Alaouite Dynasty I

levels.“The formation of a black army and the building of the empire were costly. To minimize the costs, Mawlay Isma‘il kept his government simple and made it more palace-centered than Makhzan civil serviceoriented. The palace has always been central to the Makhzan in “traditional” Morocco and, as contemporary Moroccan historian Mohamed El Mansour wrote, “the so-called ‘Makhzan service’ was basically made up of the palace domestic organization, the administrative hierarchy and the army.” According to Windus, the sultan’s administrative staff at the court was made up of five standing officers: ‘the Grand Mufti for Affairs of Religion; the chief Eunuch to take Care of the Seraglio; a Treasurer for his Revenue; the Superintendant of his Buildings and the Basha of Mekness, who is the first Minister, or the supreme Akcayde, of which there are three forts; the first and chief are those who, in the nature of Vice-Roys, are sent to govern the Provinces; to whom, for their greater Honour, is sometimes given the Title of Bashas [. . .]. Another fort are the Generals of his Armies, and Commanders over small Parties of Horse of Foot. The Third fort are Governours of Cities, or Towns, and are either made by the Emperor himself, as are the Alcaydes of Morocco [Marrakesh], Fez, Sally, and other great Cities; or by the Governours of the Provinces, over small Towns and Cities; a fourth fort may be added, which are titular only, and therefore called Alcaydes of their Heads’.” ^[1] : 1. Grand Mufti :: 2. Imams

[1]: (El Hamel 2014: 202) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS

levels.“The formation of a black army and the building of the empire were costly. To minimize the costs, Mawlay Isma‘il kept his government simple and made it more palace-centered than Makhzan civil serviceoriented. The palace has always been central to the Makhzan in “traditional” Morocco and, as contemporary Moroccan historian Mohamed El Mansour wrote, “the so-called ‘Makhzan service’ was basically made up of the palace domestic organization, the administrative hierarchy and the army.” According to Windus, the sultan’s administrative staff at the court was made up of five standing officers: ‘the Grand Mufti for Affairs of Religion; the chief Eunuch to take Care of the Seraglio; a Treasurer for his Revenue; the Superintendant of his Buildings and the Basha of Mekness, who is the first Minister, or the supreme Akcayde, of which there are three forts; the first and chief are those who, in the nature of Vice-Roys, are sent to govern the Provinces; to whom, for their greater Honour, is sometimes given the Title of Bashas [. . .]. Another fort are the Generals of his Armies, and Commanders over small Parties of Horse of Foot. The Third fort are Governours of Cities, or Towns, and are either made by the Emperor himself, as are the Alcaydes of Morocco [Marrakesh], Fez, Sally, and other great Cities; or by the Governours of the Provinces, over small Towns and Cities; a fourth fort may be added, which are titular only, and therefore called Alcaydes of their Heads’.” ^[1] : 1. Sultan :: 2. Generals ::: 3. Commanders :::: 4. Soldiers

[1]: (El Hamel 2014: 202) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS

levels.“The formation of a black army and the building of the empire were costly. To minimize the costs, Mawlay Isma‘il kept his government simple and made it more palace-centered than Makhzan civil serviceoriented. The palace has always been central to the Makhzan in “traditional” Morocco and, as contemporary Moroccan historian Mohamed El Mansour wrote, “the so-called ‘Makhzan service’ was basically made up of the palace domestic organization, the administrative hierarchy and the army.” According to Windus, the sultan’s administrative staff at the court was made up of five standing officers: ‘the Grand Mufti for Affairs of Religion; the chief Eunuch to take Care of the Seraglio; a Treasurer for his Revenue; the Superintendant of his Buildings and the Basha of Mekness, who is the first Minister, or the supreme Akcayde, of which there are three forts; the first and chief are those who, in the nature of Vice-Roys, are sent to govern the Provinces; to whom, for their greater Honour, is sometimes given the Title of Bashas [. . .]. Another fort are the Generals of his Armies, and Commanders over small Parties of Horse of Foot. The Third fort are Governours of Cities, or Towns, and are either made by the Emperor himself, as are the Alcaydes of Morocco [Marrakesh], Fez, Sally, and other great Cities; or by the Governours of the Provinces, over small Towns and Cities; a fourth fort may be added, which are titular only, and therefore called Alcaydes of their Heads’.” ^[1] : 1. Sultan :: 2. Standing officers: “…the Grand Mufti for Affairs of Religion; the chief Eunuch to take Care of the Seraglio; a Treasurer for his Revenue; the Superintendant of his Buildings and the Basha of Mekness, who is the first Minister, or the supreme Akcayde…” ^[1] ::: 3. Viceroys – governors of provinces :::: 4. Governors – of cities or towns ::::: 5. Alcaydes :::::: 6. Lesser administrative staff

[1]: (El Hamel 2014: 202) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS

“Criers announced in the markets, in the cities, and in the countryside that the slaves who wanted to serve the sultan [as a soldier] should come forward. This initial call brought the sultan five thousand men from the streets (‘abid az-zanqa) who were given clothes, horses, weapons, and a salary. This particular group of people appeared voluntarily to join the army likely because the offer was more promising than living in hardship on the margins of society.” ^[1] “Such is the history of the formation of the Bawäkhir militia - in concise form, admittedly, but based on unique and important documents. This militia initially helped a great deal to maintain peace and security in the unified country. Mawlây Ismail had established forts and citadels (kasabas) in all parts of Morocco, from the frontier with Algeria to the southernmost limits of the Sahara. These forts were garrisoned by soldiers who lived with their families and whose sons received special training, an account of which is called for here.” ^[2]

[1]: (El Hamel 2014: 161) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS

[2]: (Ogot 1992: 229) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

There is no priesthood in Islam.

“Following the conquest of the kingdoms of the Sudan, Mawlay Ahmad received so much gold dust that envious men were all troubled and observers absolutely stupefied. So from then on al-Mansur paid his officials in pure gold and in dinars of proper weight only.” ^[1]

[1]: (Fage and Oliver 1975: 150) Fage, J. D. and Oliver, Roland Anthony. 1975. eds., The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 4, from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z6BCU87M

At the capital, Meknes: “To the southwest of the town lay a city of pleasure, Madinat al-Riyad, where the officials had palaces, where Mawlay Ismail himself had his mosque, his madrasa, his hammam, his funduqs and the offices of the umana of the Treasury, with the shops of the Sharifan tailors.” ^[1]

[1]: (Bosworth 2007: 399) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

“Following the conquest of the kingdoms of the Sudan, Mawlay Ahmad received so much gold dust that envious men were all troubled and observers absolutely stupefied. So from then on al-Mansur paid his officials in pure gold and in dinars of proper weight only.” ^[1]

[1]: (Fage and Oliver 1975: 150) Fage, J. D. and Oliver, Roland Anthony. 1975. eds., The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 4, from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z6BCU87M

“Moroccan chronicler Muhammad al-Kardudi (d. 1851) commented that when Mawlay Isma‘il was in the process of organizing his army, initially recruiting Arabs from the Udaya tribe, he consulted with an influential Muslim scholar, Muhammad b. al-‘Ayyashi, one of his loyalists, asking which tribe would be best suited to provide recruits. Al-‘Ayyashi suggested that the slaves who came (through saby) from West Africa after the 1591 Sa‘di invasion of Songhay and who formerly had been in service to the Makhzan might serve well as they were still slaves belonging to the state. The sultan regarded the idea so highly that he made al-‘Ayyashi a supreme judge (qadi al-qudat) acting on his behalf in all the legal matters related to their collection.” ^[1]

[1]: (El Hamel 2014: 160) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS

Islamic law. “The history of Mawlây Ismâ’ïl is full of outstanding achievements. This ruler completed the task begun by his two brothers - that of unifying Morocco by putting it under a single throne as it had been in the days of its might and greatness. It was he also who strengthened the basis of the state founded by his two brothers and laid the foundations of the State of Morocco that has safeguarded Morocco’s heritage up to the present. Lastly, it was he who saw to it that Muslim law was extended to all parts of Morocco, in order to give the country religious as well as political unity.” ^[1] “The controversy over the enslavement or conscription of all black Moroccans provoked a heated debate and overt hostility between some of the ‘ulama’ (religious scholars) and Mawlay Isma‘il. This was a sharp violation of the most salient Islamic legal code regarding the institution of slavery, which stated that it was illegal to enslave any adherent to Islam. The discourse and needs of the state as advanced by the sultan as a political authority and the discourse and interpretation of the tenets of Islam as advanced by the religious scholars, custodians of Islamic law, collided.” ^[2]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 220) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[2]: (El Hamel 2014: 264) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS

“Moors and Jews collected supplies of European merchandise from the Christian stores on the coast and distributed them among their branches at Fez, Meknès, Marrakesh, Taroudant and High. Meknès was still the principal market for grain, leather and wax. Any surplus, over that which the five towns consumed, was sent to the Tafilalet, ‘where in exchange for it the Arabs give tibir or gold dust, indigo, ostrich feathers, dates, or sometimes a few elephants’ teeth otherwise known as morfil or raw ivory’. Caravan traffic with the Sudan continued to be active.” ^[1]

[1]: (Julien 1970: 255) Julien, Charles-Andre. 1970. History of North Africa: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, From the Arab Conquest to 1830, ed. R Le Tourneau and C.C. Stewart, trans. John Petrie. New York; Washington: Praeger Publishers. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJVWWN24

At the palace at Meknes: “In the centre ran running water. Each animal had its stall and a shelter for its equipment. Opposite was a storehouse, the heri which supported a supplementary palace with twenty pavilions. Between the palace and the stables was the granary, forty feet high and big enough, it was said, to contain the whole harvest of Morocco. At the side was a pond for irrigation purposes and also subterranean reserves of water in case of a siege.” ^[1]

[1]: (Bosworth 2007: 399) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

Grain stores; elite food stores. At the palace at Meknes: “In the centre ran running water. Each animal had its stall and a shelter for its equipment. Opposite was a storehouse, the heri which supported a supplementary palace with twenty pavilions. Between the palace and the stables was the granary, forty feet high and big enough, it was said, to contain the whole harvest of Morocco. At the side was a pond for irrigation purposes and also subterranean reserves of water in case of a siege.” ^[1] “He [Mulay Ismail] was moreover no spendthrift, ‘concerning himself personally with horseshoes and horseshoe nails, with spices, drugs, butter, honey and other trifles that are in his stores’. All of which caused the Sieur Mouette, subject of a king who stinted nothing, to say that such an occupation ‘is more suited to a grocer than to a great prince like him’.” ^[2]

[1]: (Bosworth 2007: 399) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

[2]: (Julien 1970: 247-248) Julien, Charles-Andre. 1970. History of North Africa: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, From the Arab Conquest to 1830, ed. R Le Tourneau and C.C. Stewart, trans. John Petrie. New York; Washington: Praeger Publishers. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJVWWN24

“As regards his work for the community, he [Mawlây Rashïd] took a great interest in the water problem, especially in the desert areas: thus he had many wells dug in the deserts of eastern Morocco, particularly in the Dar’a, which was on the route taken by caravans of traders and pilgrim caravans on their way to Mecca.” ^[1] At the palace at Meknes: “In the centre ran running water. Each animal had its stall and a shelter for its equipment. Opposite was a storehouse, the heri which supported a supplementary palace with twenty pavilions. Between the palace and the stables was the granary, forty feet high and big enough, it was said, to contain the whole harvest of Morocco. At the side was a pond for irrigation purposes and also subterranean reserves of water in case of a siege.” ^[2]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 219) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[2]: (Bosworth 2007: 399) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

Workplaces; garrisons; forts; citadels; stables; palaces. “When he heard about all this unrest, Mawläy Ismail decided to deal first of all with his nephew. He marched against him and forced him to flee a second time, into the Sahara. Then he advanced on Fez and laid siege to it until it surrendered, but later decided to make Meknes his capital. On his return to that town he gave orders for the building of palaces, houses, walls, stables, warehouses and other large buildings. He had gardens and ponds laid out, to such good effect that this town came to rival Versailles (which King Louis XIV, abandoning Paris, had taken as his capital). At Meknes, the building work went on for several years.” ^[1] “Such is the history of the formation of the Bawäkhir militia - in concise form, admittedly, but based on unique and important documents. This militia initially helped a great deal to maintain peace and security in the unified country. Mawlây Ismail had established forts and citadels (kasabas) in all parts of Morocco, from the frontier with Algeria to the southernmost limits of the Sahara. These forts were garrisoned by soldiers who lived with their families and whose sons received special training, an account of which is called for here.” ^[2]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 222) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[2]: (Ogot 1992: 229) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

Stables; warehouses; infirmaries. “When he heard about all this unrest, Mawläy Ismail decided to deal first of all with his nephew. He marched against him and forced him to flee a second time, into the Sahara. Then he advanced on Fez and laid siege to it until it surrendered, but later decided to make Meknes his capital. On his return to that town he gave orders for the building of palaces, houses, walls, stables, warehouses and other large buildings. He had gardens and ponds laid out, to such good effect that this town came to rival Versailles (which King Louis XIV, abandoning Paris, had taken as his capital). At Meknes, the building work went on for several years.” ^[1] “All the Christians in Morocco were collected there and were at first housed in siloes near the building-yards, then they were moved to the Dar al-Makhzen, then to near the stables, under the arches of a bridge, where their lot was particularly miserable, finally to lodgings built from mud brick along the north wall of the Dar al-Makhzen. They were able to organise themselves a little there, to build themselves a church, to have chapels, a convent and infirmaries.” ^[2]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 222) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[2]: (Bosworth 2007: 400) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

Mosques; churches; chapels; convent. “Numerous sanctuaries, whether congregational mosques or simple places of prayer, were built in Fez under the _Alaw_ sovereigns and very often through their initiative. The most important of these were the mosques of B_b G_sa ( J_sa), of al-Ra_f and of al-Siy_j at F_s al-B_l_, and the mosque of Mawl_y _Abd All_h at F_s al-Jad_d. Local mosques, places of prayer dedicated to saints, headquarters of Su_ brotherhoods, were built in great numbers. Sanctuaries of reasonably large dimensions consisted according to local tradition of naves parallel to the wall of the qibla.” ^[1] “All the Christians in Morocco were collected there and were at first housed in siloes near the building-yards, then they were moved to the Dar al-Makhzen, then to near the stables, under the arches of a bridge, where their lot was particularly miserable, finally to lodgings built from mud brick along the north wall of the Dar al-Makhzen. They were able to organise themselves a little there, to build themselves a church, to have chapels, a convent and infirmaries.” ^[2]

[1]: (Bosworth 2007: 144) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

[2]: (Bosworth 2007: 400) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

Universities; libraries. “In 1046/1636-7, for the first and only time in the Middle Atlas, the grandson of a Shaykh universally renowned for his learning and holiness rose up and declared himself Sultan of the whole of Morocco. This claimant’s name was Muhammed ibn M ’ Hammad ibn A b u Bakr al-Daläl. His grandfather founded a zawiya in the Middle Atlas which was destroyed by the second ’Alawite king, al-Rashïd ibn al-Sharif, and whose location is almost unknown today. It became aImost as prestigious a centre of Islamic studies as Karâwiyyïn University at Fez. Several celebrities in the fields of Islamic learning in the eleventh century of the Hegira (seventeenth century of the Christian era) passed through Dila zawiya.” ^[1] “It was only under Mawlây Rashïd that Morocco resumed its cultural traditions and its social and economic achievements. Mawlây Rashïd held scholars and men of letters in great esteem. He had himself studied at the Karâwiyyïn University. Mawlây Rashïd built the biggest madrasa (college) in Fez. This is the madrasa modeitly called Madrasa Cherratïn, from the name of the street in which it was built. He built another madrasa in Marrakesh.” ^[2] “Muhammad b. ‘Abd Allah almost re-established order and restored to the town its past glory… It was he who made the 12,000 books of the library of Mawlay Ismail hubus for the benefit of all the mosques of Morocco.” ^[3]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 214) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[2]: (Ogot 1992: 219) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[3]: (Bosworth 2007: 400) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

Stables; warehouses; infirmaries. “When he heard about all this unrest, Mawläy Ismail decided to deal first of all with his nephew. He marched against him and forced him to flee a second time, into the Sahara. Then he advanced on Fez and laid siege to it until it surrendered, but later decided to make Meknes his capital. On his return to that town he gave orders for the building of palaces, houses, walls, stables, warehouses and other large buildings. He had gardens and ponds laid out, to such good effect that this town came to rival Versailles (which King Louis XIV, abandoning Paris, had taken as his capital). At Meknes, the building work went on for several years.” ^[1] “All the Christians in Morocco were collected there and were at first housed in siloes near the building-yards, then they were moved to the Dar al-Makhzen, then to near the stables, under the arches of a bridge, where their lot was particularly miserable, finally to lodgings built from mud brick along the north wall of the Dar al-Makhzen. They were able to organise themselves a little there, to build themselves a church, to have chapels, a convent and infirmaries.” ^[2]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 222) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[2]: (Bosworth 2007: 400) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

“The port of al-Mahdiyya which was then called al-Ma’murä, was one of the biggest ports in Morocco. Pirates of various nations attempted to occupy it. It was from this port, which came under Salé, a town then settled by Andalusians, that Moroccan ships sailed to fight the Spaniards and other enemies.” ^[1]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 223) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

“Mawlây Rashïd built the biggest madrasa (college) in Fez… Among his monumental works he was responsible for the construction of the bridge over the Wâdï Sebû, fifteen kilometres east of Fez.” ^[1]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 219) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

City walls; fortresses; stables; workplaces. “Be that as it may, Moroccan troops led by General ’All ibn ’Abdallah al-Rïfî, entered Tangier in Rabi’I of 1095/February 1684. Wasting no time, the General set about rebuilding what the English had demolished and restoring the mosques, walls, towers and everything else that they had destroyed during their stay and in their flight.” ^[1] “When he heard about all this unrest, Mawläy Ismail decided to deal first of all with his nephew. He marched against him and forced him to flee a second time, into the Sahara. Then he advanced on Fez and laid siege to it until it surrendered, but later decided to make Meknes his capital. On his return to that town he gave orders for the building of palaces, houses, walls, stables, warehouses and other large buildings. He had gardens and ponds laid out, to such good effect that this town came to rival Versailles (which King Louis XIV, abandoning Paris, had taken as his capital). At Meknes, the building work went on for several years.” ^[2]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 224) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[2]: (Ogot 1992: 222) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

Mosques; places of prayer. “Numerous sanctuaries, whether congregational mosques or simple places of prayer, were built in Fez under the _Alaw_ sovereigns and very often through their initiative. The most important of these were the mosques of B_b G_sa ( J_sa), of al-Ra_f and of al-Siy_j at F_s al-B_l_, and the mosque of Mawl_y _Abd All_h at F_s al-Jad_d. Local mosques, places of prayer dedicated to saints, headquarters of Su_ brotherhoods, were built in great numbers. Sanctuaries of reasonably large dimensions consisted according to local tradition of naves parallel to the wall of the qibla.” ^[1] “Be that as it may, Moroccan troops led by General ’All ibn ’Abdallah al-Rïfî, entered Tangier in Rabi’I of 1095/February 1684. Wasting no time, the General set about rebuilding what the English had demolished and restoring the mosques, walls, towers and everything else that they had destroyed during their stay and in their flight.” ^[2] “All the Christians in Morocco were collected there and were at first housed in siloes near the building-yards, then they were moved to the Dar al-Makhzen, then to near the stables, under the arches of a bridge, where their lot was particularly miserable, finally to lodgings built from mud brick along the north wall of the Dar al-Makhzen. They were able to organise themselves a little there, to build themselves a church, to have chapels, a convent and infirmaries.” ^[3]

[1]: (Bosworth 2007: 144) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

[2]: (Ogot 1992: 224) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[3]: (Bosworth 2007: 400) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

“In 1023/1640–1, Muhammad al-Hajj was even able to seize the sovereign power and get himself recognised by Fez and Meknes after his victory over Mawlay Mahammad al-Shaykh b. Zaydan. He won over the Berber tribes, and Mawlay al-Rashid in 1076/1666 found the Bani Mtir against him, allied with the Dilai Abu ‘Abd Allah, and he had to fight them again in 1076/1668. Mawlay al-Rashid seems to have been interested in Meknes, the qasba of which he restored. In burying him in the mausoleum of Majdhub, Mawlay Ismail said he was fulfilling the last wishes of the deceased.” ^[1]

[1]: (Bosworth 2007: 398) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC

“Registers; government records; letters; books. “The Arabic language thus retained its purity and authenticity in Morocco, and continued to be used for many centuries. The style of Moroccan epistolary literature and of the decrees issued by the king’s ministries remained untainted by any foreign influence. This explains why the texts written during the time of the Sa’âdï and ’Alawites (and up to the reign of Mawlây Hassan I) give the impression of having been written during the glorious age of the Umayyads in Spain and of the Almoravids, Almohads and Marinids in Morocco.” ^[1] “Mawlây Ismâ’ïl bethought himself of this solution when he was organizing the Wadâya militia, as mentioned above. One of the secretaries of the Makhzen was Muhammad ibn al-Kâsim ’Alïlïsh;16 whose father was also secretary to al-Mansür the Sa’âdï. ’The king had a militia of slaves’ he said to Mawlây Ismâ’ïl, ‘and I possess the book in which my father recorded their names’. He showed him this register, and told him that there were still a great many of these slaves in the Marrakesh area and that he would be able to collect them together and enter their names again in a special register in order to make them do military service.” ^[2] “The first letter to which this passage from al-Istiksä refers is part of my family collection. It deals with many repeated questions which may be summarized as follows: the Sultan had thought it necessary and essential to organize an army to defend the territory of Islam. In this long letter he developed his point of view about the institution of this army of slaves, and asked the recipient to distribute it to the ’ulama’ and ask them for their replies. We possess only one letter of reply, from Sïdï M’hammad, in which he says his last word: ’As to the man who cannot be proven to be a slave, scholars are unanimous that he is free and that it is by no means lawful to own him or to dispose of his person either by selling it or in any other way, for men are born free’.” ^[3]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 211) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[2]: (Ogot 1992: 225) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

[3]: (Ogot 1992: 228) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

The Arabic alphabet.

“He [Mawlày Ismà’il] bought slaves from their masters, and even reduced to bondage black residents in Morocco who had already been freed. They were all confirmed as the sultan’s slaves. The sultan wanted these slaves to be personally attached to him by religious ties, and made them swear allegiance on al-Bukhàri’s Sahib, a collection of the Prophet’s traditions, hence their name ’abid al-Bukhdri.” ^[1]

[1]: (Fage and Oliver 1975: 149) Fage, J. D. and Oliver, Roland Anthony. 1975. eds., The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 4, from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z6BCU87M

Registers; government records. “Mawlây Ismâ’ïl bethought himself of this solution when he was organizing the Wadâya militia, as mentioned above. One of the secretaries of the Makhzen was M u h a m m a d ibn al-Kâsim ’Alïlïsh;16 whose father was also secretary to al-Mansür the Sa’âdï. ’The king had a militia of slaves’ he said to Mawlây Ismâ’ïl, ’and I possess the book in which m y father recorded their names’. He showed him this register, and told him that there were still a great many of these slaves in the Marrakesh area and that he would be able to collect them together and enter their names again in a special register in order to make them do military service.” ^[1]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 225) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

“’Abd al-’Aziz al-Fishtáli (d. 1621-2) was an official court historian, who is said to have composed an eight-volume history of the Sa’dids. Only an abridgement of this history survived (published in 1964), but al-Fishtali is extensively quoted by later chroniclers, and in particular by al-Ifrání (also al-Ufrani or al-Yafrani), who wrote his chronicle Nu^bat al-hddi in 1738-9. Though he lived under the ’Alawid dynasty, al-Ifráni sympathized with the Sa’dids. Over a third of the chronicle is dedicated to Mawláy Ahmad al-Mansür (1578-1603). Its value is enhanced by al-Ifrani’s care in mentioning his sources and in incorporating original documents in the text.” ^[1] “However, the Saadian dynasty had two important historians. One, whose work is not extant, was al-Fishtali (1549-1621), secretary of state responsible for correspondence, poet-laureate and historiographer to al-Mansur. The other was al-Ifrani, who died about the middle of the eighteenth century and who, out of spite against the sultan Mulay Ismacil, celebrated the praises of the fallen dynasty in his History of the Saadian Dynasty in Morocco (Nuzhat al-Hädi)^ which is still today the best indigenous source. Among all the Alawite historians al-Zayani (1734-1833?), a pure-blooded Berber, is outstanding.” ^[2]

[1]: (Fage and Oliver 1975: 629) Fage, J. D. and Oliver, Roland Anthony. 1975. eds., The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 4, from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z6BCU87M

[2]: (Julien 1970: 221) Julien, Charles-Andre. 1970. History of North Africa: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, From the Arab Conquest to 1830, ed. R Le Tourneau and C.C. Stewart, trans. John Petrie. New York; Washington: Praeger Publishers. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJVWWN24

Gold; silver; copper. “Significantly, the two great rulers of the Sharifian dynasties, Mawlay Ahmad al-Mansur the Sa’di and Mawlay Isma’il the ’Alawi, were both passionately interested in the Sahara and the Sudan. Both imported gold and slaves from the Sudan. But, whereas Mawlay Ahmad was closely associated with the quest for gold, Mawlay Isma’il was concerned mainly with slaves. Their exploits illustrate the economic and political significance of trans-Saharan contacts for Morocco… Moroccan officials who returned from the Sudan brought many camel loads of gold with them. An English merchant, resident in Marrakesh, commented on the arrival of thirty mules laden with gold in 1594 : ’ The king of Morocco is like to be the greatest prince in the world for money, if he keeps this country [the Sudan].’2 Yet, in 1638 another English observer remarked: ’The ancient supply [of gold] from Gago [Gao] which was brought in by cafells [caravans] in Ahmad’s days, grandfather of this king, is now lost by the troubles of the state’.” ^[1] “Immediately after acceding to power, Mulay Ismacil had given the king’s representative an undertaking to require the corsairs to respect French vessels, to grant ‘the faculty of exporting from his country local merchandise of every kind, which his late brother had forbidden, notably copper and brass’…” ^[2] “Historian ‘Abd al-Karim ar-Rifi (fl. 1740–1786) reported that in 1645, this emerging ‘Alawi leader attacked key areas across the southern trade routes such as Tikurarin and Tuwat and required their inhabitants to pay tribute. In this way he amassed a fortune in gold, silver, and slaves.” ^[3]

[1]: (Fage and Oliver 1975: 150-151) Fage, J. D. and Oliver, Roland Anthony. 1975. eds., The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 4, from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z6BCU87M

[2]: (Julien 1970: 255) Julien, Charles-Andre. 1970. History of North Africa: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, From the Arab Conquest to 1830, ed. R Le Tourneau and C.C. Stewart, trans. John Petrie. New York; Washington: Praeger Publishers. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJVWWN24

[3]: (El Hamel 2014: 157) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS

Dinars. “Following the conquest of the kingdoms of the Sudan, Mawlay Ahmad received so much gold dust that envious men were all troubled and observers absolutely stupefied. So from then on al-Mansur paid his officials in pure gold and in dinars of proper weight only. At the gate of his palace 1700 smiths were daily engaged in striking dinars. . . This superabundance of gold earned him the honorific al-Dhahabi, ’the Golden’.” ^[1] “On the economic side, he [Mawlây Rashïd] lent traders considerable sums to develop their businesses and thus create prosperity for all the people. H e ordered a reform of the coinage which took the form of devaluing the mouzouna from 48 fais to 24 fais. T h e bronze coins which were shaped, were struck in order to make them round.” ^[2]

[1]: (al-Ifrànï, cited in Fage and Oliver 1975: 150-151) Fage, J. D. and Oliver, Roland Anthony. 1975. eds., The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 4, from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z6BCU87M

[2]: (Ogot 1992: 211) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP

“On the economic side, he [Mawlây Rashïd] lent traders considerable sums to develop their businesses and thus create prosperity for all the people. He ordered a reform of the coinage which took the form of devaluing the mouzouna from 48 fais to 24 fais.” ^[1]

[1]: (Ogot 1992: 211) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP