn. History of the First Twelve Years of the Reign of Mai Idris Alooma of Bornu (1571–1583). CRC Press, 2019: 3. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HSU9ZCRC/collection [2]: Bobboyi, Hamidu. “RELATIONS OF THE BORNO ʿULAMĀʾ WITH THE SAYFAWA RULERS: THE ROLE OF THE MAḤRAMS.” Sudanic Africa, vol. 4, 1993, pp. 175–204: 200. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JE5VQ8NI/collection [3]: Hiribarren, V. (2016). Kanem-Bornu Empire. In N. Dalziel & J. M. MacKenzie (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Empire (pp. 1–6). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 4. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KNHK5ANQ/collection |
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levels. 1) King, as head of the royal ancestor cult, 2) high priests, 3) local priests and 4) shrine priests. It’s unclear to me whether the local and shrine priests were of different status levels, so there may only be three. “The most important shrines were attended by priests, who dwelled near by. One of the highest-ranking priests, the Agasun-no, called Dahomey’s Archbishop of Canterbury by Burton, had his "country palace" along the royal road.”
[1]
“Subsequent secular travelers grumbled at delays along the road due to the emergence of priests from shrines to say prayers and solicit alms, or simply to the presence of barriers marking religious sites.”
[2]
“In Dahomey, however, national cults were closely supervised by the king. The priests of these cults - which were of great importance and influence in the country - were his loyal subordinates. Royal agents supervised their activities constantly. The king was also high-priest in a state religion. With the political elaboration of the kingdom the cults associated with the royal dynasty quickly assumed primacy over others. Unlike the chiefs of some West African societies, the king was never enstooled by an indigenous ‘chief of the earth’, a representative of the original inhabitants, but by the priest of the royal ancestor cult. Besides this, no religious ritual, however domestic or private in nature, could be performed before the annual celebration in honour of the royal ancestors.”
[3]
[1]: Alpern, S. B. (1999). Dahomey’s Royal Road. History in Africa, 26, 11–24: 19. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J4ZASAV6/collection [2]: Alpern, S. B. (1999). Dahomey’s Royal Road. History in Africa, 26, 11–24: 22. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J4ZASAV6/collection [3]: Lombard, J. (1976). The Kingdom of Dahomey. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 70–92). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 79–80. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/T6WTVSHZ/collection |
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levels. 1) Oba, 2) Eghaevbo n’Ore, 3) priest of Okhuahie, 4) Ihogbe, 5) Odionwere. However, religion and state were very closely linked, so it’s likely there were many more levels not captured in the scholarship. It’s also unclear how strict and set this hierarchy was. “The Iwebo palace association is in charge of the regalia and belongings of the king. Many craft guilds are affiliated with this society and throughout Benin’s history they have worked primarily for the king. They have been allowed to execute commissions for other clients only with his approval. Benin’s bronze casters, ivory carvers, weavers, costume makers, and leather workers are some of the guilds controlled by the Iwebo. Leopard hunters (Fig. 13), royal drummers, hornblowers, executioners, astrologers, and high priests accorded with important ritual functions also belong to this palace association. The second palace society of the Iweguae is responsible for personal duties for the king. It comprises all the personal attendants to the Oba, such as his sword bearers and guards, but also diviners, healers, priests caring for his ancestor shrines, and other ritual specialists.”
[1]
“The senior Igele only went to war in major conflict, leaving minor raids to the younger men. Above them come in some groups a rank called Igbama which are "Junior Elders." ... These are the heads of families, seniors in the small divisions of the village, who have in some cases performed a promotion ceremony to free themselves from the obligations of communal labour, but who are not yet admitted to the full clan council. Finally come the Edion, the Elders, the grave and reverend seniors of the village, the repositories of customs, the village tribunal of justice, at the head of who is the Odionwere or senior Elder.... In most groups he is the administrative as well as religious head of the village.”
[2]
“The Eghaevbo n’Ore, which seems to have replaced the Uzama Nihinron as the most effective check on the Oba’s political power, was created by Ewuare, before the coming of the Europeans. Since the senior members of the Eghaevbo n’Ore transacted "most of the day-to-day administration of the kingdom", these men were probably the "fetish priests" or the "ju-ju men" which so impressed European visitors from the time of Pereira to that of Gallwey. In other words, both human sacrifices and "fetish priests" existed in Benin prior to the beginnings of the European slave trade, and prior to the great military victories of Ozolua and Esigie”
[3]
Just outside Benin City: “Idunbhun-Ihogbe, for example, contained one section of the Ihogbe, priests of the past kings and of the living Oba’s Head. In the same area were located the villages of six of the Seven Uzama (Uzama n’Ihinrɔn), hereditary nobles and ‘kingmakers’. The seventh Uzama was the Oba’s eldest son and heir, the Edaikɛn, whose court was at Uselu, just outside the second wall to the north-west. In fact, as we shall see, no Edaikɛn was installed during the nineteenth century. Uselu also housed the court of the Oba’s mother, who ranked with the Town Chiefs rather than the Uzama. // “The hereditary Uzama and the two groups of Eghaɛbho, whose titles were non-hereditary, constituted three great orders of chieftancy which, between them, were responsible for the continuity and government of the state.”
[4]
Nineteenth century: “The use of magical protection, albeit pre-scientific in Benin world view, was considered part of the preparations for war. Its psychological potency for the warriors explains why they had to seek the services of ‘traditional doctors’ before any campaign. The priest of Okhuahie was responsible for the state army. The Ewaise, a guild of ‘traditional doctors’ who controlled the shrine of Osun-okuo (war medicine) also played a prominent role.”
[5]
[1]: Plankensteiner, B. (2007). Benin: Kings and Rituals: Court Arts from Nigeria. African Arts, 40(4), 74–87: 83. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7AR425BC/collection [2]: Sargent, R. A. (1986). From A Redistribution to an Imperial Social Formation: Benin c.1293-1536. Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, 20(3), 402–427: 403. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AUEZSTBR/collection [3]: Graham, J. D. (1965). The Slave Trade, Depopulation and Human Sacrifice in Benin History: The General Approach. Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 5(18), 317–334: 327. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/4AS9CVZH/collection [4]: Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 12. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection [5]: Osadolor, O. B. (2001). The Military System of Benin Kingdom, c.1440–1897. University of Hamburg, Germany: 201. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/N4RZF5H5/collection |
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1) Aku-Uka, 2) Chief priests of cults (eg Ku-Puje Acio and assistant served as chief priest of Puje), 3) Council of subordinate priests. “The people had to get to the Aku-Uka through the Abo-Acio. That is to say that he was the representative of the people in their relations with the king, who was the representative of the gods. He was the king’s principal adviser, and had access to the king at any time. He reported matters of importance to the king on daily basis. He disposed of all judicial cases which did not require the king’s personal investigation. And when religious rites were due, the priests approached the Abo-Acio, who obtained the royal consent, together with the sacrificial gifts which the king was required to provide, and attended the rites which he reported back to the Aku. In short, the Abo-Acio was the very figure which the people had relationship with in terms of the political arrangement of the Jukun people. This explains the level of significance attached to the office of the Abo-Acio, in consonance with the sacred nature of the Aku-Uka, who was considered a semi god and should not be seen by ordinary people. […] Taking cognizance of the theocratic system of the administration, the priests constituted another important group of administrators within the Jukun political system. The Ku-Puje Acio with his assistant served as the Chief Priest of Puje, an important cult among the wapa Jukun. There was the Kenjo cult, the Yaku cult, the Achu-Nyande etc. Each of these cults had specific set of functions which they performed. For instance, the Achu-Nyande served a judicial function in the sense that, being a cult of lightning, rites were performed in cases of theft and was believed that lightning would strike the culprit.”
[1]
“Amongst the Ichen both temporal and spiritual affairs were in the hands of a Chief-priest assisted by a Council of Subordinate Priests. The Chief-priest suffered from severe limitations as a leader owing to the taboos to which he must subject. In some instances, the Chief-priests were not allowed to cross a stream, a taboo which // “fairly effectively confined them. The Chief-priest of Ndessin was not allowed to let any water touch his body except that which is actually falling in the form of rain. In this regard, it is evident that the political life of the Ichen people were regulated through the various cults, such as Achu Nyande, Gura. These cults were common amongst the other Jukun communities. This, in a way, established that religion played an important role in maintaining the primacy of the Aku’s position over the other Jukun communities. In this connection, the ensuing socio-politcal structures became similar to that which existed in Wukari.”
[2]
“The potential coercive use of his ritual powers by the king was considerably restricted by the existence of many other priestly offices and by the innumerable taboos which regulated his ritual behaviour. With regard to the former, the priests of the many cults were not deputies of the king, and their ritual authority and consequential prestige did not derive from him. This is illustrated by the injunctions which forbade the king to be present at the performance of rites other than those held in his own palace, and which forbade the king to meet certain priests face to face. His was the ultimate responsibility, however, for ensuring that appropriate rites were carried out at the customary times, and for directing the priests to co-operate on contingent occasions which required special rites. In this capacity the Aku was a high priest with a somewhat remote supervision of numerous ritual specialists. The distribution of ritual authority in the society together with the elaborate taboos of his office were the categorical checks on the king’s ritual power, which was thus in practice no more absolute than his political power.”
[3]
[1]: Zhema, S. (2017). A History of the Social and Political Organization of the Jukun of Wukari Division, c.1596–1960 [Benue State University]: 125–128. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/U667CC36/collection [2]: Zhema, S. (2017). A History of the Social and Political Organization of the Jukun of Wukari Division, c.1596–1960 [Benue State University]: 128–129. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/U667CC36/collection [3]: Young, M. W. (1966). The Divine Kingship of the Jukun: A Re-Evaluation of Some Theories. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 36(2), 135–153: 146. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NTI9GQMF/collection |
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levels.1. King "In his activity as a ritualist he consecrated objects or actions and in doing so conferred some imana on them. He was then himself neither divine nor sacred, but a priest and at times he became momentarily sacred."
[1]
:2. Leaders of the ritualists ::3. Lesser ritualists :::The terms "leaders of the ritualists" and "main ritualists" in the following quotes implies at least two levels, with "ritualist leaders" or "main ritualists" at the top and lesser ritualists at the bottom. "The main ritualists also still held territories that were totally free. [...] All these ritualist lands were exempt from royal authority in return for the ritual obligations owed by their chiefs."
[2]
"The leaders of the ritualists were practically always on the spot at the court and formed a compact group that exercised great influence over the king through their control of the divinations that preceded every important activity and their control of the rituals of kingship itself."
[3]
[1]: (Vansina 2004: 83) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection. [2]: (Vansina 2004: 64-65) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection. [3]: (Vansina 2004: 85) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection. |
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There seems to have been a fusion of Greek polytheism and Buddhist practices in at least some areas of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. There is no good evidence on whether this was made into a formalized practice, or the structure of religious practice.
There was a "Mesopotamian-style temple" in Ai Khanoum so at least one level can be inferred. [1] "On the north side of the Oxus (present-day Amu Darya) River a few miles north of the Tajikistan/Afghanistan border and a day’s ride west of Ai Khanoum, archaeologists have found a smaller, but no less interesting, 3rd - 2nd century BC Hellenistic-era site: a temple structure known locally as Takht-i-Sangin. The site appeared to be a combination Greek temple and Zoroastian fire temple, reflecting the dual traditions that existed in Bactria during the Hellenistic era." [2] [1]: (Mori 2015, 93) Mori, A. in Hose M and Schenker D. 2015. A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons. [2]: (www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh02-06enl.html) |
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The city of Balkh had about 100 Buddhist monasteries and some 3,000 monks. Outside the town was a large Buddhist monastery, although this description occurs after the area had been conquered by the Turks. Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, a Sun cult and some kind of sky and fire worship are also attested. However, we have no information as to what the Hepthalites practiced, and whether this had a hierarchical structure.
[1]
"There is some evidence that Buddhism was practices in some of the territories held by the Hephthalites; however, some contemporary authors also wrote of the persecution of Buddhists. There are references to sacred fire, which indicates at least some familiarity with Zoroastrianism. However, because Hephthalite graves have been found, not all aspects of Zoroastrianism would have been practiced, since the funerary ritual of this religion, entailed leaving the body in the open to be devoured by sacred birds and dogs. As was the case with language religion was probably another area in which the Hephthalites constituted a multicultural society". [2] [1]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia pp. 150-151 [2]: (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. |
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levels.
There was "a local variety of Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism) in Tokharistan, various expressions of Buddhism and Hinduism in the territory of Gandhara and also, probably, the official Sasanian doctrine." [1] "It appears that the Kidarites’ beliefs had not yet developed into a rigid religious system". [1] "The Buddhist religious centre in Old Termez, destroyed probably in the 360s-370s by the Sasanians, already lay in ruins". [2] also at time of Kidarites were abandoned buildings and caves of monasteries. [2] [1]: (Zeimal 1996, 137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [2]: (Zeimal 1996, 131) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf |
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Emperor was high priest.
[1]
Eclectic mix of ancestor worship, sorcery, Daoism, polytheism, and later Buddhism from first century CE. [2] "In the state cult of the Han dynasty, Heaven was the supreme deity, a deity which was believed to guide the fate of the world directly." Omens and portents were examined to assess whether the emperor possessed the Mandate of Heaven. [3] [1]: (Kerr 2013, 39) [2]: (Theobald 2000f) [3]: (Bielenstein 1986, 223) |
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levels. Inferred from previous polity.
1. Emperor2. Priests or ritual assistants |
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levels.
There was a religion or cult centered around royalty. At least two levels if the king did not do everything. 1. King2. Priest or assistant/High priest inferred3. Low priest inferred "The scale of the palace-temples and the existence of the palace-temple district from the very beginning of the site suggest that Yanshi Shangcheng was planned and built as an elite religious/political structure from the start." [1] "Exemplified by Zhengzhou and Anyang, each city was composed of a centrally situated ceremonial and administrative enclave occupied primarily by royalty, priests and a few selected craftsmen... (Wheatley 1971: 30-47)." [2] [1]: (Campbell 2014, 75) [2]: (Liu and Chen 2012, 295) Liu, Li. Chen, Xingcan. 2012. The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press. |
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levels.
Ancestor-worship rituals: "Erlitou’s regional expansion was unprecedented and is particularly attributable to the rulers’ hunger for bronze alloys, which were used to cast weapons for warfare and ceremonial vessels for ancestor-worship rituals, both activities being intended to ensure the political legitimacy of the ruling class (Chang 1983)." [1] 1. King 2. Top priest at ritual inferred3. Lesser priest at ritual inferred More conservative view "While the Erlitou ceramic tradition was widespread, the mechanisms of this expansion are probably only indirectly related to political activity (if pots don’t equal people, they are even less representative of conquering armies or “state” administrators). The degree of centralization, mechanisms of political control, and social organization can only be guessed at or extrapolated through comparison with Zhengzhou and Anyang." [2] [1]: (Liu 2009, 226) [2]: (Campbell 2014, 62) |
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levels. Religious leaders or shamans dealt directly with devotees to the bidlang, or ancestral pantheon.
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levels. Moertono says that generally the Islamic clergy did not have an organized hierarchical structure in the sense of the Christian church. However, once religious specialists began to be more intertwined with the state administration in later Mataram, some hierarchies of power did develop (see ’Administrative Levels’).
[1]
[1]: (Moertono 2009, 84) |
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levels.
1. Emperor "The emperor was first and foremost the primary religious officer of the Sung state. His function in this capacity was unique and irreplaceable. He was the principal officiant at a series of rituals that regulated time; offered sacrifices to deities; paid homage to stars, mountains, and rivers; and worshipped ancestors." [1] "The state also used both Buddhist and Taoist institutions to funnel financial and spiritual aid to the population after natural disasters and warfare." [2] 2.3.Buddhism. "The great temples of the capital and other major cities, often patronized by the rulers, housed in some cases thousands of monks." [3] [1]: (Hartman 2015, 83) [2]: (Hartman 2015, 96) [3]: (Mote 2003, 161) Mote, Frederick W. 2003. Imperial China: 900-1800. Harvard University Press. |
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Coding same as Abbasid Caliphate.
1. Caliph as head of the Sunni Muslim umma. 2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the muslim world. In theory the Caliphate and governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) and aesthetics (Sufis) increasingly attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths were not clearly hierarchical and all were equal before Allah. [1] [1]: Lapidus, History of Islamic Society p. 82,p. 215 |
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levels.
_Daoism_ "Organized religion emerged in Daoism with the founding of its first church - the Wudoumidao (the Way of Five Pecks of Rice) or Tianshidao (the Way of the Celestial Masters) - in Sichuan in Eastern Han in the early second century AD. In the Six Dynasties period, Tianshidao still existed, but there was no clear line of transmission, In the north, Kou Qianzhi of Northern Wei, as a self-claimed successor to Tianshidao, made a forceful effort to promote Daoism at court." [1] 1. Celestial Master There was a Celestial Master at Pingcheng. [2] It was "standard practice" for new emperors to take part in a "Daoist ritual to receive talisman registers." [3] 2. ? _Buddhism_ "After its official entry in the Han, Buddhism came to dominate both north and south China during the Six Dynasties period." [4] 1. Emperor (from 460 CE) "Adopting Confucianism as the state religion was not acceptable to many nobles of the Northern Wei royal lineage, who took pride in their steppe traditions, nor was it appealing to their Chinese subjects. Buddhism was the obvious choice. From 460 on, the Northern Wei emperor began to have huge statues of the Buddha carved near the capital, Pingcheng (present-day Yungang, in the northern part of present Shanxi Province. Those statues, monuments marking the eastern end of the Silk Road, represented the reincarnations of the current and former rulers of the Northern Wei. Through these carvings, the Northern Wei emperors declared themselves the representatives of the Buddha and therefore the legitimate rulers of China." [5] 2. ? _Confucianism_ Construction of Confucian temple late fifth century, Empress Dowager and Xiaowen. [6] [1]: (Xiong 2009, 111) [2]: (Xiong 2009, xcix) [3]: (Xiong 2009, c) [4]: (Xiong 2009, 68) [5]: (Liu 77, 2010) Xinru Liu. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [6]: (Holcombe 2011, 66-67) |
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levels. Inferred from previous polities.
1. Emperor 2. Ministry of Rites 3. Ritual specialists |
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"The Shang worshipped the "Shang Di," who was the supreme god that ruled over the lesser gods of the sun, the moon, the wind, the rain, and other natural forces and places. They also worshipped their ancestors because they believed that although their ancestors lived in heaven after their death, they were still actively involved in the affairs of family and descendants."
[1]
1.King.2. Chief diviners.3. Lesser diviners (e.g. scribes). Theocracy. King considered god called Di’s representative on earth. His responsibility was to ensure harmony between the "cosmic cycle of the seasons and the agricultural cycle of humanity." Ritual functions included fixing the timetable for farming activities through divination. To help him he had colleges of soothsayers and scribes who carried out royal divination activities. Scapulimancy and plastromancy were practised. Sacrifices were made to dead kings (ancestral worship cult) who were thought to be able to communicate with Di. [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [3] [1]: (The Shang Dynasty, 1600 to 1050 BCE. Spice Digest, Fall 2007. http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf) [2]: (Gernet 1996,47) [3]: (Kerr 2013, 21) [4]: (Gernet 1996, 47) [5]: (Hook 1991, 143) [6]: (Roberts 2003) [7]: (Fussati 1982, 19) |
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levels.
1. Emperor 2. Ritual Specialists (inferred)3. Monk/Priest/Nun Emperor Taizong: "637 ... he ordered that henceforth at all ceremonies Daoist monks and nuns would take precedence over their Buddhist counterparts." [1] "At about the same time he approved the Daoseng ge, the Regulations Regarding the Daoist and Buddhist Clergies, which provided harsh punishments for clergy committing various offences. His objective was to reduce the participation of Buddist clergy in secular life and to confine monks and nuns to their monasteries where they would be occupied with religious observances. By so doing he sought to establish control over the Buddhist church." [1] Empress Wu: "... Buddhism reached the apogee of its economic and political might during her reign. The Buddhist monasteries were the repositories for much capital, the owners of vast quantities of metal (primarily copper, mostly in the form of statues) and were thus able to control the money market. They were probably also the greatest single group of landowners in the entire country. On the whole, the Buddhists were able to maintain this dominant position for the next century and a half." [2] "Taoism the personal religious creed of all the later T’ang emperors." [3] [1]: (Roberts 1996, 91) [2]: (Rodzinski 1979, 126) [3]: (Rodzinski 1979, 119) |
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levels.
1. Emperor 2. Ritual Specialists3. Priests 3. Monks "Taoism the personal religious creed of all the later T’ang emperors." [1] 843 CE all Manichaean "temples were destroyed, their books burned, some of their priestesses slain, the religion proscribed and all their property consficated." by Taoist Emperor Wu-tsung (841-846 CE). [2] 845 CE Buddhists, Zoroastrians and Nestorians were persecuted by Taoist Emperor Wu-tsung (841-846 CE). "4600 temples and monastries, 40,000 smaller shrines were ordered to be destroyed; 260,000 monks and nuns were secularized; 150,000 temple slaves turned over to the state; all statues melted down and the metal confiscated and, what was most important, all the vast amount of land in the hands of the Buddhist establishment was taken over by the government." [3] Under Emperor Hsuan-tsung (847-859 CE), who was a Buddhist, the persecution was lifted "but it never fully regained its position, wealth and prestige. Any possibility that it had of becoming a state church in the future was thus eliminated." [4] [1]: (Rodzinski 1979, 119) [2]: (Rodzinski 1979, 131) [3]: (Rodzinski 1979, 131-132) [4]: (Rodzinski 1979, 132) |
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levels.
1. Caliph "As the nominal leader of the Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam), the caliph was charged with a variety of tasks, both temporal and spiritual." [1] 2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the muslim world. [1]: (Hanne 2007, 22) Hanne, Eric J. 2007. Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. |
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levels.
The Sailendra court attracted Buddhist scholars from afar and was a major international centre of Buddhist pilgrimage and learning. [1] Three major temple complexes - Borobudur (Buddhist, built around 825), Prambanan (Hindu - Shivaist, built around 850), and Dieng (Hindu - Shivaist, completed between the mid-seventh century and the end of the eighth century). Many smaller temples were in addition built by regional coalitions, and each local constituent contributed parts of the temple. [2] [1]: (Miksic 1993-1994 cited in Hall 2011, 123) [2]: (Hall in Tarling 1993, 204) |
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levels.
1. Emperor"Under persistent pressure from Chinese literati, the Mongolian rulers acqui- esced in carrying out Confucian rites, such as the suburban offerings to heaven, but they did not usually attend them in person. One may surmise that the imperial family felt more comfortable with the Buddhist rituals introduced by the ’Phags-pa Lama. The imperial family attended in person the Buddhist celebratory processions and plays in the first month of the New Year at which Chinese, Muslim, and Tangut musicians entertained.’ The ruling Mongols also continued to practice shamanist rituals and apparently saw no conflict of interest in deriving legitimacy from more than one ideological—religious tradition." [1] 2. Ministry of Rites "In terms of political and economic authority, the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Rites was far more narrowly defined than that of either the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of Revenue. Court ceremonies, music, assemblies, and sacrifices came under its aegis, as did such matters as granting posthumous titles, provisioning the imperial kitchen, and manufacturing the imperial seals. The authority of the Ministry of Rites did, however, extend beyond the limited sphere of court etiquette into the realm of sumptuary regulations, marriage rites, mourning rites, and burial rites, all of which affected commoners to a certain degree. In addition, the ministry upheld the rights of the different ethnic groups in Yiian China to practice their own particular rituals and not to have to conform to Chinese standards. Uighurs, for example, were directed to conduct their mourning in accordance with their own regulations; if they were to ignore their own mourning customs and follow instead Chinese practices, they would be subject to confiscation of their property. The Ministry of Rites was also charged with administering the state schools and regulating religious establishments." [2] 3. Ritual specialistsImams, shamans, Buddhist monks, Taoist priests, etc. "In matters of religion, Khubilai was all-inclusive. He patronized, or at least sanctioned, every religious group in his realm, from Daoism and Buddhists to Christians and Muslims. ... He added imperial Chinese ceremonies to his government’s practice, and built the most ritually correct Chinese city ever constructed for his capital at Dadu (modern Beijing)." [3] [1]: (Endicott-West 1994, 609) [2]: (Endicott-West 1994, 589-590) [3]: (Lorge 2005, 79) |
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Al-Azhar and local mosques.
Shafi’i school of religious law. The return of Egypt’s rulers to Sunni orthodoxy constituted an event of considerable importance. The Ismailis, despite their long rule, had failed to impart their faith to the mass of the Egyptian population. Saladin and his successors addressed the task of making Egypt once more a center of orthodox belief (Raymond, 2000, p. 80). EWA: Religious: Sultan, Imams [this is the shorter chain of command] Alternative religious 4: Sultan, Chief Sufi Priest, Sheikh, minor sufi religious specialists [this is the longer chain of command and therefore the one we code] 1. Sultan 2. Chief Sufi priest3. Sheikh4. Minor Sufi religious specialist (local priest?) Judiciary religious 5: Sultan, Supreme supreme judge, supreme judge, judge, clerks [we decided not to include this] Hierarchical structure is largely irrelevant to Sunni Islam with its four Madhhabs.Estimated 3000 clergy in Saladin’s Empire, 600 in Damascus. [1] [1]: (Humphreys 1977, 24) |
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_ Abydos cult centre _ Abydos was the most significant cult centre. Kings of the 1st Dynasty were buried in the royal cemetery in the Umm el-Qa’ab area. There were funerary enclosures and a mortuary cult that supported an ideology of divine kingship. In the funerary enclosures priests and other personnel practiced king-cults. [1] 1. King. 2. Priests 3. Other _Town cult complex_ In the 1st Dynasty there were probably cult temple compounds within towns which "served a different function from those associated with the funerary complexes, which were located outside the towns." [2] 1. 2. 3. [1]: (Bard 2000, 64-69) [2]: (Bard 2000, 78) |
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Was previously coded as 4. AD
1. Sultan (Baybar was "Servant of the two Holy Cities") 2. Ulama - religious scholars [1] 3. Imams Under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. All Mamluk sultans performed a ritual demonstration of manumission at an inaugural ceremony. Manumission was performed at about 18 years old, following the Mamluk’s training. [2] "Under the Mamluks the state appointed judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy. Never did the state attempt to define the content of religious teaching. Thus, the "Mamluks extended the Saljuq-Iranian pattern of organized religious life to Syria and Egypt." [3] [1]: (Dols 1977, 153) [2]: (Oliver 1977, 39-67) [3]: (Lapidus 2012, 249) |
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No more than 1 level. Does not have to be professional to have levels.
The introduction of professional priesthood occurred during the New Kingdom [1] As there is no professional priesthood in the Dynastic Egypt up to New Kingdom it seems improbable that this institution existed in the predynastic times [2] [1]: Doxey, D. M. 2001. "Priesthood". [in:] Redford, D. B. [ed.]. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pg: 77. [2]: Doxey D. M. 2001. "Priesthood".[in;] Redford, D. B. [ed.]. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford:Oxford University Press. pg: 77. |
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The introduction of professional priesthood occurred during the New Kingdom
[1]
Gerzean Period characterized "larger, more elaborate tombs containing richer and more abundant offerings." for example [2] : Cemetery T at Naqada Tomb 100 "Painted Tomb" at Hierakonpolis Mudbrick structure at Naqada 50x20m speculated to be a temple or royal residence. [3] "In Naqada IIIB the country became politically unified (if not earlier) and essentially similar elite and sub-elite burial practices are known throughout the country. That translates to around 3100 BCE. One could also go back a century or so to Naqada IIIA. Of course, royal burials came in, and they are known from only a few sites, so that they don’t give one a handle on how uniform practices were. But there are cemeteries of Naqada III from the Aswan area to the north-eastern delta, so that seems relatively clear." [1]: Doxey, D. M. 2001. "Priesthood". [in:] Redford, D. B. [ed.]. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pg: 77. [2]: (Midant-Reynes 2000, 50) [3]: (Midant-Reynes 2000, 52) |
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1. King "temples and Hwt were part of a network of economic and production centers spread all over the country and controlled by the crown." [1] "In contrast to the temples, the Hwt was seldom a path to social promotion to the highest offices of the state during the Sixth Dynasty." [2] "temples or Hwt never became private possessions, and the revenues of the local dominant families seem to have been dependent, in a significant way, on their ties with the state and its institutions. [3] _ Pyramid complex levels _ High Priest or Overseer of the Estate Larger cult complexes with numerous "Servants of God" had a high priest (jmj-r3 hmw-ntr). In the 4th, 5th and 6th Dynasty this role was often filled by more than one person. In some complexes this role had a special title. [4] "In Old Kingdom royal cult complexes (including sun temples), the hmw-ntr were organized into five phyles, or companies. Each phyle had two sub-groups lead by a shd, inspector, and each of the ten sub-groups served the royal cult complex in rotation for one thirty-day month." Servant of God (hm-ntr) from 1st Dynasty. Servant of God "prepared offerings, performed rituals, had access to the sanctuary of the divine image, and controlled entrance to the temple." [4] Servant of God (hmt-ntr) Female priestesses Servant of God (hmt-ntr) was under the authority of a man. Associated with goddesses Hathor and Neith, and music making. Within the temple there was a female head (wrt-hnr) of a musical troupe (hnr). [5] W’b Priest The w’b priest (w’b) assisted the Servants of God (hmw-ntr). They performed "the lesser tasks requisite to maintaining the temples and rituals. Their leader was called the Great W*b." W’b priests "handled ritual instruments and cultic objects." Certainly from 5th Dynasty a W’b could be promoted to hm-ntr "at either the same temple or a different one." [6] Lector Priest The lector priest hrj-hb(t) was "the skillful reader who carried the ritual book and recited the formulas of cultic performance. No woman held this title." The titles Chief Lector Priest and Senior Lector Priest "may have connoted not so much degree of command as length of service." [7] hntj-s "Ann Macy Roth, following Paule Posener-Kreiger, finds that in papyri from Abusir (Dynasty 5 and early Dynasty 6) hntjw-s perform the same duties as Servants of God, save for particular functions relative to the divine image and transporting offerings to and from the temple. She concludes that hmw-ntr served the deceased king’s divine aspect while the hntjw-s served his human aspect." [7] 2. High Priest or Overseer of the Estatecould also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t) 3. Servant of God (hmw-ntr)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t) 4. Servant of God (hmw-ntr) - Inspector (shd)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t) 5. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Female head (wrt-hnr)6. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Musicians 5. Great W*b (w’b ’3)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)6. W’b Priest (w’b)7. ... ? ...inferred level - scribes? guards? lay workers attached to the temple estate? _ Local cult complex _ "Religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians was locally diverse and socially stratified. Practically every area of Egypt had its local god, which for its inhabitants was the most important deity" [8] 1. Servant of God In the Old Kingdom a local government official was usually appointed to this role in the local cult complex. [4] 2. ... ? ...3. ... ? ... _ Mortuary complex _ "some priests were not associated with temples. These were the mortuary priests who served cultuses at tombs." [7] 1. Mortuary Priest [7] 2. ... ? ...3. ... ? ... [1]: (Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 198) [2]: (Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 201) [3]: (Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 202) [4]: (Shafer 2005, 10) [5]: (Shafer 2005, 11) [6]: (Shafer 2005, 11-12) [7]: (Shafer 2005, 12) [8]: (Malek 2000, 101) |
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1. King "temples and Hwt were part of a network of economic and production centers spread all over the country and controlled by the crown." [1] "In contrast to the temples, the Hwt was seldom a path to social promotion to the highest offices of the state during the Sixth Dynasty." [2] "temples or Hwt never became private possessions, and the revenues of the local dominant families seem to have been dependent, in a significant way, on their ties with the state and its institutions. [3] _ Sun-temple levels _ Starting from the 5th Dynasty, "The building of sun-temples was the outcome of a gradual rise in importance of the sun-god. Ra now became Egypt’s closest equivalent to a state god. Each king built a new sun-temple and their proximity to the pyramid complexes, as well as their similarity to the royal funerary monuments in plan, suggest that they were built for the afterlife rather than the present. A sun-temple consisted of a valley temple linked by a causeway to the upper temple. The main feature of the upper temple was a massive pedestal with an obelisk, a symbol of the sun-god. An alter was placed in a court open to the sun. ... Like pyramid complexes, sun-temples were endowed with land, received donations in kind on festival days, and had their own personnel." [4] High Priest or Overseer of the Estate Larger cult complexes with numerous "Servants of God" had a high priest (jmj-r3 hmw-ntr). In the 4th, 5th and 6th Dynasty this role was often filled by more than one person. In some complexes this role had a special title. [5] "In Old Kingdom royal cult complexes (including sun temples), the hmw-ntr were organized into five phyles, or companies. Each phyle had two sub-groups lead by a shd, inspector, and each of the ten sub-groups served the royal cult complex in rotation for one thirty-day month." Servant of God (hm-ntr) from 1st Dynasty. Servant of God "prepared offerings, performed rituals, had access to the sanctuary of the divine image, and controlled entrance to the temple." [5] Servant of God (hmt-ntr) Female priestesses Servant of God (hmt-ntr) was under the authority of a man. Associated with goddesses Hathor and Neith, and music making. Within the temple there was a female head (wrt-hnr) of a musical troupe (hnr). [6] W’b Priest The w’b priest (w’b) assisted the Servants of God (hmw-ntr). They performed "the lesser tasks requisite to maintaining the temples and rituals. Their leader was called the Great W*b." W’b priests "handled ritual instruments and cultic objects." Certainly from 5th Dynasty a W’b could be promoted to hm-ntr "at either the same temple or a different one." [7] Lector Priest The lector priest hrj-hb(t) was "the skillful reader who carried the ritual book and recited the formulas of cultic performance. No woman held this title." The titles Chief Lector Priest and Senior Lector Priest "may have connoted not so much degree of command as length of service." [8] hntj-s "Ann Macy Roth, following Paule Posener-Kreiger, finds that in papyri from Abusir (Dynasty 5 and early Dynasty 6) hntjw-s perform the same duties as Servants of God, save for particular functions relative to the divine image and transporting offerings to and from the temple. She concludes that hmw-ntr served the deceased king’s divine aspect while the hntjw-s served his human aspect." [8] 2. High Priest or Overseer of the Estatecould also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t) 3. Servant of God (hmw-ntr)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t) 4. Servant of God (hmw-ntr) - Inspector (shd)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t) 5. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Female head (wrt-hnr)6. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Musicians 5. Great W*b (w’b ’3)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)6. W’b Priest (w’b)7. ... ? ...inferred level - scribes? guards? lay workers attached to the temple estate? _ Pyramid complex levels _ 2. High Priest or Overseer of the Estatecould also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t) 3. Servant of God (hmw-ntr)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t) 4. Servant of God (hmw-ntr) - Inspector (shd)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t) 5. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Female head (wrt-hnr)6. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Musicians 5. Great W*b (w’b ’3)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)6. W’b Priest (w’b)7. ... ? ...inferred level - scribes? guards? lay workers attached to the temple estate? _ Local cult complex _ "Religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians was locally diverse and socially stratified. Practically every area of Egypt had its local god, which for its inhabitants was the most important deity, and the elevation of Ra to the level of state god had little effect on this. If anything, the annals show that the kings now began to pay even greater attention to local deities in all parts of the country by making donations, often of land, to their shrines, or exempting them from taxes and forced labour." [9] 1. Servant of God In the Old Kingdom a local government official was usually appointed to this role in the local cult complex. [5] 2. ... ? ...3. ... ? ... _ Mortuary complex _ "some priests were not associated with temples. These were the mortuary priests who served cultuses at tombs." [8] 1. Mortuary Priest [8] 2. ... ? ...3. ... ? ... [1]: (Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 198) [2]: (Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 201) [3]: (Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 202) [4]: (Malek 2000, 99) [5]: (Shafer 2005, 10) [6]: (Shafer 2005, 11) [7]: (Shafer 2005, 11-12) [8]: (Shafer 2005, 12) [9]: (Malek 2000, 101) |
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There were many different sizes/classes of temples and a multi-level prestige hierarchy. However, a prestige hierarchy does not represent hierarchical levels of authority within a religious organization. The code therefore might look like this "5 King, 4 High Priest of Ptah of Memphis, 3 regional chief priest, 2 Lector Priest, 1 Wab priest" but in fact these were only titles; the lower ranked priests were independent and did not take orders from those higher in rank. Since this code does not code prestige hierarchy only hierarchical levels of authority we code 1.
Certain priesthoods, e.g. the High Priest of Ptah at Memphis, exerted considerable political influence. Functioned as a virtual centralized priesthood in Egypt; several of the synodal meetings of priests from throughout Egypt met at Memphis, from which emanated the trilingual decrees, e.g. the Rosetta Stone. These priests were closely associated with the priests at Letopolis. See D. Thompson, Memphis under the Ptolemies. 2d. ed. Princeton, 2012. The dynastic cult was founded by Ptolemy II. The annually selected priesthoods of the cult were based in Alexandria, and later also in the southern capital at Ptolemais. Within the dynastic cult there is not much of a hierarchy as there is not a command structure. The Egyptian cults are completely separated. Here each temple functions autonomously. There is a clear hierarchy within each temple. Alexandria: "In the religious sphere, there is evidence - as Arrian observed (3.1.5) - for the worship of the Olympian and other Greek gods, as well as the "Egyptian" gods, especially Sarapis. Of the Olympian gods, the worship of Dionysos, Demeter, and Aphrodite in particular received royal support. There is also evidence for a founder cult of Alexander and a (dynastic) cult of Alexander and the Ptolemies. The priests of the latter were eponymous priests. In addition, we know of, among other things, cults of individual dynastic members, such as that of Ptolemy Soter (the Ptolemaieia), Berenike (a temple - the Berenikeion), Ptolemy Soter and Berenike (the "Theoi Soteres"), Arsinoe Philadelphos (the Arsinoeia), Ptolemy Philadelphos and Arsinoe (the "Theoi Adelphoi"), and the commemoration of Philadelphos’s birthday (the Basileia). Although evidence is sparse, it is clear that - as was usual in Greek festivals - competitions and processions were an important part of the various cults. The best attested is, of course, the great procession of Ptolemy Philadelphos." [1] At Ptolemais in the Thebaid "evidence for the worship of Zeus (OGIS 103), Dionysos (OGIS 51), and Isis (OGIS 52)." [2] [1]: (Cohen 2006, 358) [2]: (Cohen 2006, 350) |
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There were many different sizes/classes of temples and a multi-level prestige hierarchy. However, a prestige hierarchy does not represent hierarchical levels of authority within a religious organization. The code therefore might look like this "5 King, 4 High Priest of Ptah of Memphis, 3 regional chief priest, 2 Lector Priest, 1 Wab priest" but in fact these were only titles; the lower ranked priests were independent and did not take orders from those higher in rank. Since this code does not code prestige hierarchy only hierarchical levels of authority we code 1.
Certain priesthoods, e.g. the High Priest of Ptah at Memphis, exerted considerable political influence. Functioned as a virtual centralized priesthood in Egypt; several of the synodal meetings of priests from throughout Egypt met at Memphis, from which emanated the trilingual decrees, e.g. the Rosetta Stone. These priests were closely associated with the priests at Letopolis. See D. Thompson, Memphis under the Ptolemies. 2d. ed. Princeton, 2012. The dynastic cult was founded by Ptolemy II. The annually selected priesthoods of the cult were based in Alexandria, and later also in the southern capital at Ptolemais. Within the dynastic cult there is not much of a hierarchy as there is not a command structure. The Egyptian cults are completely separated. Here each temple functions autonomously. There is a clear hierarchy within each temple. Alexandria: "In the religious sphere, there is evidence - as Arrian observed (3.1.5) - for the worship of the Olympian and other Greek gods, as well as the "Egyptian" gods, especially Sarapis. Of the Olympian gods, the worship of Dionysos, Demeter, and Aphrodite in particular received royal support. There is also evidence for a founder cult of Alexander and a (dynastic) cult of Alexander and the Ptolemies. The priests of the latter were eponymous priests. In addition, we know of, among other things, cults of individual dynastic members, such as that of Ptolemy Soter (the Ptolemaieia), Berenike (a temple - the Berenikeion), Ptolemy Soter and Berenike (the "Theoi Soteres"), Arsinoe Philadelphos (the Arsinoeia), Ptolemy Philadelphos and Arsinoe (the "Theoi Adelphoi"), and the commemoration of Philadelphos’s birthday (the Basileia). Although evidence is sparse, it is clear that - as was usual in Greek festivals - competitions and processions were an important part of the various cults. The best attested is, of course, the great procession of Ptolemy Philadelphos." [1] At Ptolemais in the Thebaid "evidence for the worship of Zeus (OGIS 103), Dionysos (OGIS 51), and Isis (OGIS 52)." [2] [1]: (Cohen 2006, 358) [2]: (Cohen 2006, 350) |
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levels.
_Mortuary cults_ "full-blown, society-wide investment in the mortuary cult did not come into fruition until the First Intermediate Period - when the central state had for all intents and purposes collapsed." [1] 1. Overseers of priests [2] local rulers usually acted as "overseers of priests" [3] 2. Priests 3. Scribes? [1]: (Morris in Schwartz and Nichols eds. 2010, 66) [2]: (Seidlmayer 2003, 117) [3]: (Seidlmayer 2003, 122) |
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levels.
"To maintain power, Psamtek made use of the century-old concept of divine kingship and established control over Upper Egypt by sending his daughter as God’s wife of Amum." [1] Temple of Amun at Thebes had a unique political structure, used to independence. [2] Psamtik II "broke the back of the last major political entity capable of resisting the crown." [3] 1. Montuemhat, the fourth prophet, prince of the city, Agent for Upper Egypt - head until 648 BCE. Title of Agent for Upper Egypt survived at least until 610. [4] 1. Then Nesnaisut who under Psamtik I ruled 9 cities in the Delta and Upper Egypt, including Thebes, El Kab and Edfu. Title of "Observer" in Thebes and "Governor" in the other 8 cities. 1. Chief Priest of Amun. [5] 2. Theban Scribes [6] 2. Protector of the Priests of Amun of Teudjoi. [7] 3. Priests 3. Agent for the division of offerings"supervision and the management of the sacred domains." [7] 3. Manager of the fields. [7] "The agricultural tax map must have been the principal work tool of this high-level administrator." [8] [1]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 16) [2]: (Agut-Labordere 2013, 977) [3]: (Agut-Labordere 2013, 1026) [4]: (Agut-Labordere 2013, 979) [5]: (Agut-Labordere 2013, 1019) [6]: (Agut-Labordere 2013, 980) [7]: (Agut-Labordere 2013, 999) [8]: (Agut-Labordere 2013, 1000) |
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AD: possibly this hierarchy?
1. Ruler 2. High priest3. Priest 3. Temple scribes4. Scribes EWA: Kim Ryholt. The political situation in Egypt ... 1997. might have relevant data. Official religion modelled on Egyptian. State god Seth of Avaris. [1] Reference to Horemkhauef, a chief inspector of priests (late 13th Dynasty?). Lector priests. Scribes. [2] Temple overseers, temple scribes, scribes, cultivators of divine offerings, scribes of the divine seal, masters of foodbearers, high priests, overseer of singers, w’b priests, and hm-ntr, hry-hbt, wnwt, and sm3. [3] [1]: (Hayes 1990, 4) [2]: (Bourriau 2003, 186) [3]: (Shirley 2013, 562) |
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levels. AD: estimated as a range based on previous polities with a minimum of 3: ruler, priest of a major temple and local priest.
1. ruler of the theocracy (2. priest of a major temple)(3. local priest) Under Smendes (1069-1043 BCE) "the government of Egypt was in effect a theocracy, supreme political authority being vested in the god Amun himself." Decisions of the gods were "communicated via oracles. The workings of the theocratic government are explicitly documented at Thebes, where oracular consultations were formalized by the institution of a regular Festival of the Divine Audience, held at Karnak." [1] _ Cult of Amun _ 1. 2. 3. 4. _ Oracles _ Oracles of Amun, Mut, and Khons at times were very influential in government. [2] [1]: (Taylor 2000, 325-327) [2]: (Taylor 2000, 327) |
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levels.
1. Pope 2. King 3. Crown-Cardinal 3. Archbishop: Archbishop of Toledo, Archbishop of Burgos, Archbishop of Seville ("fourth highest ranking in Castilian see succession"), Archbishop of Santiago. [1] 3. Senior Royal Chaplain (traditionally held by the Archbishop of Santiago) [2] 3. Grand Almoner [2] 3. Grand Inquisitor (either a bishop or archbishop) 4. Bishop: In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.” [3] [2] 5. Royal Confessor: "Those religious who had previously served as royal preachers or confessors, as provincials and generals of their orders, as university professors and as theological advisors (calificadores) to the inquisition all became major contenders for promotion to the Castilian episcopal bench." [4] 5. Royal Preachers: "Those religious who had previously served as royal preachers or confessors, as provincials and generals of their orders, as university professors and as theological advisors (calificadores) to the inquisition all became major contenders for promotion to the Castilian episcopal bench." [4] 6. Lesser Royal Chaplains [2] 7. Abbot [3] . In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.” [3] 8. Parish Priest: In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.” [3] 9. Deacon 9. Prior 10. Friar [5] 10. Monk [6] 10. Nun [7] 10. Overseas Missionaries [8]
[1]: (Rawlings 2005, 457-468) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. "Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 455-472. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN [2]: (Rawlings 2005, 457) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. "Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 455-472. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN [3]: (Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH [4]: (Rawlings 2005, 461) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. "Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 455-472. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN [5]: (Rawlings 2005, 460) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. "Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 455-472. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN [6]: (Payne 1973, 377) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 2, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z6EHG6PP [7]: (Payne 1973, 363) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 2, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z6EHG6PP [8]: (Rawlings 2005, 462) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. "Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 455-472. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN |
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levels.
[1]
1. Pope de jure #1 1. King de facto #1. made ecclesiastical appointments 2. Parlement of Paris"issued orders in January 1535 offering rewards for those who denounced heretics and punishments for concealments." [2] 3. Council of the French ChurchCardinals, Papal legates 4. Archbishop in archbishopric5. deputy called vicar-general? 5. Bishop in Diocese1551 CE diocese of Lombez had 154 priests in 91 parishes (low density priests to parishes) where as diocese of Leon (Brittany) had "an exceptionally dense concentration of clergy." under Francis I "only six known commoners promoted as bishops who in fact owed their positions to their scholarship and close relationship to the royal household."6. Archdeacon7. Parish priestPriest / Cures / Vicaires. "in the 392 parishes of Beauvais, there were only 80 resident cures ... distributed unevenly, the rest replaced by vicaires." [1]: (Potter 1995, 207-250) [2]: (Potter 1995, 247) |
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levels.
Same as earlier period as no new information to code higher. |
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levels.
1. Pope Christian state after baptism Clovis 508 CE. Catholic church. [1] 1. King ("Like Constantine, the Merovingian King was considered the reflection of God on Earth. The succession to the kingship could never been anything but the expression of a higher will" [2] Kings involved in ecclesiastical legislation [3] Kings gave money for shrines of saints. [4] "Many bishops owed their position to the king" and "were royal servants with no known connections with their sees." [5] 2. Bishop in diocesesBishop in every civitas. Bishop’s church called ecclesia, other churches were basilicae. City had complex of religious buildings, usually included a number of churches, a baptistery, and the bishop’s home (domus ecclesiae). Other religious officials were the clergy. Outside the city were funerary basilicas, sacred sites (shrines called loca sancta), mausoleums, tombs and cemeteries. Authorities secular and often came into conflict with religious authorities. [6] Dioceses provided basic structure of Merovingian Church, "the ecclesiastical counterparts of the civitates" and in the same place, except in the north and east. [7] 3. Subordinate bishopsDioceses had provinces (like civitates) [7] 4. Priests5. Lesser clergy [1]: (Wood 1994, 72) [2]: (Schutz 2004, 18) Schutz, H. 2004. The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900. BRILL [3]: (Wood 1994, 105) [4]: (Wood 1994, 66) [5]: (Wood 1994, 78) [6]: (Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 252-253) [7]: (Wood 1994, 71) |
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levels.
1. Pope Christian state after baptism Clovis 508 CE. Catholic church. [1] 1. King ("Like Constantine, the Merovingian King was considered the reflection of God on Earth. The succession to the kingship could never been anything but the expression of a higher will" [2] Kings involved in ecclesiastical legislation [3] Kings gave money for shrines of saints. [4] "Many bishops owed their position to the king" and "were royal servants with no known connections with their sees." [5] 2. Bishop in diocesesBishop in every civitas. Bishop’s church called ecclesia, other churches were basilicae. City had complex of religious buildings, usually included a number of churches, a baptistery, and the bishop’s home (domus ecclesiae). Other religious officials were the clergy. Outside the city were funerary basilicas, sacred sites (shrines called loca sancta), mausoleums, tombs and cemeteries. Authorities secular and often came into conflict with religious authorities. [6] Dioceses provided basic structure of Merovingian Church, "the ecclesiastical counterparts of the civitates" and in the same place, except in the north and east. [7] 3. Subordinate bishopsDioceses had provinces (like civitates) [7] 4. Priests5. Lesser clergy [1]: (Wood 1994, 72) [2]: (Schutz 2004, 18) Schutz, H. 2004. The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900. BRILL [3]: (Wood 1994, 105) [4]: (Wood 1994, 66) [5]: (Wood 1994, 78) [6]: (Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 252-253) [7]: (Wood 1994, 71) |
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levels.
1. Supreme Druid [1] 2. DruidsIntellectual elite [2] Did not have day-day role running the temples. [3] Tax and military service exempt (according to Caesar) [1] Responsible for education (according to Caesar) [1] Judges (according to Caesar) [1] 3. PriestsThere were local priests who maintained local religions. At time of Roman conquest (c50 BCE) there was no unified Celtic religion. [4] In the Roman era they were called gutuateres. [3] [1]: (Kruta 2004, 185) [2]: (Kruta 2004, 16) [3]: (Collis 2003, 215) [4]: (Collis 2003, 214) |
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levels.
[1]
"The struggles over the institutional government of the church were shaped by the formation of two main strands of thinking about the church in France which can be classified as "Gallician": the theological, which sought to make of the universal church a limited monarchy and to undertake a profound "reformation" of its structure; and the political, the doctrine above all of the Parlement of Paris, which invoked the king’s supreme jurisdiction in its refusal to allow the free exercise of papal jurisdiction in France. These two strands of thought came together in the idea of hostility to Rome..." [2] 1. Pope de jure #1 1. King de facto #1. made ecclesiastical appointments 2. Parlement of Paris"issued orders in January 1535 offering rewards for those who denounced heretics and punishments for concealments." [3] 3. Council of the French ChurchCardinals, Papal legates 4. Archbishop in archbishopric5. deputy called vicar-general? 5. Bishop in Diocese1551 CE diocese of Lombez had 154 priests in 91 parishes (low density priests to parishes) where as diocese of Leon (Brittany) had "an exceptionally dense concentration of clergy." under Francis I "only six known commoners promoted as bishops who in fact owed their positions to their scholarship and close relationship to the royal household."6. Archdeacon7. Parish priestPriest / Cures / Vicaires. "in the 392 parishes of Beauvais, there were only 80 resident cures ... distributed unevenly, the rest replaced by vicaires." [1]: (Potter 1995, 207-250) [2]: (Potter 1995, 220) [3]: (Potter 1995, 247) |
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levels. Religious control was exercised by the Kosmoi, a board of 3 to 10 annually elected nobles -their number varies from 3 to 10- elected by the Ecclesia, the body of free male citizens.
[1]
[2]
Cult was performed by priests annually elected by the Ecclesia.
[1]: Willetts, R. F. 1965. Ancient Crete. A Social History, London and Toronto, 56-75 [2]: Lembesi, A. 1987. "Η Κρητών Πολιτεία," in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, Heraklion, 166-72. |
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levels. 4-1 For the Christian population: The Patriarch of Constantinople (4); the archbishop of Crete (3); 22 regional bishops (2); priests (1).
[1]
The Arab population was muslims sunnis and recognized the supreme religious authority of Amir al-Mu’minin of Bagdad.
[2]
[1]: Τωμαδάκης, Ν. Β. 1961-1962. "Η Εκκλησία της Κρήτης κατά την Αραβοκρατία (ιστορία-επίσκοποι-άγιοι), Κρητικά Χρονικά ΙΕ-ΙΣΤ, 193-212. [2]: Christides, B. The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam, Athens, 105. |
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levels. There is no evidence for the religious organization of Cretan communities. Members of local elite families might controlled the religious sector of the large settlements that arose in Crete during the period. During the Archaic period (710-500 BCE), religious control was exercised by the Kosmoi, a board of 3 to 10 nobles annually elected by the Ecclesia, the body of free male citizens. It is very likely that some aspects of this organization existed since the 8th century BCE.
[1]
[1]: Chaniotis, A. 1897. "Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη," in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, Heraklion, 192-207. |
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levels. Religious control was exercised by the Kosmoi (Κόσμοι), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the Ecclesia (Εκκλησία), the body of free male citizens. Kosmoi were responsible for the construction and maintenance of the sanctuaries, the organization of large religious festivals, and the offering of sacrifices. Cult was performed by priests annually elected by the Ecclesia (Εκκλησία).
[1]
[2]
[1]: Willetts, R. F. 1965. Ancient Crete. A Social History, London and Toronto, 56-75 [2]: Chaniotis, A. 1897. "Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη," in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, Heraklion, 196-99. |
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levels. Male and female figures depicted in various iconographic media were often identified as priests and priestesses.
[1]
The frequency of such depictions during the New Palace period has been interpreted as " a need for a more pronounced identity arose as a result of the greater consolidation of the ruling class."
[2]
The sacerdotal figures were dressed with sumptuary adorned robes and dresses, have special hairstyles and hold insignia of their authority (curved axes, double-axes, stone maces, and ritual objects). They were also often accompanied by certain symbolic images: animal heads (scarified victims), winged creatures, and animals attacker/predators. All evidence points to a division between priest and priestess: priest were associated with hunting and perhaps in the daily administration while priestess to pouring of libations, processions, bringing offerings and performing dances. The most important ritual performed by priestesses was the impersonation of the goddess. According Marinatos "Minoan priesthood was a permeant profession and not a stage in the "career" of the nobility". and "I would think that the priesthood in palatial Crete formed a strong corporation from the ranks of which the priest-king and the goddess impersonator were chosen."
[3]
It should be noted, however, that because of the absence of sound information all these are speculations.
[1]: See the discussion in Marinatos, N. 1993. Minoan Religion. Ritual, Image, and Symbol, Columbia, 127-46. [2]: Marinatos, N. 1993. Minoan Religion. Ritual, Image, and Symbol, Columbia, 127. [3]: See the discussion in Marinatos, N. 1993. Minoan Religion. Ritual, Image, and Symbol, Columbia, 145-46. |
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Though there were many different types of ritual specialists in pre-contact Hawaii
[1]
, only one kind, the kahuna pule, was involved with state affairs. Other types include healing experts, sorcerers, and prophets
[1]
.
1. Kahuna nuiThe kahuna nui was the most important of the kahuna pule (see below), as he "carried the responsibilities for the king’s religious duties and looked after his temples and main gods." [1] 2. Kahuna pule"The priests who officiated at temples controlled by the king and major chiefs were the kahuna pule. These were subdivided into a number of specific orders or cults, especially those pertaining to Kū and Lono (mo’o Kū and mo’o Lono). These priests were drawn from high-ranking elite families, typically of papa rank (in which the person’s mother comes from one of the three highest ranks)." [1] [1]: (Kirch 2010, 57) |
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"Though the Delhi Sultans ruled independently in India, they perceived themselves to be part of the Islamic world that operated through the Caliphate of Baghdad. ... Most of the sultans included the name of the caliph in their khubta of Friday sermon, on the coins that they issued, and in the titles they assumed, which were all symptomatic of their humility to the caliph."
[1]
1. Caliph "owed only nominal allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphs". [2] 1. Sultan 2. Advisory Council"Since the sultans were expected to enforce the law of the Shariah, they were also obliged to take the opinion of the ulema." [2] 2. Sadr-u’s-sudur (minister of theological affairs).The Sadr-u’s-sudur was a highly venerated official who not only enjoyed great prestige but also exercised much power. The offices of qadi-i-mumalik and sadr-u’s-sudur were given to the same men because offices of a religious and legal nature were often concentrated in the hands of single individuals in the empire. [3] He was officially presided over the ahl-i-qalam (men of pen). [4] 3. Khatib - u’l - khutaba.Subordinate to the Sadr-u’s-sudur. "A preacher of exceptional eloquence .. as leader of the diwan - i - risalat, he appointed the religion preachers and imans to lead prayers and manage the mosques the realm." [4] He was officially presided over the ahl-i-qalam (men of pen). [4] 4. Shaikh-u’l-Islam. The large number of sufis and faqirs under the patronage of the state were under a shaikh-u’l-Islam. Probably administration of hospices and tombs of saints and kings ultimately rested in the hands of shaikh-u’l-Islam, because in many cases derwishes were included among the beneficiaries. [5] 4. Qadi.The provincial qadis (judges) also acted as sadrs in their respective areas. [6] 5. Imam.Imams led prayers and managed the mosques of the realm. They were generally trained at a college in theology. [7] [1]: (Ahmed 2011, 96) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. [2]: (Ahmed 2011, 97) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. [3]: Qureshi, I. H. (1971). The administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (p. 93). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal, pp.175-176. [4]: Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp.246. [5]: (original source: Minhaj, Fawa’id-u’l-fuwad, p.67) Qureshi, I. H. (1971). The administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (p. 93). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 190-191. [6]: Qureshi, I. H. (1971). The administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (p. 93). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 176. [7]: Qureshi, I. H. (1971). The administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (p. 93). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 175. |
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levels.
_Hinduism_ There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism [1] . However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. [2] ), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels. _Buddhism_ "Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to ’pure’ teachings and exemption from ’impure’ duties." [3] . [1]: http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556 [2]: G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4 [3]: P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628 |
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The Purohita was the royal priest. However, the sanctioned religions of the empire changed with the monarchs, and the multitude of faiths in such a diverse empire is staggering. King Chandragupta followed Jainism, Bindusara followed the ascetic tradition known as Ajivikas, and Ashoka implemented and heavily supported Buddhism. Individual faiths were undergoing reform throughout the period as well. It is therefore likely that the royal priest was not necessarily resident at court, and rather largely ceremonial.
[1]
[2]
"Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to ’pure’ teachings and exemption from ’impure’ duties." [3] . Jainism: [4] (5) Arihants (ones who have conquered their inner enemies) (4) Siddhas (Liberated Ones) (3) Acharyas (who head the Order) (2) Upadhyays (who teach the message) (1) Sadhus (Monks/Seekers) [1]: Craig, Graham, Kagan, Ozment, Turner, The Heritage of World Civilizations (2011), p. 134 [2]: Ashoka declared "the followers of all religions as pasamdas...on the same plane" Irfan Habib, Mauryan India (1931), p. 138 [3]: P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628 [4]: Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319 |
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Would be at least one level.
Din-e Ilahi, religion of the empire from 1582 CE to 1605 CE, had no priestly hierarchy or sacred scriptures. [1] Islam (which both proceeded and succeeded Din-e Ilahi) similarly has no hierarchy, although there are Shaikh, Olama or Imam’s who are seen as spiritual teachers and leaders. [2] [1]: Dr.Sunita Gupta, Children’s Knowledge Bank, Pustak Mahal. |
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levels.
_Hinduism_ There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism [1] . However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. [2] ), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels. _Buddhism_ "Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to ’pure’ teachings and exemption from ’impure’ duties." [3] . [1]: http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556 [2]: G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4 [3]: P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628 |
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levels.
There are no official hierarchies in Hinduism [1] . However, some would argue for the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. [2] ). Based on that viewpoint, it may not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels. [1]: http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556 [2]: G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4 |
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levels. At least three: (1) Sanga/Shangum (2) Senior staff (diviners, exorcists, lamentation priests), (3) Snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, singers, barbers, chefs.
"The more important or specialist cultic officials (“priests,” although there was no blanket Mesopotamian term with this meaning), administrative staff, scribes, and artisans would have been permanent employees of the temple[...] At their head was the sanga / shangum (chief priest), whose role was as much administrative as religious. Others had a more exclusively ritual role, headed by the en priest or en / entum priestess, who was the spouse of the city deity: This post lapsed after the OB period, although it was revived by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadrezzar II. Other cultic personnel included snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, and singers, and more senior staff included diviners, exorcists, and lamentation priests". [1] [1]: (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. |
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levels. At least three: (1) Sanga/Shangum (2) Senior staff (diviners, exorcists, lamentation priests), (3) Snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, singers, barbers, chefs.
"The more important or specialist cultic officials (“priests,” although there was no blanket Mesopotamian term with this meaning), administrative staff, scribes, and artisans would have been permanent employees of the temple[...] At their head was the sanga / shangum (chief priest), whose role was as much administrative as religious. Others had a more exclusively ritual role, headed by the en priest or en / entum priestess, who was the spouse of the city deity: This post lapsed after the OB period, although it was revived by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadrezzar II. Other cultic personnel included snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, and singers, and more senior staff included diviners, exorcists, and lamentation priests". [1] [1]: (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. |
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1. Achaemenid king
"However, unlike previous Near Eastern dynasties, they did not claim divine descent or nature." [1] Achaemenid kings claimed a divine right to rule as the representative of the supreme god Ahura Mazdā on earth - a cultural link to the Mesopotamian peoples. [2] When the empire expanded the Achaemenid kings assumed the pre-eminent position at the top of the religious hierarchy in conquered lands. In Egypt he became "son of the god Atum." [3] 2. Mobats (upper magi) does this term encompass multiple levels?3. Herbats (lower magi) does this term encompass multiple levels? "Alexander is cited by Zoroastrian tradition as having "killed the magi ... many teachers, lawyers, Herbats [the lower magi], Mobats [the upper magi]. Much of the literature of Persia, notably works of learning and Zoroastrian texts, simply perished during the Alexandrian conquests." [4] "Darius supproted alien faiths and temples ’as long as those who held them are submissive and peaceable." [5] Persepolis was a palatial city and the ritual centre of the empire. [6] However, priests of the temples performed the coronation ritual in Parsargadae, in which the new king had to wear the old clothes of Cyrus the Great. [7] Numerous religions. State contributed to building of temples. [8] Cyrus II left native religious and political institutions intact. [9] [1]: (Shahbazi 2012, 132) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. [4]: (Farrokh 2007, 108) Farrokh, Kaveh. 2007. Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Osprey Publishing. [5]: (Shahbazi 2012, 136) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. [6]: (Nylander 1971, 50-54) [8]: (Farazmand 2002) [9]: (Stearns 2001, 28) |
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levels. AD: coded as a range to reflect various possibilities in the following (tentative) hierarchy:
1. Head of Safawiya Shi’ite order at Ardabil 2. ?3. Local imam "The Qaraquyunlu and Aqquyunlu tribal entities which succeeded the Timurids on the region’s political scene pursued a similarly inclusive ’project’: Islam was their religion, their tribal military levies were Turks, their administrators were Tajiks and their cultural discourse was Persian." [1] Uzun Hasan r. c1453-1478 CE funded religious activities. [2] Uzun Hasan married a daughter to the head of the Safawiya Shi’ite order at Ardabīl. "The argument that there was a clear-cut contrast between the Sunnism of the Āq Qoyunlu and the Shiʿism of the Qara Qoyunlu and the Ṣafawiya rests mainly on later Safavid sources and must be considered doubtful." [2] [1]: (Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York. [2]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation |
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levels.
1. Caliph "They left the caliphs in position as titular heads of state, reorganized them as the chiefs of all Sunni Muslims, conceded their right to make appointments to religious offices, and accepted the idea that their own right to make appointments to religious offices was based on caliphal recognition. The sermon at Friday prayers, government coinage, and (in Iraq) even grants of land and appointments to offices referenced the names of the caliphs. Although it was deprived of actual administrative and military power, this allowed the caliphate to mobilize the support of the Sunni population of Baghdad and to retain an important role in Baghdadi politics." [1] Under Buyids the caliph was a religious but not administrative/military head However, Buyids "openly favoured the Shi’ites, giving them appointments, allowing them to celebrate their festivals, paying handsome sums to Shi’ite poets and littérateurs." [2] Religion was an interesting concept in the Buyid Dynasty. The major religion was Islam, although Christians were employed in high levels of office. [3] Amongst the Muslims; some were Sunni, some Shīīte and some Zaidites. The ruling Buyid dynasty, by descent Shīīte, seemed uninterested in installing a single religion or removing the Sunnī calliph. [4] Therefore, while the calliph was the highest religious figure in the Daylam State; he was not a personal religious figure for many of the inhabitants. (3) calliph, (2) syndics, (1) immam [5] 1. Caliph 2. Syndics3. Imams [1]: (Lapidus 2012, 227-228) [2]: (Crone 2005, 221) Crone, Patricia. 2005. Medieval Islamic Political Thought. Edinburgh University Press. [3]: Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq’s. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.288 [4]: Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq’s. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.287 [5]: Donohue, J. J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq 334H./945 to 403H./1012: Shaping Institutions for the Future. Leiden: Brill. p.303-305 |
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levels.
In the later Uruk phase "Urban Revolution" c3800-3000 BCE that the following quote refers to religious ideology became more complex, so can infer still low level religious complexity in this period: "Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality." [1] At Susa, in the late fifth millennium, "sealings show ceremonies in which a number of individuals perform (fig. 15.8h-j). The latter examples are especially interesting in that they also show dress and the use of beakers and bowls like those found in the cemetery (fig. 15.8i-j). More importantly, they also show hierarchical relations among participants with principal figures flanked by smaller attendants." [2] "At Susa, leaders determined that only ceremonies of sacrifice and supplication carried out on top of platforms would impress the forces that could not be controlled by secular human effort. An elaborate set of rituals, with participation by numerous individuals under the direction of priests, emerged (fig. 15.9)." [3] [1]: (Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [2]: (Hole 2006, 234) Hole, Frank in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois. [3]: (Hole 2006, 238) Hole, Frank in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois. |
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levels.
Estimate. Sounds quite extensive religious organization so slightly higher top end of range than earlier periods. 1. Chief Priest there was a priestess of Susa [1] 2. Assistant Priest3.4 At Haft Tepe, mound Haft Tepe B massive construction might be terrace area for temple precinct "where, as in the great precincts of southern Mesopotamia, a wide range of craft activities were housed, including pottery manufacture, stoneworking and metalsmithhing, which served to manufacture goods for the gods, the priesthood, and the large number of dependents attached to the temple. In addition, the temple almost certainly incorporated a scribal school (see the school texts amongst the Haft Tepe tablets) and a corpus of scribes (see the economic text and letters found as well), as well as a staff of specialized priests, some of whom performed acts of extispicy..." [2] "During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, ’the great mother of the gods to the Elamites’ and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia." [3] [1]: (Potts 2016, 190) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [2]: (Potts 2016, 189) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [3]: (Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. |
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levels.
Estimate. Sounds quite extensive religious organization so slightly higher top end of range than earlier periods. 1. Chief Priest there was a priestess of Susa [1] 2. Assistant Priest3.4 Temples like the ziggurat of Choga Zanbil [2] attest to the religious complexity in this period. "During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, ’the great mother of the gods to the Elamites’ and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia." [3] [1]: (Potts 2016, 190) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [2]: (Potts 2016, 216) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [3]: (Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. |
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levels.
Retained estimate from previous periods. Temples existed in this period. [1] "During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, ’the great mother of the gods to the Elamites’ and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia." [2] [1]: (Potts 2016, 231) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [2]: (Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. |
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levels. At Susa "sealings show ceremonies in which a number of individuals perform (fig. 15.8h-j). The latter examples are especially interesting in that they also show dress and the use of beakers and bowls like those found in the cemetery (fig. 15.8i-j). More importantly, they also show hierarchical relations among participants with principal figures flanked by smaller attendants."
[1]
. Cameron Petrie: "almost everything is speculative and based on almost no evidence"
[2]
[1]: (Hole 2006, 234) Hole, Frank in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois. [2]: Email from Cameron Petrie to Pat Savage 5 Sep 2017 |
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levels.
Twelver Shi‘ism official faith, established by Ismail. [1] 1. The Shah. The shahs claimed the titles of “representatives of the Twelfth Imam of the Shi’ites and to bear the title of Morsed-e-kdmel (the supreme spiritual leader of the Sufi order)” [2] 2. Mulla Bashi "a learned person of high repute ... whom many Safavid kings chose as a close companion, who could counsel them on religious matters and read various prayers for them on different occasions." [3] 2. Sadr "the highest religious office of the land, whose incumbent was chosen directly by the king." [3] 3. "the chief official religious dignitary (shaikh al-islam) of the bigger cities". Sadars appointed them "with the consent of the king". [3] 4. Mujtahids. These were clerics outside political power. They gave "fresh opinions on sacred law". [3] 5. Imans - leaders of prayers in the mosques. "Chosen freely by the members of the religious community itself." [3] "chancellery correspondence after 1588 pointed to the Safavid dynasty as the custodian of a complex heritage, which on the one hand recognized ecumenicalism and on the other claimed exclusive divine absolutism and soteriological superiority. This Universalist emphasis was in part inherited from the Turco-Mongol world of the Fourteen and Fifteenth centuries, but we also cannot dismiss the importance of those Universalist empires and world conquerors of the Archaemenian and Sasanian eras represented so faithfully as exemplars in Perso-Islamic literature and art." [4] [1]: (Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York. [2]: Mousavi, Mohammad A. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2008):22 [3]: Nasr, Hossein. “Religion in Safavid Persia.” Iranian Studies 7, no. 1/2 (January 1, 1974): 275-276 [4]: (Mitchell 2009, 202) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London. |
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The Seleucid kings (and occasionally the queens) were portrayed as divine beings and so acted as the head of religious order in the empire. The high priests were appointed by the king to be responsible for the temples in territories or satrapies of the empire, which included dealing with the temple high priests (for example, in matters of state funding and provisions).
[1]
The local priests include for example the three priests of the shrine to Sarapis and Isis at Laodicea-by-the-Sea, who complained about the number of statues being erected on their land.
[2]
1. King 2. Chief priest3. Temple high priest4. Local or shrine priest [1]: Wright, N. L. Divine Kings and Sacred Spaces: power and religion in Hellenistic Syria (301-64 BC). Oxford: Archaeopress. pp51-55. [2]: Wright, N. L. Divine Kings and Sacred Spaces: power and religion in Hellenistic Syria (301-64 BC). Oxford: Archaeopress. pp145. |
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levels.
George Makdisi is a specialist on Seljuk religion. It is important to bear in mind that “a new stratification of power emerged, in which legitimacy and prestige belonged to the Abbasid caliph, but political power belonged to sultans or other synonymously titled rulers who acquired power by conquest and claimed legitimacy from him.” [1] This was called the amir-a’yan system, with the “the caliph theoretically at the top, then the various sultans or other autonomous rulers supposedly acting as his agents, then the commander (amir) of their military forces, then the notables (a’yan) from the indigenous populace who mediated between conquerors and conquered, and lastly the populace.” [1] The caliph was not at the head of administration but did theoretically head the religious and military hierarchies. Sultan Malik-Shah (r. 1073-92) introduced a new definition of caliphal authority and a separation of powers. From then on "the (Abbasid) caliph functioned as the religious head of Sunnism, while the (Seljuk) sultan, as its secular authority, enforced public order." [2] 1. Caliph 2. Sultan. The title ’sultan’, "carried with it the notion of defender of the faith". [3] 3. Jurists. The central concern of the madrasa was the study of law in this period. [4] 3. Imams [1]: Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), P.69. [2]: Ahmed H. al-Rahim, ’Seljuk Turks’ in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages Ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) [3]: Michael Brett, ‘State Formation and Organisation’, in Maribel Fierro (ed.), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 562. [4]: Muhammad Qasim Zaman, ‘Transmitters of Authority and Ideas across Cultural Boundaries, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 582-610. |
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levels.
No data. This is the estimate for the early periods and temples existed in this period e.g. temple of Shilkhak-In-Shushinak [1] "During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, ’the great mother of the gods to the Elamites’ and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia." [2] [1]: Hinz 1971, 659 [2]: (Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. |
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levels.
No data. This is the estimate for the early periods and temples existed in this period e.g. temple of Ishmekarab in Apadana [1] [2] "During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, ’the great mother of the gods to the Elamites’ and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia." [3] [1]: Hinz 1971, 262 [2]: Potts 1999, 172 [3]: (Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. |
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levels.
No data. This is the estimate for the early periods and temples existed in this period e.g. temple of Shilkhak-In-Shushinak [1] "During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, ’the great mother of the gods to the Elamites’ and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia." [2] [1]: Hinz 1971, 659 [2]: (Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. |
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levels.
1. Priest-King 2. Other priests appointed by the king?3. Did large temples contain a priestly hierarchy? "The temple was the physical, administrative and symbolic centre of the city. Its sheer size, as well as its facade and furnishings separated it from any other building in the settlement. ... acted as the place in which the community comunicated with a deity, as well as the place in which the ruling class presented itself to the rest of the population." [1] "The priesthood took care of daily and private cultic activities, as well as public festivals. It managed that relation with the divine that provided the ideological justification for the unequal stratification of society. The urban community was already used to justifying events outside human control through its belief in divine entitites, and to propitiate them through human acts such as offerings and sacrifices. Consequently, these ideas were applied by the socio-economic organisation of the State and its centralised political structure." [2] "Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor." [3] [1]: (Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [2]: (Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press. |
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levels.
1. Priest-king? 2. Priests appointed by king3. Lesser priests? "Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted." [1] "During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, ’the great mother of the gods to the Elamites’ and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia." [2] [1]: (Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press. [2]: (Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. |
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Pope; cardinals; archbishops; bishops, abbots, and directors of the religious orders; parish priests and rank and file of the religious orders; deacons
1. Pope: The undisputed head of the Roman Catholic Church. 2. Cardinals: Since the Middle Ages, they had assumed ever-greater powers in the Church, electing popes, overseeing dioceses in some cases, and handling theological disputes 3. Archbishops: Overseers of suffragan bishoprics; some archbishops were cardinals 4. Bishops, abbots, directors of the religious orders: Bishops of individual dioceses (such as the bishop of Lucca); abbots, heads of abbeys; directors of the religious orders: The leaders of orders such as the Carmelites and Franciscans. 5. Parish priests and the rank and file of the orders: The quotidian representatives of the Church 6. deacons: usually, charged with the upkeep of churches; the Roman deacons still probably played a role in the upkeep of the city. |
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Pope; Cardinals and legates; archbishops; bishops and abbots; parish priests and members of the religious orders; deacons.
1. Pope: The pope was, of course, the universally-acknowledged leader of Latin Christendom. This does not contradict the fact that who exactly was the legitimate pope was often contested during the period 1378-1418, during the Great Schism. During this period the papacy arrogated to itself the right to appoint bishops, negating the tradition of bishops being elected by their flock in conjunction with the priesthood. [1] 2. Cardinals and legates: The cardinalate was crucial in theological decision-making and the religious aspects of papal government; legates, similarly, handled religious matters abroad on occasion. 3. Archbishops: To a certain extent, archbishops were equivalent to cardinals, but there were more of them, distributed throughout Christendom. They supervised their suffragan bishops and bishoprics, while also overseeing their own (a good example is the Archbishop of Milan). 4. Bishops and abbots: Bishops were the crucial link between local religion and the papacy. There were 263 bishoprics in 14th century Italy. [2] Abbots sometimes played a role beyond the walls of their monasteries, although by this point once-powerful regional centers such as Farfa were in decline in Lazio. 5. Parish priests and members of the religious orders: These constituted the mundane religious level. Parish priests embodied Christianity for their flock, for the most part, since they said Mass, heard confession and, in general, were (supposed to) serve as the quotidian face of the organized Church. Members of the religious orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, and so forth) also were a common part of the Church’s presence, especially in the towns. [3] [1]: Peterson, [2]: Najemy, 62 [3]: For Franciscan activity in the Tuscan countryside in a slightly early period, see de La Roncière. |
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levels. This is based on the codes for the Rasulids as ’Sultan ’Amir also appears to have been emulating the high period of Rasulid power a hundred years earlier’
[1]
The first Rasulid Sultan, Nur al-Din, caused "prayers to be said in his name in the mosques" although he sought and gained "formal authentication of his rule from the Abbasid caliph." [2] 1. Abbasid Caliph 2. Rasulid Sultan3. Imam4. ? [1]: Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 4 Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/ [2]: (Stookey 1978, 108) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. |
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[1]
[2]
[3]
1. Pontifex maximus 2. Colleges (flamines, augurs, pontifices, vestals)Three colleges of religious officials. 1. augurs 2. decemviri sacris faciundis 3. pontifices 3. high priests of imperial cult in provinces4. priests for a deity (running a specific temple or sanctuary) "Freelance" religious officials (soothsayers, oracles, seers, etc). This hierarchy refers to the state religion only. Six Vestals, appointd by pontifex maximus. Girls 6-10 with two living parents served 30 years during which time had to remain chaste. After 30 released and free to marry. Duties included: tend sacred fire and sacred objects "on which the survival of Rome depended (such as the ’palladium’)"; making salt cakes used at sacrifices; various rituals and ceremonial appearances. Vestals had unique "old-fashioned and heavy" costumes and impressive hairstyles "which other women only wore on their wedding". "Because a vestal’s person was sacrosanct, she could not be executed. Instead, she was entombed in an underground chamber with a bed, a lamp, and some food and water, and left to die. Male accomplices were publicly flogged to death." [4] "The vestal virgins were responsible for maintaining the temple of Vesta and performing the rites of the goddess. They ensured that her holy flame, said to have been brought from Troy, was not extingished." [4] The vestal virgins had many privileges: "Wills and treaties were in their keeping, and they themselves could make a will. They could conduct business in their own name. They could give evidence in court without taking an oath. ... If they accidentally met a criminal on his way to execution, he was spared." [4] ; "any injury to them was punishable by death; they could own and administer their own property ...; when they went out they were preceded by a lictor and had complete right of way on the streets; they could even drive in carriages within the city limits (otherwise only permitted to empresses)." [5] ; given prominent seats at games. [6] [1]: (Stearns 2001) [2]: (Rives 2007) [3]: (North and Price 2011) [4]: (McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World’s Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [5]: (Claridge 1998, 103) Claridge, Amanda. 1998. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [6]: (McKeown 2010, 15) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World’s Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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|
[1]
[2]
[3]
1. Pontifex maximus 2. Colleges (flamines, augurs, pontifices, vestals)Three colleges of religious officials. 1. augurs 2. decemviri sacris faciundis 3. pontifices 3. high priests of imperial cult in provinces4. priests for a deity (running a specific temple or sanctuary) "Freelance" religious officials (soothsayers, oracles, seers, etc). This hierarchy refers to the state religion only. Six Vestals, appointd by pontifex maximus. Girls 6-10 with two living parents served 30 years during which time had to remain chaste. After 30 released and free to marry. Duties included: tend sacred fire and sacred objects "on which the survival of Rome depended (such as the ’palladium’)"; making salt cakes used at sacrifices; various rituals and ceremonial appearances. Vestals had unique "old-fashioned and heavy" costumes and impressive hairstyles "which other women only wore on their wedding". "Because a vestal’s person was sacrosanct, she could not be executed. Instead, she was entombed in an underground chamber with a bed, a lamp, and some food and water, and left to die. Male accomplices were publicly flogged to death." [4] "The vestal virgins were responsible for maintaining the temple of Vesta and performing the rites of the goddess. They ensured that her holy flame, said to have been brought from Troy, was not extingished." [4] The vestal virgins had many privileges: "Wills and treaties were in their keeping, and they themselves could make a will. They could conduct business in their own name. They could give evidence in court without taking an oath. ... If they accidentally met a criminal on his way to execution, he was spared." [4] ; "any injury to them was punishable by death; they could own and administer their own property ...; when they went out they were preceded by a lictor and had complete right of way on the streets; they could even drive in carriages within the city limits (otherwise only permitted to empresses)." [5] ; given prominent seats at games. [6] [1]: (Stearns 2001) [2]: (Rives 2007) [3]: (North and Price 2011) [4]: (McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World’s Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [5]: (Claridge 1998, 103) Claridge, Amanda. 1998. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [6]: (McKeown 2010, 15) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World’s Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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Lavinium was an important religious centre and place of pilgrimage. The Penates, the cult of the ancestral gods was located here.
[1]
Cult of Vesta and Capitoline Jupiter attested from middle 7th Century.
[2]
"The reforms of Servius Tullius, as presented in the literary sources, represented a seismic shift in the organization of Roman society, changing not only how the early Roman army was recruited and equipped, but also the social, politicial, and possibly religious divisions of early Roman society."
[3]
1.King (ritual specialist along with other functions; e.g. Numa noted as founding many Roman ritual practices during Regnal period) public auspices rituals "formed the basis of regal and then, in the Republic, magisterial power" [4] 2. Priest in temple [1]: (Cornell 1995, 66) [2]: (Cornell 1995, 102) [3]: (Armstrong 2016, 75) Armstrong, Jeremy. 2016. War and Society in Early Rome. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [4]: (Brennan 2004, 37) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican ’Constitution’. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. |
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levels.
"Theodosius (r.379-395), made Christianity the legal or "official" religion of the empire." [1] 1. Bishop of a patriarchate "The churches organized themselves along the lines laid down by the geography and political order of the empire. A city (civitas), along with its surrounding rural perimeter, the foundation of imperial organization, also formed the basic unit of ecclesiastical structure. Virtually every Roman city, many of them quite small, had its own bishop. He exercised his authority over a "diocese" that ordinarily coincided with the boundaries of the civitas. These dioceses were then grouped into provinces, over which a metropolitan, the bishop of a province’s principal city, held sway. Eventually, provinces themselves were organized into large "patriarchates," each lead by one of the five preeminent bishops of the church: those in Rome, Constantinople (called "New Rome," second in prestige to the Old), Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem." [2] 2. Metropolitan, with authority over a province 3. Bishop in civitas, with authority over a diocese 4. Presbyters or priests (elders)"Evidence from the second century suggests that a wide variety of models for local clergy existed throughout the Roman Empire. Yet the one to prevail was a three-tiered, hierarchical. In this model, the bishop served as leader of the local community and was assisted by presbyters or priests (elders) and deacons. Again, this model was established in the Antioch of Ignatius, as he underscores emphatically the necessity of gathering for learning, ritual, and teaching around a single bishop. By the end of the century this three-tiered form of ministry had spread to most early Catholic communities throughout the empire, and it would soon become the sole authoritative manner of organizing local ecclesial communities." [3] 5. Deacons6. Sub-deacon7. Reader8. Minor order (exorcists, cantors, doorkeeper, lamplighter etc.) [1]: (Madigan 2015, 20) [2]: (Madigan 2015, 21) [3]: (Madigan 2015, 14) |
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levels
levels. In Buddhism. Inferred continuity with previous polities. 1. Master 2. Disciple and/or 1. Abbot 2. Monk |
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levels.
(1) purohita (chief priest of the king)(2) royal hotar (sacrificer)(3) religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas(4) local priests ’Because all the Classic inscriptions deal with matters that are fundamentally religious in nature [...] we have much information on the central religious hierarchy, but little about the secular one. [...] The religious authorities and functionaries in the royal court were certainly almost entirely Brahmin caste [Level 2], although some priests in the provinces and villages [Level 1] may not have been so. Most of them may have received the honorific Khmer title of sten an, reserved for learned men. We already run across the purohita [Level 4]. In peninsular India, this Sanskrit word indicated a family priest or chaplain; in Classic Angkor, this important individual was the chaplain and chief priest of the king and, at least according to the self-serving Sdok Kak Thom stela, was a hereditary officer charged with maintaining the cult of the devajara. The Sanskrit title of hotar or ’sacrificer’ occurs frequently in the texts; this is also supposed to indicate ’royal chaplain’ - but the exact scope of the term is unclear since while the royal purohita of the devaraja was a hotar, there were other hotars [Level 3]. Most of these may have had important administrative roles. There were many religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas [Level 2]. As with many Classic Khmer titles, there is little information on whether these were or were not interchangeable.’ [1] [1]: (Coe 2003, 144) |
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levels. ’Because all the Classic inscriptions deal with matters that are fundamentally religious in nature [...] we have much information on the central religious hierarchy, but little about the secular one. [...] The religious authorities and functionaries in the royal court were certainly almost entirely Brahmin caste [Level 2], although some priests in the provinces and villages [Level 1] may not have been so. Most of them may have received the honorific Khmer title of sten an, reserved for learned men. We already run across the purohita [Level 5]. In peninsular India,this Sanskrit word indicated a family priest or chaplain; in Classic Angkor, this important individual was the chaplain and chief priest of the king and, at least accordant tot he self-serving steal, was a hereditary officer charged with maintaining the cult of the devajara [Level 6]. The Sanskrit title of hotter or ’sacrificer’ occurs frequently in the texts; this is also supposed to indicate ’royal chaplain’ - but the exact scope of the term is unclear since while the royal hotar of the devaraja was a hotar, there were other hotter. Most of these may have had important administrative roles [Level 4]. There were many religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor leaned in the vedas. As with many Classic Khmer titles, there is little information on whether these were or were not interchangeable. [Level 3]’
[1]
Coe (2003), citing Zhou, states, ’The highest dignitaries use palanquins with golden shafts and four parasols with handles of gold [Level 5]; those next in rank have a palanquin with golden shafts and two golden-handled parasols [Level 4]; then come those entitled to one palanquin with gold shafts and one golden-handled parasol [Level 3]. Further down the line come those permitted only a silver-handled parasol [Level 2], and there are others who use a palanquin with silver shafts [Level 1]... All parasols are made of red Chinese taffeta...’ [and, continues Coe] the great Suryavarman [Level 6] received the honour of fourteen parasols.’
[2]
[1]: (Coe 2003, p. 143) [2]: (Coe 2003, p. 144) |
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levels. As the complexity of the religious system grows, it is likely that there would be more religious levels that would lead into Angkor’s 6 religious levels. So even though, as Vickery points out, that it is difficult to know about the religion in the Pre-Angkorian era, we can assume that at this stage there are more levels than in the previous period.
(4) purohita (chief priest of the king)(3) royal hotar (sacrificer)(2) religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas(1) local priests ’Because all the Classic inscriptions deal with matters that are fundamentally religious in nature [...] we have much information on the central religious hierarchy, but little about the secular one. [...] The religious authorities and functionaries in the royal court were certainly almost entirely Brahmin caste [Level 2], although some priests in the provinces and villages [Level 1] may not have been so. Most of them may have received the honorific Khmer title of sten an, reserved for learned men. We already run across the purohita [Level 4]. In peninsular India, this Sanskrit word indicated a family priest or chaplain; in Classic Angkor, this important individual was the chaplain and chief priest of the king and, at least according to the self-serving Sdok Kak Thom stela, was a hereditary officer charged with maintaining the cult of the devajara. The Sanskrit title of hotar or ’sacrificer’ occurs frequently in the texts; this is also supposed to indicate ’royal chaplain’ - but the exact scope of the term is unclear since while the royal purohita of the devaraja was a hotar, there were other hotars [Level 3]. Most of these may have had important administrative roles. There were many religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas [Level 2]. As with many Classic Khmer titles, there is little information on whether these were or were not interchangeable.’ [1] [1]: (Coe 2003, 144) |
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levels. There was a progressive change in religious cults in the area of Funan, the most radical one being the abandonment of inhumation practices in favour of cremation. The funerary practices incorporated gold leaves decorated with human forms with raised hands, one of which appears to represent Harihara, the combined image of Shiva and Vishnu.
[1]
This change seems to be in effect toward the 5th century CE, at the same time that Funanese rulers started to take on the Sanskrit honorific title of -varman (protected by, protege of). Indian gods were incorporated into the Funanese pantheon, particularly Siva, Visnu, and Buddha. The phallic symbol that represented Siva, the linga, was perceived as being the essence of the mandala.
[2]
. NOTE: data from ethnographic studies suggest that there was a pre-Indian religious strata that was eventually merged with Indian religions to become what today comprises the Khmer world view. In Khmer culture the world is divided into two landscapes that are marked by physical and psychological borders: the landscape of the village (srok) and the landscape of the wilderness (prei). The srok is the domesticated space of humans; the village, the paddy rice fields, a space of social organization
[3]
that is under the control of a Buddhist king
[4]
. The prei, on the other hand, is the forest, a place of uncertainty dominated by wild and dangerous spirits
[5]
[5]
beyond the control of Buddhism. This division is not immutable: forests can be cleared to create new srok, and a village may be overtaken by the forest and regain its position as prei. This perception of the world has been identified as the pre-Indian stratum of Khmer culture
[6]
. The term srok is recorded in the inscriptions as sruk, and defines a geographical/administrative entity.
[7]
Currently, the person in charge of establishing dialogues and interactions with the spirits is known as rup
[8]
. It is therefore possible to suggest that before merging Indian and local religions, the early Funanese people may have had a structured religious world view with levels, that is, with the presence of particular people who could act as intermediaries with the spirits. These hierarchical levels increased as the cult to Indian gods were incorporated.
[1]: (Higham 2004b, p. 29-31) [2]: (Higham 1989, p. 248) [3]: (Ang Choulean 2004, p. 58) [4]: (Aransen 2012, p. 54) [5]: (Forest 1992, p. 15-16) [6]: (Forest 1992) [7]: (Vickery 2003, p. 127) [8]: (Forest 1992, p.51) |
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levels.
1. King The ruler was a "quasi-divine figure" [1] "After Islam became the royal cult, rulers built mosques and adopted Islamic law, and the king and the entire court took part in public prayers held on the great Islamic festivals." [2] 2. Someone who helped the king become a "quasi-divine figure" inferred level [1]: (Lapidus 2012, 591) [2]: (Lapidus 2012, 592) |
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levels.
Bambara means ’rejection of a master’ - they took the name in the 13th century from their rejection of Islam. The chief of the village was the religious authority. [1] No mention of religious buildings or institutions. Prayers were given within household and in ceremonies. [1] Marka towns were semi-autonmous towns that "enjoyed some autonomy from direct state intervention." [2] Populated by Islamic Soninke and other Mande-speakers: "most Marka towns have assumed two roles as (1) ’eternal cities’ ancestral to all Mande civilization, and (2) as ’holy cities,’ which to differing degrees mix Islamic scholarship (large Koranic schools and ancient mosques) and traditional sorcery. Their supernatural status has served as protection from attack because most Marka towns never had defences or standing armies." [3] [1]: (Keil 2012, 108) Sarah Keil. Bambara. Andrea L Stanton. ed. 2012. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Sage. Los Angeles. [2]: (Monroe and Ogundiran 2012, 25) J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa. J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. eds. 2012. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives.Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [3]: (MacDonald and Camara 2012, 174) Kevin C MacDonald. Seydou Camara. Segou, Slavery, and Sifinso. J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. eds. 2012. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives.Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. |
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levels.
Askia Mohammed requested a "Sherif, i.e., the descendant of the Prophet" to be sent to live with in the Sudan. Caliph Mulay Abbas obliged and the Sherif became an important figure, "exempt from all the duties of citizenship (taxes, etc.), but they received gifts of impressive value." [1] 1. Sherif "The Sherifs, in oder to hold and increase their prestige, make consummate use of drugs (opium and hashish) which they discreetly mix with tobacco for smoking or give to their followers (the talebs) to chew. This gives rise to wonderful visions. The believer who comes back to his senses when the effects of the drug wear off is thus convinced that the gates of heaven were opened to him for a moment, and that he was thus miraculously, divinely transported to paradise." [1] 1. Caliph of the Land of Takrur The sharif of Mecca made Askiya Muhammad Toure "caliph of the land of Takrur" however the masses were still pagan [2] Askiya Muhammad Toure made Islam the official state religion, "built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars ... to Gao." [2] 2. Imams 3. [1]: (Diop 1987, 186-187) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago. [2]: (Lapidus 2012, 593) |
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levels.
1. Khagan as high priest 2. Ordinary shaman "At the top, the kaghan ruled by heavenly mandate (kut), embodying and demonstrating heaven’s favor through successful performance of his functions as ruler.77 Prominent among these were ritual functions with shamanic overtones. The kaghan had to maintain control of Mount Ötüken and perform ancestral rites at the sacred sites there." [1] "Türk religious life, not extensively documented, was based on an ancient complex of beliefs widespread in Inner Asia.84 The term “shamanism,” although conventional, is a misleading name for this belief system. Shamans, male and female, served as religious specialists, who could communicate with the spirit world. They were called on, however, only for exceptional reli- gious or medical needs, not for routine religious practice. Their ability, real or reputed, to divine the future or conjure up storms on the battlefield made their services especially significant for rulers. However, the heroic, ecstatic quest that transformed an individual from sickness and alienation through initiation into a shaman capable of performing such wonders little resembled his or her neighbors’ usual religious observance." [2] "If there was a difference in spiritual emphases between dynast and ordinary nomad, it took the form of the greater devotion to Tengri, the supreme deity, in the politicized state cult, with the kaghan as high priest." [3] [1]: (Findley 2005, 43) [2]: (Findley 2005, 45-47) [3]: (Findley 2005, 48) |
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levels.
1) Khan - He was "declared to have a mandate from Möngke Tengri (Everlasting Heaven). [1] 2) The chief shaman - The office of beki, the highest religious authority. Instructed ‘to ride on a white horse, wear white raiment’ and ‘choose a good year and moon’. [1] 3) Shaman. Inferred from there being a chief shaman. [1] [1]: Bira, Sh. “THE MONGOLS AND THEIR STATE IN THE TWELFTH TO THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century. Part I The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by C. E. Bosworth, Muhammad S. Asimov, and Yar Muhammad Khan, Paris: Unesco, 1998. pp.255-256. |
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levels.
Sulayhids: "’Ali and al-Mukarram had been, by appointment of the Fatimid caliph, commanders of their armed forces, chiefs of the civil administration, and heads of the state religion." [1] Fatimid Egypt: "an autonomous da’wa was set up under the Sulayhid sovereigns." [2] 1. Da’i. "The term as it had applied to Mansur al-Yaman and ’Ali al-Sulayhi implied the concentration in one person of all powers, spiritual and temporal, exercised in the name of the Fatimids. The title was now becoming diluted, and prominent members of several governing families bore it". [3] 2. al-hujjaQueen Arwa of the Sulayhids conducted missionary efforts with the title al-hujja "a rank in the Fatimid hierarchy second only to that of da’i and to that of the caliph’s chief doorkeeper." [4] 34."a specialized professional class, the ulama, grew up to preserve, perfect, and administer" the Islamic jurisprudence. [5] "In eleventh-century Yemen the ulama fostered a modicum of social integration which might not otherwise have existed in the absence of central political authority, and where local power was the object of chronic contention among petty notables." [6] Sulayhids were founded by a Sunni of the Shafi’i rite who was taught Ismaili doctrine as a boy. [6] Fatimids were Shia? Ali al-Sulayhi led the pligrimage to Mecca between 1031-1046 CE. In 1046 CE obtained permission from Fatimids to create a regime in Yemen. [7] [1]: (Stookey 1978, 69) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. [2]: (Hamdani 2006, 776-777) Hamdani, Abbas. Sulayhids. Josef W Meri ed. 2006. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1, A - K, Index. Routledge. Abingdon. [3]: (Stookey 1978, 71-72) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. [4]: (Stookey 1978, 72) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. [5]: (Stookey 1978, 58) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. [6]: (Stookey 1978, 59) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. [7]: (Stookey 1978, 60) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. |
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levels.
"At Cahokia there may have been no difference between the religious and political hierarchy. They were interlocked, impossible to disentangle." [1] 1. Chief / Priest "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] "Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia." [3] "The central administrative complex represents the core of the Cahokian polity. The location of ridgetop mounds within this area may equate with kin groupings or other administrative units. East St. Louis, being newer, may have been a higher status community of isolated elites." [4] At Mound 72 "Analysis of the skeletal remains shows that certain burial groups were of higher status than others and that some may have come prom places other than Cahokia." [5] "Ridge top mounds may also reflect ritual performances or “tableaus” associated with these mound and plaza complexes. In this control of ritual activity there may have also have been specialists in maintaining and performing specific rituals at various community levels." [6] 2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest? "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] "The answers provided by the working group seem to point to Cahokia being an urban settlement that was the center of a regional government, but the picture is not entirely clear." [3] "Regional political integration appears to have been an essentially ritual one; that is, the site hierarchy that is present appears to be more of a hierarchy of ritual spaces than of political jurisdictions." [3] "Cahokia was also the center of a regional government of some kind, at least for a short period of time." [3] "mound complexes may have been organized around sodalities rather than around kin groups. Perhaps these sodalities were secret societies" [2] "Mound and plaza groups may represent corporate (perhaps kin-based) political and ritual complexes, each of which would have been maintained by their own administrativespecialists or generalized leader." [6] "priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] 3. Elder / Religious functionary "Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries." [2] kin group leaders [2] "lower-level religious functionaries" [2] [1]: (Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 23) [2]: (Iseminger 2014, 26) [3]: (Peregrine 2014, 31) [4]: (Peregrine/Emerson 2014, 14) [5]: (Iseminger 2010, 82) [6]: (Kelly 2014, 22) |
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levels.
1. Khagan as high priest 2. Ordinary shaman "At the top, the kaghan ruled by heavenly mandate (kut), embodying and demonstrating heaven’s favor through successful performance of his functions as ruler.77 Prominent among these were ritual functions with shamanic overtones. The kaghan had to maintain control of Mount Ötüken and perform ancestral rites at the sacred sites there." [1] « Türk religious life, not extensively documented, was based on an ancient complex of beliefs widespread in Inner Asia.84 The term “shamanism,” although conventional, is a misleading name for this belief system. Shamans, male and female, served as religious specialists, who could communicate with the spirit world. They were called on, however, only for exceptional reli- gious or medical needs, not for routine religious practice. Their ability, real or reputed, to divine the future or conjure up storms on the battlefield made their services especially significant for rulers. However, the heroic, ecstatic quest that transformed an individual from sickness and alienation through initiation into a shaman capable of performing such wonders little resembled his or her neighbors’ usual religious observance. » [2] "If there was a difference in spiritual emphases between dynast and ordinary nomad, it took the form of the greater devotion to Tengri, the supreme deity, in the politicized state cult, with the kaghan as high priest.87" [3] [1]: (Findley 2005, 43) [2]: (Findley 2005, 45-47) [3]: (Findley 2005, 48) |
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levels.
1. Supreme head/fa-wang 2. Regional archbishops/ mu-she3. Local priest? and/or instructor of 10 "The first was the elect, the clergy of Manichaeism, themselves subdivided into a clear hierarchy, led by the supreme head (Chinese fa-wang) and regional "archbishops" (Chinese mu-she). Of this group was demanded a life of celibacy and fasting, including a ban on meat and fermented liquid. The second category was the auditors, the laymen of Manichaeism. They were expected to be abstemious, kind and generous in giving alms, but were allowed to eat normally and to keep a wife. An auditor who had fulfilled his duties would be reincarnated, after death, as an elect. When the great purification was over, those who had triumphed over the material world would live in the region of absolute light, while those who had succumbed would be taken to the region of total darkness." [1] Instructor of 10 (or 9) "According to one report, this decision was greeted with great joy by the people, who "gathered in crowds of thousands and tens of thousands [...] and gave themselves over to joy until morning."2 5 Yet despite these signs of popular approval, Mou-yu kaghan was apparently unconvinced that the zeal of the ordinary man would prove durable. He divided his people into groups of ten, in each of which one person was made responsible for the religious instruction and good works of the other nine. We see here echoes of an ancient military system, practised in Mongolia since the time of the Hsiung-nu, whereby one soldier was placed in charge of a unit of ten." [2] [1]: (Mackerras 1990, 329) [2]: (Mackerras 1990, 330-331) |
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levels.
"A nobleman might donate up to 10,000 horses for a single religious service or requisition his subjects to become bandi (novices) or lay servants in the monasteries. The clergy and their “disciples” were protected from both violence and state duties. Novices who had married without taking the major vows were probably common although legally discouraged. The monasteries were mostly nomadic, although in 1638 a Zünghar ruler requested pigs from Russia to give to the monasteries. At its height the Kalmyk chief lama’s estate of shabinar (disciples, or serfs), for example, reached 3,000-4,000 households. Galdan-Tseren organized the entire clergy into nine jisai (Mongolian, jisiya), with 9,000 lamas and 10,600 households of shabinar. To improve the clergy, he requisitioned 500 pupils, each with two yurts, three servants, two horses, and 100 sheep to be trained by a respected Tibetan lama. One special otog, or camp district, named Altachin, “goldsmiths,” was dedicated to making Buddhist images." [1] 1. Lamas, divided into 9 jisai. 2. Novices (bandi) [1]: (Atwood 2004, 422) |
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“The Secular, or Parochial Clergy, shared in all the disadvantages under which their Creole countrymen were condemned to labour, by the jealous policy of the Mother country. They were excluded from the higher degrees of Churrfi preferment, and left to fulfil the laborious duties of parish priests, while the Bishoprics, the Deaneries, and the Chapters of the different Cathedrals, were filled by old Spaniards, many of whom never saw the country, in which they were destined to hold so conspicuous a station, until they were sent out to enter at once upon its richest benefices.”
[1]
“The Secular Clergy was composed of about five thousand Priests {Clerigos); the Regulars, wearing the habits of different Orders, of nearly an equal number, of whom two thousand five hundred (including lay-brothers) resided in the convents of the Capital alone. There were only nine bishops, including the Primate, the See of Chiapa not being then considered as annexed to Mexico.”
[2]
: 1. Pope :: 2. Cardinals ::: 3. Archbishops :::: 4. Bishops ::::: 5. Priests :::::: 6. Regulars ::::::: 7. Deans
[1]: (Ward 1827: 238) Ward, Henry George. 1900. Mexico in 1827. London : H. Colburn. http://archive.org/details/mexicoin04wardgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IY7FJEM7 [2]: (Ward 1827: 245) Ward, Henry George. 1900. Mexico in 1827. London : H. Colburn. http://archive.org/details/mexicoin04wardgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IY7FJEM7 |
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levels.
[1]
: 1. The King :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Bishops :::: 4. Archdeacon :::: 5. Priest ::::: 6. Chaplain :::::: 7. Ecclesiastical officials
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 69-72) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI |
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|
_Catholicism_ : 1. Pope :: 2. Cardinals ::: 3. Archbisops :::: 4. Bishops
|
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levels.
[1]
[2]
The Roman Catholic Church had two hierarchies, one for secular clergy and the other for regulated clergy: Secular Clergy: : 1. Pope :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Bishops :::: 4. Priests Regulated Clergy: : 1. Pope :: 2. Masters of Orders ::: 3. Abbotts and Prioresses :::: 4. Monks, Nuns, Canons, Friars The Church of England, from its creation during Henry VIII’s reign had a different structure, with the King as the head of the church: : 1. The King :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Bishops :::: 4. Archdeacon :::: 5. Priest ::::: 6. Chaplain :::::: 7. Ecclesiastical officials
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 69-72) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI [2]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 30) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U |
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levels.Church and royalty were closely linked. While the church benefitted economically and through grants of land from the crown, kings were able to keep their authority over their increasingly large territories through religious ministers who solidified the social hierarchy through Christianity.
[1]
: 1. Archbishop : Archbishops of the highest rank, who have management over other bishops across their territories.
[2]
:: 2. Bishop:: A bishop has control over an area called a diocese. By 689 CE there were fourteen bishoprics established across the English kingdoms.
[3]
[4]
::: 3. Priest :::: 4. Minister:::: Ministers were located in villages across England.
[5]
::::: 5. Monks
[1]: (Wright 2015: 27-28) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P [2]: (Yorke 1990: 21) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN [3]: Roberts et al 2014: 26 [4]: (Wright 2015: 30) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P [5]: (Wright 2015: 30-32) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P |
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levels.
[1]
[2]
: 1. Pope :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Prince bishops :::: 4. Bishops ::::: 5. Abbots :::::: 6. Chaplains
[1]: ‘Austria-Hungary’. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/47VQW2IL. [2]: (Judson 2016: 334) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW. |
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levels.It has been postulated – based on differences in burials such as tombs and pit graves - that there was a chief-priesthood, or shamans, who were part of the elite in Hohokam society and were spiritual leaders in each settlement.
[1]
[1]: McGuire 2018: 20-21, 47-48. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9FB2IXT |
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levels.
[1]
The Church of England, from its creation during Henry VIII’s reign had a different structure, with the monarch as the head of the church: : 1. The Monarch :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Bishops :::: 4. Archdeacon :::: 5. Priest ::::: 6. Chaplain :::::: 7. Ecclesiastical officials
[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 30) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U |
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levels.“The formation of a black army and the building of the empire were costly. To minimize the costs, Mawlay Isma‘il kept his government simple and made it more palace-centered than Makhzan civil serviceoriented. The palace has always been central to the Makhzan in “traditional” Morocco and, as contemporary Moroccan historian Mohamed El Mansour wrote, “the so-called ‘Makhzan service’ was basically made up of the palace domestic organization, the administrative hierarchy and the army.” According to Windus, the sultan’s administrative staff at the court was made up of five standing officers: ‘the Grand Mufti for Affairs of Religion; the chief Eunuch to take Care of the Seraglio; a Treasurer for his Revenue; the Superintendant of his Buildings and the Basha of Mekness, who is the first Minister, or the supreme Akcayde, of which there are three forts; the first and chief are those who, in the nature of Vice-Roys, are sent to govern the Provinces; to whom, for their greater Honour, is sometimes given the Title of Bashas [. . .]. Another fort are the Generals of his Armies, and Commanders over small Parties of Horse of Foot. The Third fort are Governours of Cities, or Towns, and are either made by the Emperor himself, as are the Alcaydes of Morocco [Marrakesh], Fez, Sally, and other great Cities; or by the Governours of the Provinces, over small Towns and Cities; a fourth fort may be added, which are titular only, and therefore called Alcaydes of their Heads’.”
[1]
: 1. Grand Mufti :: 2. Imams
[1]: (El Hamel 2014: 202) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS |
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levels._Within Buddhist monasteries_
[1]
: 1 Khamba :: 2. Tsorj ::: 3. Lowon :::: 4. Da Lama ::::: 5. Gesgüi Lama :::::: 6. Umzad ::::::: 7. Demch
[1]: (Dorj 2020: 178-179) Dorj, Lkhagvasuren. 2020. “History and Contemporary Situation of Oirat Buddhist Monasteries in Western Mongolia”. Doctoral Dissertation, Budapest: Eötvös Loránd University. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AH2RCMNY |
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levels.With the official conversion to Islam in the fourteenth century came the change of the religious structure in the Golden Horde.
[1]
There is no official structure or hierarchy in the religion of Islam. Though there are scholars and preachers (imams).
[1]: Halperin 1987: 26. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM. |
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levels. The Anglican church had a hierarchy as follows:
[1]
: 1. The Monarch :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Bishops :::: 4. Archdeacon :::: 5. Priest ::::: 6. Chaplain :::::: 7. Ecclesiastical officials
[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 30) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chicester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U |
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levels.Church and royalty were closely linked. While the church benefitted economically and through grants of land from the crown, kings were able to keep their authority over their increasingly large territories through religious ministers who solidified the social hierarchy through Christianity.
[1]
: 1. Archbishop
[2]
:: 2. Bishop
[3]
::: 3. Priest :::: 4. Minister:::: Ministers were located in villages across England.
[4]
::::: 5. Monks
[1]: (Wright 2015: 27-28) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P [2]: (Yorke 1990: 21) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN [3]: (Wright 2015: 30) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P [4]: (Wright 2015: 30-32Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P |
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levels.
[1]
[2]
: 1. Pope :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Prince bishops :::: 4. Bishops ::::: 5. Abbots :::::: 6. Chaplains
[1]: ‘Austria-Hungary’. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/47VQW2IL. [2]: Judson 2016: 334. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW. |
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levels.
[1]
[2]
: 1. Pope :: 2. Cardinals ::: 3. Archbishops :::: 4. Bishops ::::: 5. Abbotts /Abbess :::::: 6. Monks / Nuns
[1]: Wilson 2016: 79-89. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N5M9R9XA [2]: Power 2006: 209. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4V4WE3ZK. |
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levels.
Buddhism |
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levels.
(1) Local Shamans or Diviners Communal rituals were guided by village shamans or diviners: ’In religion, most Miao practice ancestor worship and believe in a wide variety of spirits. They have shamans who may exorcise malevolent spirits or recall the soul of a sick patient, and animal sacrifice is widespread (see shamanism; soul loss).’ [1] ’Most religious ritual is performed or guided by various part-time specialists who act as priests, diviners, or shamans for the local community or for kin groups. Most of them are males. They engage in ordinary work, and only the most important religious activities require them to don special items of dress and decoration to mark them from others. There are no written texts for learning the chants, songs, dances, and rituals: they are memorized. If called by a family, specialists receive a small payment (often in foodstuffs) for their assistance. Shamans play a key role at funerals and postburial rites. They are also involved in analysis and healing of illness: some are skilled in herbal medicine as well as ritual procedures. Shamans also provide explanations of the possible causes of misfortune and can provide protective amulets. Ceremonies on behalf of the village community or a gathering of kin from several villages are conducted by skilled male elders who function as priests, following ritual procedures, administering the necessary animal and food sacrifices, and chanting the songs and myths without going into trance or communicating directly with the supernaturals and spirits. Some ceremonies are led by the male head of household on behalf of his immediate family.’ [2] ’The eleventh part is performed in front of the main house. A bamboo mat is spread on the ground and on it are placed the caps and clothes of the members of the lower generation. Behind the mat there is a bench, on which are placed a bowl of wine and a piece of water-buffalo meat. The sorcerer-priest stands outside the entrance, wearing a wide rain hat on his head and carrying a bamboo cage on his back, in which are clothes and other articles. Wielding a wooden rod, he utters an incantation, telling of the source of the kuei of pigs. After the incantation he goes directly into the house and partakes of the wine and meat on the bench.’ [3] There were male and female shamans, although men were preferred in the case of serious illness or death: ’(1) Spiritual Media. The names for spiritual media in An-shun are the same in the Miao-I language as in the Chinese. The men are known as Kwei-shin or Tuan-kung; the women, Mi-la or Mi-pu. Their duty is to sacrifice to the spirits to invoke their aid and to provide a medium between the spiritual and the human worlds. As such they are respected by the people. All ancestor worship and funeral events have to be presided over by the Kwei-shih. Every Miao-I center has one or two Kwei-shih, who learned their trade since childhood. Among the Chung-chia people the magic charms used for such spiritual purposes are marked with Chinese characters as phonetic symbols and written down as a scripture to be transmitted from master to disciple. The Kwei-shih, who are farmers by trade, take up mediumship as a side line to supplement their income from remunerations gained from its practice. In case of sickness the Miao-I believe the evil spirits are causing trouble, and it is the duty of the Mi-la to chase them away in order to cure the sick person. Often she is invited to the house to do her work. Sometimes in public gatherings the Mi-la is surrounded by people inquiring from her as to the best method of driving away spirits. Evidently the Mi-la is less able than the Kwei-shih, for in case of very serious illness or in the performance of funeral rites the man medium is always preferred.’ [4] Non-shamans generally also had some knowledge of healing practices: ’Aside from the shaman’s extensive knowledge, ordinary persons also have some knowledge of plants and other materials that have healing properties. The Chinese invert this by claiming that Miao women engage in magical poisoning, but all evidence suggests this is a Han myth rather than Miao practice. Divination and exorcism of ghosts and evil spirits are also a part of healing.’ [2] Christian missionaries also attracted followers: ’Since the reign of Kwang-hsu /1875-1907/ in the Ch’ing Dynasty, foreign Protestant and Catholic missionaries had come to Kweichow to rent houses for dispensing medicine and preaching the gospel. The Miao-I people were attracted by their kind and dignified bearings and many were subsequently converted. These preachers bought property where their congregation was the largest and established schools with teachers instructing the people in the gospel. Today Shih-men-k’an at Wei-ning is the southwest headquarters of the Christian missions. There many Hua Miao become sincere believers and followers. The missionaries have also introduced a romanized form of Miao language based on the English alphabet, which the Hua Miao learn as the “Miao language.”’ [5] The material is coded for Hmong shamanism rather than Christian converts. [1]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao [2]: Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao [3]: Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 199 [4]: Chen, Guojun, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Religious Beliefs Of The Miao And I Tribes In An-Shun Kweichow”, 3 [5]: Che-lin, Wu, Chen Kuo-chün, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Studies Of Miao-I Societies In Kweichow”, 15 |
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levels. Inferred from previous polities.
1. Emperor 2. Ministry of Rites 3. Ritual specialists |
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