Anglo-Saxon England existed between the fall of Roman Britain in 410 CE and the quickly subsequent mass migration into the region of the Germanic speaking Angle, Saxon, and Jute tribes from western Europe, until the Norman invasion and conquest of 1066.
“The most developed vision of a ‘big’ sub-Roman Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over a century, is that of Kenneth Dark, who has argued that Britain should not be divided during the fifth, and even the bulk of the sixth, century into ‘British’ and ‘Anglo-Saxon’ cultural and/or political provinces, but should be thought of as a generally ‘British’ whole. His thesis, in brief, is to postulate not just survival but continuing cultural, political and military power for the sub-Roman elite, both in the far west (where this view is comparatively uncontroversial) but also in the east, where it has to be imagined alongside incoming settlements. He postulates the sub-Roman community to have been the dominant force in insular affairs right up to c.570. Then, over a sixty year period, but for no very obvious reason, Anglo-Saxon kingship begins to emerge, the English conversion began and, in this scenario, Anglo- Saxon leaders overthrew British power and set about establishing their own kingdoms.”
[1]
Anglo-Saxon ‘England’ after the migration of the Germanic tribes from the European mainland was in fact formed of several kingdoms known as the Heptarchy: Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and the minor kingdoms of Essex, Sussex, and Kent all ruled by different monarchs or dynasties (in the case of the minor kingdoms), and who all at one time or another were allies or enemies, looking to claim more power from the others.
The three major kingdoms all looked at one point that they would become the dominant power and unite the kingdoms under one rule; Northumbria in the seventh century and Mercia in the eighth century. But it was the House of Wessex that rose to the greatest power under King Egbert at the beginning of the ninth century. During his reign 802-839 CE Wessex expanded rapidly across the south. It benefitted from its strategic position and its growing wealth enabled the purchase of the best warriors and military technology. It also led the wars against the incoming Viking invasions, whose first raid on the island had taken place in 793 CE.
[2]
Vikings, mainly from Denmark and Norway, raided and conquered territories in East Anglia, Essex and parts of Mercia and Northumbria between the 9th and 11th centuries. From 865 CE the Viking-settled region became known as Danelaw and was granted Danish self-rule in 884 CE under King Guthrum of Norway. Ongoing battles and attempts to expand territory on both sides resulted in the beginning of the breakup of Danelaw in 902 CE when the region of Essex submitted to the rule of King Æthelwald.
[3]
The region now known as England was not completely united as a country, the Kingdom of England, until 927 under King Æthelstan, after a drawn-out process of conflict and consolidation. Moreover, Northumbria, the northern most region of England and therefore the most susceptible to invasion by Scandinavian forces, continued to fall in and out of English and Danish rule until 954 when King Eadred brought it fully under English control, where it remained. At the same time, Lothian, the small area which bordered northern Northumbria, was ceded to Scotland as part of the deal.
[4]
[1]: (Higham 2004: 4) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
[2]: (Roberts et al 2014: 27) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
[3]: (Roberts et al 2014: 27-28) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
[4]: (Roberts et al 2014: 29-30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
| 29 N |
| Anglo-Saxon England |
| Winchester | |
| Tamworth | |
| York | |
| Bamburgh | |
| Colchester |
| Sub-Roman Britain Post-Roman Britain Kingdom of England |
| England |
| Kingdom of England |
| cultural assimilation |
| UNCLEAR: [absorption] |
| quasi-polity |
| 5,000 people | 700 CE |
| 3,000,000 people | 410 CE |
| 612 |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| Transitional (Absent -> Present) |
| Transitional (Absent -> Present) |
| present |
| Transitional (Absent -> Present) |
| Transitional (Absent -> Present) |
| present |
| Transitional (Absent -> Present) |
| Transitional (Absent -> Present) |
| Transitional (Absent -> Present) |
| Transitional (Absent -> Present) |
| Transitional (Absent -> Present) |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| Transitional (Absent -> Present) |
| present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| Year Range | Anglo-Saxon England I (gb_anglo_saxon_1) was in: |
|---|
Each Kingdom had its own capital: (Kingdom) Wessex – (Capital) Winchester Mercia - Tamworth Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE) Essex - Colchester East Anglia - tbc Kent - tbc Danelaw - York (from 867) However, once the kingdoms were unified, Winchester became the capital of ‘England’ from 927 CE. Language “Bede, writing in the 720s, recorded that Britain could be broken down into four nations and five languages: English; British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton); Irish; Pictish; and Latin, the universal language of religion and learned inter-communication.” [1] The Irish language does not apply for this polity. “There are additional factors which may tell against Dark’s interpretation. One is the very low level of Brittonic which entered Old English. Had large-scale interaction occurred between incoming Germanic communities and numerous indigenous British speakers of equivalent social rank, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary. It is this difficulty which has rendered Dark’s thesis unacceptable to many linguists and etymologists. That said, there is virtually no evidence from graffiti or inscriptions in Roman Britain that Brittonic survived in the lowland zone, and it may well have been speakers of Latin whom the barbarians encountered. However, the number of loan words remains low, even though there is growing evidence of Latin influencing Old English in terms of its structure and organisation. So, too, are place-names of pre-English origin, Brittonic, Latin, or other, scarce in eastern England, particularly in comparison with the West, which seems difficult to reconcile with Dark’s vision of a long and vigorous survival of British political power in the region.” [2]
[1]: (‘Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527
[2]: (Higham 2004: 5) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
Each Kingdom had its own capital: (Kingdom) Wessex – (Capital) Winchester Mercia - Tamworth Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE) Essex - Colchester East Anglia - tbc Kent - tbc Danelaw - York (from 867) However, once the kingdoms were unified, Winchester became the capital of ‘England’ from 927 CE. Language “Bede, writing in the 720s, recorded that Britain could be broken down into four nations and five languages: English; British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton); Irish; Pictish; and Latin, the universal language of religion and learned inter-communication.” [1] The Irish language does not apply for this polity. “There are additional factors which may tell against Dark’s interpretation. One is the very low level of Brittonic which entered Old English. Had large-scale interaction occurred between incoming Germanic communities and numerous indigenous British speakers of equivalent social rank, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary. It is this difficulty which has rendered Dark’s thesis unacceptable to many linguists and etymologists. That said, there is virtually no evidence from graffiti or inscriptions in Roman Britain that Brittonic survived in the lowland zone, and it may well have been speakers of Latin whom the barbarians encountered. However, the number of loan words remains low, even though there is growing evidence of Latin influencing Old English in terms of its structure and organisation. So, too, are place-names of pre-English origin, Brittonic, Latin, or other, scarce in eastern England, particularly in comparison with the West, which seems difficult to reconcile with Dark’s vision of a long and vigorous survival of British political power in the region.” [2]
[1]: (‘Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527
[2]: (Higham 2004: 5) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
Each Kingdom had its own capital: (Kingdom) Wessex – (Capital) Winchester Mercia - Tamworth Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE) Essex - Colchester East Anglia - tbc Kent - tbc Danelaw - York (from 867) However, once the kingdoms were unified, Winchester became the capital of ‘England’ from 927 CE. Language “Bede, writing in the 720s, recorded that Britain could be broken down into four nations and five languages: English; British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton); Irish; Pictish; and Latin, the universal language of religion and learned inter-communication.” [1] The Irish language does not apply for this polity. “There are additional factors which may tell against Dark’s interpretation. One is the very low level of Brittonic which entered Old English. Had large-scale interaction occurred between incoming Germanic communities and numerous indigenous British speakers of equivalent social rank, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary. It is this difficulty which has rendered Dark’s thesis unacceptable to many linguists and etymologists. That said, there is virtually no evidence from graffiti or inscriptions in Roman Britain that Brittonic survived in the lowland zone, and it may well have been speakers of Latin whom the barbarians encountered. However, the number of loan words remains low, even though there is growing evidence of Latin influencing Old English in terms of its structure and organisation. So, too, are place-names of pre-English origin, Brittonic, Latin, or other, scarce in eastern England, particularly in comparison with the West, which seems difficult to reconcile with Dark’s vision of a long and vigorous survival of British political power in the region.” [2]
[1]: (‘Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527
[2]: (Higham 2004: 5) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
Each Kingdom had its own capital: (Kingdom) Wessex – (Capital) Winchester Mercia - Tamworth Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE) Essex - Colchester East Anglia - tbc Kent - tbc Danelaw - York (from 867) However, once the kingdoms were unified, Winchester became the capital of ‘England’ from 927 CE. Language “Bede, writing in the 720s, recorded that Britain could be broken down into four nations and five languages: English; British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton); Irish; Pictish; and Latin, the universal language of religion and learned inter-communication.” [1] The Irish language does not apply for this polity. “There are additional factors which may tell against Dark’s interpretation. One is the very low level of Brittonic which entered Old English. Had large-scale interaction occurred between incoming Germanic communities and numerous indigenous British speakers of equivalent social rank, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary. It is this difficulty which has rendered Dark’s thesis unacceptable to many linguists and etymologists. That said, there is virtually no evidence from graffiti or inscriptions in Roman Britain that Brittonic survived in the lowland zone, and it may well have been speakers of Latin whom the barbarians encountered. However, the number of loan words remains low, even though there is growing evidence of Latin influencing Old English in terms of its structure and organisation. So, too, are place-names of pre-English origin, Brittonic, Latin, or other, scarce in eastern England, particularly in comparison with the West, which seems difficult to reconcile with Dark’s vision of a long and vigorous survival of British political power in the region.” [2]
[1]: (‘Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527
[2]: (Higham 2004: 5) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
Each Kingdom had its own capital: (Kingdom) Wessex – (Capital) Winchester Mercia - Tamworth Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE) Essex - Colchester East Anglia - tbc Kent - tbc Danelaw - York (from 867) However, once the kingdoms were unified, Winchester became the capital of ‘England’ from 927 CE. Language “Bede, writing in the 720s, recorded that Britain could be broken down into four nations and five languages: English; British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton); Irish; Pictish; and Latin, the universal language of religion and learned inter-communication.” [1] The Irish language does not apply for this polity. “There are additional factors which may tell against Dark’s interpretation. One is the very low level of Brittonic which entered Old English. Had large-scale interaction occurred between incoming Germanic communities and numerous indigenous British speakers of equivalent social rank, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary. It is this difficulty which has rendered Dark’s thesis unacceptable to many linguists and etymologists. That said, there is virtually no evidence from graffiti or inscriptions in Roman Britain that Brittonic survived in the lowland zone, and it may well have been speakers of Latin whom the barbarians encountered. However, the number of loan words remains low, even though there is growing evidence of Latin influencing Old English in terms of its structure and organisation. So, too, are place-names of pre-English origin, Brittonic, Latin, or other, scarce in eastern England, particularly in comparison with the West, which seems difficult to reconcile with Dark’s vision of a long and vigorous survival of British political power in the region.” [2]
[1]: (‘Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527
[2]: (Higham 2004: 5) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
Inhabitants. Hamwic in Southampton (then part of Wessex) is estimated to have had a population of around 5,000 people during King Ine’s rule, 688-726 CE. [1]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 139) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
in kilometers. Approximate distance between the Wessex capital of Winchester and the Northumbrian capital of Bamburgh. However, this is the most direct route by modern roads and so it is likely to have been longer.
levels.: 1. Capital cities: Wessex - Winchester; Mercia - Tamworth; Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE); Essex - Colchester; East Anglia- tbc; Kent- tbc; Danelaw- York (from 867); Kingdom of England (from 927) - Winchester. These were the centres of royal and administrative power for each kingdom. :: 2. Major Towns:: Important larger market towns such as London, Cambridge, and Ely. They had cathedrals and were the official seat of a diocesan bishop. [1] [2] ::: 3. Port and trading towns::: Trading emporium and market towns and ports such as Dover, Sarre, Southampton, and Ipswich. [1] [3] ::: 4. Villages::: Villages were mostly situated with access to good ploughing land. Many smaller, more isolated villages were in lower-status areas such as on the margin of occupied districts or in dry or chalky areas. These may have been used by the Germanic immigrants to establish themselves. [4] [5] :::: 5. Hamlets:::: Hamlets were the smallest of settlements, which generally consisted of a few hall-type buildings. [4] Village or hamlet settlements were established close together, usually within 2-5 kilometres of each other. [6] ::::: 6. Monastic communities::::: Slightly more isolated and small communities based on a monastery with a self-sustaining ‘home-farm’ at its centre. [7] Double monasteries existed which housed monks and nuns side-by-side in communities ran by an abbess. [8]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 40, 65) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Wright 2015: 34-36) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P
[3]: )Wright 2015: 34-36) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P
[4]: (Higham 2004: 10) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
[5]: (Wright 2015: 25, 31) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P
[6]: (Hamerow 2005: 273-274) Hamerow, Helena. 2005. “The Earliest Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms.” Chapter. In The New Cambridge Medieval History, edited by Paul Fouracre, 1:263–88. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521362917.012. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5JNINHPQ
[7]: (Wright 2015: ) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P
[8]: (Roberts et al 2014: 35) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
levels.Church and royalty were closely linked. While the church benefitted economically and through grants of land from the crown, kings were able to keep their authority over their increasingly large territories through religious ministers who solidified the social hierarchy through Christianity. [1] : 1. Archbishop [2] :: 2. Bishop [3] ::: 3. Priest :::: 4. Minister:::: Ministers were located in villages across England. [4] ::::: 5. Monks
[1]: (Wright 2015: 27-28) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 21) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[3]: (Wright 2015: 30) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P
[4]: (Wright 2015: 30-32Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P
levels.: 1. King :: 2. Comitatus (pledged warriors) :: (later called Thegns) “In a society where the success of a ruler and the people dependent upon him derived from effectiveness in war, the relationship of the king with his military followers was of vital importance. Tacitus saw the relationship of king and warband (comitatus) as central to the success and failure of the Germanic provinces he describes. The interaction between the king and his warriors is also a major concern of Old English heroic poetry. Poems like Beowulf stress the reciprocal nature of the relationship of king and comitatus. The followers fought loyally for their lord, but the loyalty had been purchased beforehand by the upkeep the king provided for his warriors and by the giving of gifts; conspicuous acts of loyalty in battle would be rewarded by further gifts-appropriate generosity was what made a ‘good king’. When not in battle, the king’s hall was the place where the necessary bonding of lord and follower occurred. The comitatus ate and slept in the hall at the king’s expense.” [1] ::: 3. Fryd (standing army)::: The fryd were a standing army always in service. They were divided up to protect the burghs and shires of the kingdom. [2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 17) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Baker and Brooks 2015: 229) Baker, John and Brookes, Stuart. “Explaining Anglo-Saxon Military Efficiency: The Landscape of Mobilization”, Anglo-Saxon England 44 (December 2015): 221–58, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0263675100080121. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5LN4TEJV
levels.“The most developed vision of a ‘big’ sub-Roman Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over a century, is that of Kenneth Dark, who has argued that Britain should not be divided during the fifth, and even the bulk of the sixth, century into ‘British’ and ‘Anglo-Saxon’ cultural and/or political provinces, but should be thought of as a generally ‘British’ whole. His thesis, in brief, is to postulate not just survival but continuing cultural, political and military power for the sub-Roman elite, both in the far west (where this view is comparatively uncontroversial) but also in the east, where it has to be imagined alongside incoming settlements. He postulates the sub-Roman community to have been the dominant force in insular affairs right up to c.570. Then, over a sixty year period, but for no very obvious reason, Anglo-Saxon kingship begins to emerge, the English conversion began and, in this scenario, Anglo- Saxon leaders overthrew British power and set about establishing their own kingdoms.” [1] It seems that kingship was not fully established in Anglo-Saxon ‘England’ until the mid-to-late sixth century. These are evidenced by increasingly rich male burials which are distinctive to the previously higher class of warrior burials. The arrival of Anglo-Saxon leaders resulted in the establishment of the first smaller kingdoms, which set aside any remaining power structures of the post-Roman Britons and started the beginnings of kingship which quickly became widespread throughout the region. [1] [2] [3] “In the eighth century the subkingdoms were replaced by ealdormanries, but the tendency of rival branches of the royal house to challenge for the throne did not decline and in some kingdoms it increased. In a number of cases royal collateral lines which had provided subkings probably controlled the same areas as ealdormen. In Mercia and Northumbria we know that a number of the successful royal candidates were either ealdormen or the sons of ealdormen, and the powers inherent in the office of ealdorman may have helped the rival branches make their bids for power. Although removing the subkingships concentrated executive power in the hands of one king, which seems to have been of advantage in the kingdom’s struggle for expansion and survival, the ealdormen inherited many of the regalian rights of the subkings and provincial kings whom they had succeeded.87 Above all the armies of the provinces served under their ealdormen and would give their loyalty in the first instance to them.88 The Northumbrian chronicle gives many instances of how combinations of ealdormen and their armed followings decided the success or failure of royal candidates.” [2] “A number of ealdormen seem to have been the sons of ealdormen and the family of Berhtfrith of Northumbria exercised considerable power for three generations. Beornhæth, Berhtred and Berhtfrith seem to have been not just ealdormen, but to have enjoyed a rank second to that of the king, as Stephanus says of Berhtfrith.90 In the eighth century the title of patricius was frequently applied to individuals in this position which seems to have been analogous to that of mayors of the palace in Francia (for whom Bede used the title patricius).91 The position of patricius is known from Kent, Mercia and Northumbria in the eighth century. The patricius could deputize for the king as military leader and probably played a major role in the co-ordination of royal government.” [4] From the sixth century: 1. King ::: 3. Ealdormen Pre-sixth century : Warrior chief / early king: The earliest ‘kings’ in Anglo-Saxon England were essentially warrior chiefs who had their own personal followers, as in the tribes of northern Europe. [5] The actual nature of these warrior chiefs is dubious and there is not sufficient evidence to explain exactly how they governed or the hierarchy or administration that may have existed. [6] Post-sixth century : 1. King : It seems that kingship was not fully established in Anglo-Saxon ‘England’ until the mid-to-late sixth century. These are evidenced by increasingly rich male burials which are distinctive to the previously higher class of warrior burials. The arrival of Anglo-Saxon leaders resulted in the establishment of the first smaller kingdoms, which set aside any remaining power structures of the post-Roman Britons and started the beginnings of kingship which quickly became widespread throughout the region. [7] [8] [9] Kings now governed through royal officials as outlined below. [10] :: 2. Patricius (deputy to the king) :: The position of patricius is known from Kent, Mercia and Northumbria in the eighth century. The patricius could deputize for the king as military leader and probably played a major role in the co-ordination of royal government.” [4] ::: 3. The Witan::: A council made up of elected wise-men who acted as advisors, particularly for assisting the king on important state matters, new laws, land grants, or war strategy. The Whitan usually consisted of a collection of bishops, abbots, chaplains, ealdormen, royal family members and royal officials. [10] :::: 4. Royal Officials:::: 4.1 Port-Reeves:::: Port-Reeves were the royal officials in the Boroughs. [10] :::: 4.2 Ealdormen.:::: Ealdormen were the royal officials in the Shires. They were from a noble family and were the chief officer for the king in the shires. They preceeded over the bi-annual court. [10] ::::: 5. Baliffs::::: Baliffs became the royal official in the ‘Hundreds’ - smaller divisions of the Shires. They dealt with common criminal and civil matters at a monthly open court. [11]
[1]: (Higham 2004: 4) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 9, 15) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[3]: (Wright 2015: 27) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P
[4]: (Yorke 1990: 171) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[5]: Roberts et al 2014: 30
[6]: (Hamerow 2005: 282-3) Hamerow, Helena. 2005. “The Earliest Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms.” Chapter. In The New Cambridge Medieval History, edited by Paul Fouracre, 1:263–88. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521362917.012. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5JNINHPQ
[7]: Higham 2004: 4
[8]: Yorke 1990: 9, 15
[9]: Wright 2015: 27
[10]: (Roberts et al 2014: 30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
[11]: (Roberts et al 2014: 31) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
Comitatus were permanent warriors who were paid and housed at the palace by the King in exchange for their pledge of loyalty. [1]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 17) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
There were priests, bishops and archbishops in larger towns such as London, Elham, Canterbury and Hereford [1]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 31, 69) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
“The basis of the internal organization of both the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and those of their Celtic neighbours was a large rural territory which contained a number of subsidiary settlements dependent upon a central residence which the Anglo-Saxons called a villa in Latin and a tun in Old English.55 These vills were centres of royal administration and visited by the kings and their entourages on regular circuits of their kingdoms when food rents which had to be rendered at the royal vill would be consumed.56 In Anglo-Saxon England of the seventh and eighth centuries groups of royal vills and their dependent territories formed regiones, discrete territories within kingdoms for administrative purposes.57 If this recent research is correct it suggests that the basic infrastructure of the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms was inherited from late Roman or subRoman Britain.” [1]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 8) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
“The basis of the internal organization of both the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and those of their Celtic neighbours was a large rural territory which contained a number of subsidiary settlements dependent upon a central residence which the Anglo-Saxons called a villa in Latin and a tun in Old English.55 These vills were centres of royal administration and visited by the kings and their entourages on regular circuits of their kingdoms when food rents which had to be rendered at the royal vill would be consumed.56 In Anglo-Saxon England of the seventh and eighth centuries groups of royal vills and their dependent territories formed regiones, discrete territories within kingdoms for administrative purposes.57 If this recent research is correct it suggests that the basic infrastructure of the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms was inherited from late Roman or subRoman Britain.” [1]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 8) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
No reference to judge-type positions in the sources consulted. Rather, ealdormen, port-reeves or sheriffs presided over court matters. [1]
[1]: (Roberts et al 2014: 31) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
The earliest surviving law codes from c. 600 CE for Kent state that the king, Æthelbert of Kent, had responsibility for law and order of all people within his kingdom. [1] “The introduction of written law into Kent provides an example of the type of borrowing which may have taken place. Bede says that Æthelbert produced the first written lawcode for Kent iuxta exempla Romanorum, but in practice the king seems to have been more influenced by Frankish than Roman forms.125 The provision of a written lawcode was a sign, like the adoption of Christianity, that Kent had joined the more advanced Germanic kingdoms of Europe and the writing down of Æthelbert’s lawcode may have had a symbolic as well as a practical value. Although there are major differences between the Kentish and Frankish lawcodes, there are also some interesting parallels which are particularly striking when the Kentish laws are compared with those from Wessex.” [2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 18) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 41) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
The earliest surviving law codes from c. 600 CE for Kent state that the king, Æthelbert of Kent, had responsibility for law and order of all people within his kingdom. [1] “The introduction of written law into Kent provides an example of the type of borrowing which may have taken place. Bede says that Æthelbert produced the first written lawcode for Kent iuxta exempla Romanorum, but in practice the king seems to have been more influenced by Frankish than Roman forms.125 The provision of a written lawcode was a sign, like the adoption of Christianity, that Kent had joined the more advanced Germanic kingdoms of Europe and the writing down of Æthelbert’s lawcode may have had a symbolic as well as a practical value. Although there are major differences between the Kentish and Frankish lawcodes, there are also some interesting parallels which are particularly striking when the Kentish laws are compared with those from Wessex.” [2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 18) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 41) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
Ealdormen in the shires presided over a bi-annual court which dealt with criminal, civil and ecclesiastical matters, and also declared new laws or dooms. From the eleventh century, ealdormen began to preside over several shires and so a subordinate, the shire-reeve (sherriff), took over court duties in the individual shires. [1] ♠ Professional Lawyers ♣ inferred absent ♥ No reference to lawyer-type positions in the sources consulted. Rather, ealdormen, port-reeves or sheriffs presided over court matters and plaintiff and defendants represented themselves. [2]
[1]: (Roberts et al 2014: 30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
[2]: (Roberts et al 2014: 31) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
Towns and cities had markets and trading emporiums. “Jeremy Haslam has suggested that not only was Offa responsible for a defensive network of burhs at important bridgeheads in eastern England, but that he may also have established a series of ‘urban’ markets to stimulate the Mercian economy.” [1]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 117) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
Churches, monasteries, chapels, cathedrals. [1] “But there is a growing recognition that fifth-century Britain did remain comparatively Romanized in some respects, and that a characteristically Late Antique elite survived, at least in some parts of the old diocese. While elite residences were certainly changing, many villas, churches and even some other urban buildings may have been retained in use significantly later than the latest artefacts to be deposited, even if the nature of that use was altering.” [2]
[1]: Yorke 1990: 20, 25
[2]: (Higham 2004: 3) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
Archives run by the church. [1] ““Kings were the most important benefactors of the religious houses within their kingdoms and naturally figure prominently in the archives of religious communities both through the records of their benefactions and in ‘historical’ records, such as saints’ Lives and annals, produced by individual religious houses. Religious houses might also act as repositories for the archives of their royal families and produce classes of records such as kinglists and genealogies for them.” [2] Schools for religious teaching had been established from the mid-seventh century. Schools for the children of nobles and some commoners at Winchester were encouraged during the reign of Alfred the Great. [3]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 20, 25) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 20) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[3]: (Roberts et al 2014: 29, 35) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
Roads were built during the Roman occupation of the region and maintained by soldiers. [1] [2] “Any exemptions granted in the ninth century did not, of course, include remission from the three ‘common burdens’ of military service, upkeep of roads and bridges and fortresswork which were compulsory for the whole Mercian people.” [3]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 5, 19) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Higham 2004: 9) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
[3]: (Yorke 1990: 125) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
There were ports all along the English coast, the most notable being London, Dover, and Sarre. [1] “In the seventh and eighth century, trade with the Continent seems to have become increasingly important to Anglo-Saxon kings, as can be seen from the development of the sceatta and penny coinages, the rise of the specialized trading base (wic) and the priority given to acquiring ports by kingdoms like Mercia and Wessex which to begin with were not ideally placed to participate in foreign trade.” [2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 40) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 166) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
Bridges were built during the Roman occupation of the region and maintained by soldiers. [1] “One important innovation was the burh or fortress which could be used both as a local refuge and as a base for a militia to intercept Viking forces and hamper their manoeuvrability. When Offa ruled Kent he had introduced the public services of fortress-work and bridge-work to help counter the first Viking attacks on the province so when the West Saxons conquered Kent they inherited the Mercian burhs there. [2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 125) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 152) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
Anglo-Saxon homes were made of wood rather than stone or brick so it is unlikely that mines and quarries were needed for mass-production. [1]
[1]: )Hills 1990: 51) Hills, Catherine. ‘Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England’, History Today, 1 October 1990, https://www.proquest.com/docview/1299029206/abstract/974AE2C925154DEBPQ/1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9P2MJSYJ/
Ports such as London and Dover housed trading emporiums for imports and exports to Europe. Ipswich in East Anglia was a significant trading emporium from the early seventh century. [1]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 50, 65) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
Forts, such as Hadrian’s Wall. [1] “One important innovation was the burh or fortress which could be used both as a local refuge and as a base for a militia to intercept Viking forces and hamper their manoeuvrability. When Offa ruled Kent he had introduced the public services of fortress-work and bridge-work to help counter the first Viking attacks on the province so when the West Saxons conquered Kent they inherited the Mercian burhs there. [2] In many villages houses were arranged within fenced enclosures. Animals were kept in paddocks and enclosures. Fortresses and fortifications are found across Anglo-Saxon England. [3]
[1]: (Higham 2004: 18) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 152) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[3]: (Hamerow 2005: 273-4, 279) Hamerow, Helena. 2005. “The Earliest Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms.” Chapter. In The New Cambridge Medieval History, edited by Paul Fouracre, 1:263–88. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521362917.012. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5JNINHPQ
Cemeteries; churches. Cemeteries throughout the entire region and polity duration. Anglo-Saxon cemeteries have been found dating from as early as 425 CE. [1] [2]
[1]: (Higham 2004: 6) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 7) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
Cemeteries throughout the entire region and polity duration. Anglo-Saxon cemeteries have been found dating from as early as 425 CE. [1] [2] “The most widespread evidence from England in the mid-fifth to midseventh centuries is undoubtedly that from cemeteries, to which we must now briefly return. Something between 30,000 and 40,000 graves have been discovered over the past few centuries, sometimes in concentrations of several thousand in a single place.74 This sounds a very large number indeed, but it should be remembered that this material represents deposition over at least two centuries, so reflects perhaps only at most 3,000–4,000 per generation.” [3]
[1]: (Higham 2004: 6) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 7) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[3]: (Higham 2004: 12) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
With the departure of the Romans, written records went out of use and would not re-emerge until the seventh century. [1] [2] Written records began being kept from the seventh century, including charters, king lists, historical works, and annals. “Kings were the most important benefactors of the religious houses within their kingdoms and naturally figure prominently in the archives of religious communities both through the records of their benefactions and in ‘historical’ records, such as saints’ Lives and annals, produced by individual religious houses. Religious houses might also act as repositories for the archives of their royal families and produce classes of records such as kinglists and genealogies for them.” [1] “It is usually accepted that contemporary annals began to be kept in Wessex at some point in the seventh century, and Stenton suggested that the Chronicle entry for 648 marked the beginning of a contemporary record of events. Entries are reasonably regular from 648 until 757 when they become extremely sparse until the accession of Egbert (802).” [3]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 20) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Hills 1990: 47) Hills, Catherine. ‘Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England’, History Today, 1 October 1990, https://www.proquest.com/docview/1299029206/abstract/974AE2C925154DEBPQ/1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9P2MJSYJ/
[3]: (Yorke 1990: 128) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
Germanic runes were used by the Anglo-Saxon settlers. Letters based on Germanic runes were then incorporated into the Latin alphabet. [1]
[1]: (Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527
Written records began being kept from the seventh century. [1] Germanic runes were used by the Anglo-Saxon settlers. Letters based on Germanic runes were then incorporated into the Latin alphabet. [2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 20) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJNs
[2]: (Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527
Bede wrote several scientific treatise including De Temporum Ratione (On the Nature of Time). [1]
[1]: (Roberts et al 2014: 35) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
The Bible. Introduced by the Romans after it became the official religion of the empire.
With the departure of the Romans, written records went out of use and would not re-emerge until the seventh century. [1] The church created many of the earlier documents such as ‘historical’ records of saints and annals. The Venerable Bede created many works including verse and prose on the life and St. Cuthbert, and the Martyrology, a list of saints. [2] Under Alfred the Great, religious works in Latin were translated into English, including Pope Gregory’s two works, Pastoral Care, on the duties of a bishop, and Dialogues, about the tales of St. Benedict. [3]
[1]: (Hills 1990: 47) Hills, Catherine. ‘Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England’, History Today, 1 October 1990, https://www.proquest.com/docview/1299029206/abstract/974AE2C925154DEBPQ/1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9P2MJSYJ/
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 20, 22) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[3]: (Roberts et al 2014: 29) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
During Alfred the Great’s reign, some of the many works he had scholars translate or write were “Boethius’s The Consolation of Philosophy, which taught that the pursuit of wisdom is the wise man’s consolation, and St. Augustine’s Soliloquies, which taught that contemplation could save a ruler from the sin of pride.) [1]
[1]: (Roberts et al 2014: 35) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3
Written records began being kept from the seventh century, including charters, king lists, historical works, and annals. “Kings were the most important benefactors of the religious houses within their kingdoms and naturally figure prominently in the archives of religious communities both through the records of their benefactions and in ‘historical’ records, such as saints’ Lives and annals, produced by individual religious houses. Religious houses might also act as repositories for the archives of their royal families and produce classes of records such as kinglists and genealogies for them.” [1] “It is usually accepted that contemporary annals began to be kept in Wessex at some point in the seventh century, and Stenton suggested that the Chronicle entry for 648 marked the beginning of a contemporary record of events. Entries are reasonably regular from 648 until 757 when they become extremely sparse until the accession of Egbert (802).” [2] “This process of re-valuation has, however, encouraged several authors to imagine that sub-Roman Britain, in its entirety, retained a significant political, economic and military momentum across the fifth century and even the bulk of the sixth. This in large part stems from attempts to develop visions of an Arthurian era of British success against the incoming Anglo-Saxons, as suggested by the Historia Brittonum of 829–30, and the Annales Cambriae of the mid-tenth century.” [3]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 20) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 128) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[3]: (Higham 2004: 3) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
Written records began being kept from the seventh century. The church created many of the earlier documents such as ‘historical’ records of saints and annals as well as records of the royal family and genealogies. The Venerable Bede created many works including, The Ecclesiastical History of the English People (c. 731 CE), verse and prose on the life and St. Cuthbert, and the Martyrology, a list of saints. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was created during the reign of Alfred the Great (r.871–899) [1] “This process of re-valuation has, however, encouraged several authors to imagine that sub-Roman Britain, in its entirety, retained a significant political, economic and military momentum across the fifth century and even the bulk of the sixth. This in large part stems from attempts to develop visions of an Arthurian era of British success against the incoming Anglo-Saxons, as suggested by the Historia Brittonum of 829–30, and the Annales Cambriae of the mid-tenth century.” [2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 20, 22, 26) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Higham 2004: 3) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
Old English poems. The heroic poem Beowulf is believed to be dated from the seventh or eighth century, though some scholars now suggest it may be from a slightly later period. [1]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 22) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
Gold, silver, iron, from Roman-Britain and then imported by the Anglo-Saxon immigrants were present. Gold, silver, and semi-precious stones have been found in wealthy male burials from the sixth century. The ship burial found at Sutton Hoo, possibly that of King Raedwald (died c. 625 CE), is the largest ever discovered. [1] “Kent seems to have taken the lead in the production of coin in England and, as its first issues and subsequent adaptations are in line with what happened in Francia, it is likely that exchange with Francia was a main function of the coinage. The first Kentish coins were probably struck in the late sixth century and imitated Merovingian gold tremisses… The Kentish gold coins are rare until the second quarter of the seventh century when some seem to have been struck in London as well as in Kent itself and one of the London issues apparently carries the name of King Eadbald. It was not normal in this period for the monarch’s name to appear on coins and consequently it has been questioned whether kings enjoyed a monopoly on the production of coin before the introduction of the named penny coinages of the late eighth century.” [2] “While the number and range of furnishings vary, many contain a minority of burials with significant numbers of accompanying artefacts, while some contain exceptionally wealthy graves. The latter date predominantly to the last three decades of the sixth century and the first three of the seventh,84 but silver brooches, semi-precious stones and weapon sets are a feature of a significant minority of graves even of an earlier period, and some examples are generally read as indicators of high status.85 While some raw materials clearly derived from long-distance communication and exchange, which stretched across the continent, others may well have come from Britain. Iron was mined in the Weald and elsewhere, but silver deposits were virtually absent from that part of Britain in which either furnished inhumations or cremations occur before the mid-sixth century. It was, however, extracted in significant quantities in later Roman Britain (as a by-product of lead), in the Mendips, in north-eastern Wales and the Derbyshire Peaks. It could also have been obtained by melting down existing bullion, such as plate or coin. If the early cemetery users obtained much of their silver from Britain, this was necessarily from the Britons Ultimately, and certainly by the eighth century, powerful English kings established direct control of silver producing locales, such as Wirksworth in Derbyshire and the Mendips, both of which fell to the Mercians.” [3]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 9) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 40-41) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
[3]: (Higham 2004: 14-15) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
Coin production temporarily ceased after the departure of the Romans in 410 CE. [1] “Kent seems to have taken the lead in the production of coin in England and, as its first issues and subsequent adaptations are in line with what happened in Francia, it is likely that exchange with Francia was a main function of the coinage. The first Kentish coins were probably struck in the late sixth century and imitated Merovingian gold tremisses… The Kentish gold coins are rare until the second quarter of the seventh century when some seem to have been struck in London as well as in Kent itself and one of the London issues apparently carries the name of King Eadbald. It was not normal in this period for the monarch’s name to appear on coins and consequently it has been questioned whether kings enjoyed a monopoly on the production of coin before the introduction of the named penny coinages of the late eighth century.” [2]
[1]: (Higham 2004: 2) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
[2]: (Yorke 1990: 40-41) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN
“Additionally, both Patrick and Gildas seem to have known the purpose and value of money and, although there was no new coining and very little importation of continental issues post 410, existing coins may have continued to circulate for some time, or have been used to store wealth or pay tribute.” [1] Merovingian (Frankish dynasty) gold coins were entering the south-east of England predominantly from the late sixth-century. [2]
[1]: (Higham 2004: 3) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
[2]: (Hamerow 2005: 285) Hamerow, Helena. 2005. “The Earliest Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms.” Chapter. In The New Cambridge Medieval History, edited by Paul Fouracre, 1:263–88. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521362917.012. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5JNINHPQ
Amber beads (and lesser used glass beads) are likely to have been used as a form of exchange as evidenced by those found in their thousands in some elite burials. [1]
[1]: (Hamerow 2005: 285) Hamerow, Helena. 2005. “The Earliest Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms.” Chapter. In The New Cambridge Medieval History, edited by Paul Fouracre, 1:263–88. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521362917.012. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5JNINHPQ
“Additionally, both Patrick and Gildas seem to have known the purpose and value of money and, although there was no new coining and very little importation of continental issues post 410, existing coins may have continued to circulate for some time, or have been used to store wealth or pay tribute.” [1] Coin hoards have been found from throughout the polity period. The largest was found near Cuerdale and contained 7,500 coins, 35 kilograms of ingots and hack silver dating from around 905-910 CE, while the area was under Viking rule. [2]
[1]: (Higham 2004: 3) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K
[2]: (Higham and Ryan 2013: 329-330) Higham, Nicholas J. Ryan, M. J. 2013. The Anglo-Saxon World. Yale University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DEXKYD28
No evidence of debt and credit structures referred to in the sources consulted.
Standard weights were prescribed by King Offa of Mercia and were used for centuries. [1] Scales and weights have been found in a small number of graves in the south-east of England, which were used for assessing bullion and coins. [2]
[1]: (Donnachie 2015) Donnachie, Ian. 2015. ‘Weights and Measures’, in The Oxford Companion to British History. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001/acref-9780199677832-e-4444. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6JQDSKYN
[2]: (Hamerow 2005: 285) Hamerow, Helena. 2005. “The Earliest Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms.” Chapter. In The New Cambridge Medieval History, edited by Paul Fouracre, 1:263–88. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521362917.012. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5JNINHPQ