“During this time the power of the Oirat rulers in the western part of the Mongolian steppe was growing. The Oirats had sworn fealty to Chinggis Khan shortly after his rise to power. Their nobility had been appointed to senior positions in the empire and diplomatic marriages between the Oirat aristocracy and the Chinggisid imperial house had continued since that time. At the end of the fourteenth century Oirat rulers began to challenge the power of the fractious Chinggisid emperors of the northern Yuan. They came to play the role of king makers, installing compliant emperors and taking the title taishi (grand preceptor). With the Ming still doggedly hostile to the northern Yuan, the Oirats became increasingly powerful. The Oirat ruler, Esen, who had succeeded his father as taishi, attacked the Ming, subjugating parts of Manchuria and the Hami region in Turkestan. He invaded northern China and captured the Ming emperor. When attacked in 1452 by his nominal overlord, the emperor Togoo-Bukha, Esen defeated him and took the title of Great Khan of the Yuan for himself. But Esen’s reign as Yuan emperor was short, one of his generals turned against him in 1454 and he was killed as he fled. The Yuan throne was recaptured by the house of Qubilai once more, and the Chinggisids had some success against the Ming in the Ordos. The Oirat descendants of Esen remained powerful in the west, and Oirats continued to hold the powerful position of taishi, but around 1480 a vigorous new ruler appeared to unite the Chinggisid noble houses.”
[1]
“In this period, Mongolian lands were divided into three parts: the ‘central’ division, comprising East Mongolia; the West, or Oirat, Mongolia; and the South-Western part, the Uriankhai frontier… In comparison with East Mongolia, Oirat or Western Mongolia had a good level of internal unity, at first, and was less subject to military attack. Consequently, the Oirats used their political unity and economic superiority to try to unite all the Mongols. Having been just four myangan (mingghan – units of a thousand) in the times of the Great Mongol Empire, the Oirats, who had been subjects of the Mongol emperors, had grown to four tümen (units of ten thousand). In the late fourteenth century, when East Mongolia had become a site of continuous political crisis and struggle, Ugechi Khasakha the lord of the Khoit, re-established the League of the Four Oirats, that had been dissolved a century before, and became its khan, organizing the Oirat into the Baatuud, Barga, Buriad, Khori, Tümed and Choros divisions. Breaking away from East Mongolian rule, Ugechi Khasakha began to challenge the political authority of members of the Golden Lineage. At that time a Taiyu (Teivei) [from the Chinese taiwei – senior military official] named Khuukhai served as the representative of the Four Oirats in the court of the Mongol Great Khaan (emperor), Elbeg the Compassionate, who ruled from 1393 to 1399.”
[2]
“The Oirats largely disappeared from China’s frontier history following Esen’s death in the mid- fifteenth century, when the Eastern Mongols became dominant in southern Mongolia. However, Esen’s failure did not lead to an immediate breakup of the Ojirat confederation outside of this area. The Oirats continued to occupy northern Mongolia and Esen’s son recouped some of his confederation’s losses by attacking the Kazakhs in the west to bring the strategic Ili Valley under Oirat control. From here the Oirats dominated the oasis cities in eastern Turkestan and controlled trade through that region. This more remote but fairly stable empire, which lasted for about a century, ruled northern Mongolia unt, after suffering a number of defeats at the hands of the Eastern Mongols, they lost Karakorum to Altan Khan in 1552. This forced an Oirat withdrawal into the Tarbaghatai region which had been their homeland. The movement of retreating tribes led to a breakdown of the confederation and its reorganization.”
[3]
[1]: (Sneath 2010: 395) Sneath, David. 2010. “Introduction,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBJBCKMT
[2]: (Jamsran 2010: 497-498) Jamsran, L. 2010. “The Crisis of the Forty and the Four,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D8IE2XAD
[3]: (Barfield 1989: 277) Barfield, Thomas J. 1989. The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China 221 B.C. to AD 1757 Cambridge: Wiley-Blackwell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D2MQHV94
| Year Range | Oirats (kz_oirat) was in: |
|---|
“Arugtai now searched for a suitable descendant of the Golden Lineage to place on the throne, and travelled to the city of Bishbalyg (Besh-Baligh) in the Chagaadai (Chagadai) Khanate and supported Tömör Khaan. From there he invited the youngest son of Elbeg Khaan, Buyanshir (Buniyashir 1379–1412), and in 1408 proclaimed him emperor with the reign title Ölziitömör. Arugtai made Khar-Khorin (Qaraqorum) the capital city and assumed the rank of taish (taishi – ‘grand preceptor’), becoming the supreme military commander. Arugtai Taish’s homeland was in the Khölönbuir (Hulun Buir) region. [1] Language “The Oirats were separated from the Mongols proper in the 12th and 13th centuries, and their languages became differentiated. Persian historian Rashid al-Din noted that the Oirats’ vernacular was distinct even in Chinggis Khan’s time. For this reason, some attributes of ancient Mongolian phonetics are observable in the Oirat dialect. Linguistic and phonetic studies of modern Oirats living in Mongolia, Kalmykia, Köke-Nuur, Amdo, Alshaa, and Xinjiang show that, due to historical upheavals and migrations, the Oirats prevented their vernacular from dissolving into neighboring Mongols’ languages. Accordingly, Professor G. D. Sanzheev states that “although the Oirats migrated greatly during the last six or seven centuries, their language has not changed from what it was in the 13th century” (Sanjeev 1953: 7). Traces of the phonetic components of the Oirat dialect and its historical evolution, linguistic forms, and vocabulary during the 17th century can be found in documents written in “Clear Script,” while characteristics of the modern Oirat dialect can be detected in various extant sub-dialects. According to Sanzheev, the 17th-century Oirat dialect has similarities to Middle Mongolian as well as to the modern Mogul and Dagur languages (Sanjeev 1953: 33).” [2]
[1]: (Jamsran 2010: 499) Jamsran, L. 2010. “The Crisis of the Forty and the Four,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D8IE2XAD
[2]: (Tumurtogoo 2014: 3) Tumurtogoo, D. 2014. “The Formation of the Oirat Dialect,” Senri Ethnological Studies, Oirat People: Cultural Uniformity and Diversification, 86, no. 1 (2014): 1–7. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MGHTH44W
“Esen Taish ruled as khaan for the period of 1452–55. The historical sources note that these were the times of the ‘unified rule of the four and forty pair’, in other words the forty Mongol tümen and the four Oirat tümen were brought together under the rule of one khaan. In 1455, when Esen taish fell victim to the conspiracy of feudal lords, the Khalkha and the Oirat again went their separate ways.” [1]
[1]: (Gongor 2010: 511) Gongor, D. 2010. “The Twelve Tumen of the Aglas Khuree Khalkha Mongols,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WSSQBWT5
in squared kilometers. “Around the middle of the fourteenth century the realm of the Oirats extended to the upper Yenisei and the region of Khobdo in the west and to the upper parts of Onon and Kerulen in the east.” [1] By entering these approximate coordinates into google maps, the direct paths between these points suggest an area of 589,387km2. Alternatively, “The Oirat owned a vast territory that included the Great Altai and the Khangai Mountains from Tarbagatai and Dzungaria to the sonthwest shore of Lake Baikal, across the lands of the Black Irtysh, Urungn, Kobdo, and Uliassntai, and the sources of the Selenga and Kosogol. They were expanding at this time, and their plundering bands ranged from the outskirts of Peking to western Turkestan.” [2] By entering these approximate coordinates into google maps, the direct paths between these points suggest an area of 433,909km2.
[1]: (Kim 2010: 310-311) Kim, Hodong. 1999. “The Early History of the Moghul Nomads: The Legacy of the Chaghatai Khanate,” in The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy, ed. Rueven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan. Leiden: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VV9PPP7M
[2]: (Grousset 1970: 479) Grousset, René. 1970. The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, trans. Naomi Walford New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7KWZEYBW
levels._Within Buddhist monasteries_ [1] : 1 Khamba :: 2. Tsorj ::: 3. Lowon :::: 4. Da Lama ::::: 5. Gesgüi Lama :::::: 6. Umzad ::::::: 7. Demch
[1]: (Dorj 2020: 178-179) Dorj, Lkhagvasuren. 2020. “History and Contemporary Situation of Oirat Buddhist Monasteries in Western Mongolia”. Doctoral Dissertation, Budapest: Eötvös Loránd University. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AH2RCMNY
levels.: 1. Khan :: 2. Supreme military commander [1] :::3 . Warriors
[1]: (Jamsran 2010: 499) Jamsran, L. 2010. “The Crisis of the Forty and the Four,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D8IE2XAD
levels.“The dynamics of the Oirat polities’ inner circles are by comparison less well understood. The ruler had a privy council called variously the yamu (‘office’) among the Zünghars or zarghu (‘court’) among the Kalmyks. This privy council’s members were called tüshimed (‘ministers’) among the Zünghars or zaisang (‘officials’) or zarghuchi (‘judges’) among the Kalmyks (Doronatib 1985: §§7–8, 17–18, 25, 33; Halkovic 1985: 69, 121; Khodarkovsky 1992: 44). The members numbered four at the time of the Mongol-Oirat Code (1640), but Galdan-Tseren (r. 1727–1745) expanded the Zünghar yamu by adding six zarghuchis to the existing four tüshimed (Tayama 1987: 47–49).” [1] See also the table clarifying this structure and showing levels 4-6 in Atwood 2010, p618. [2] : 1. Khan :: 2. Four Oirats (representatives and heads of different regions/tribes of the Oirat people) ::: 3. Ministers (tüshimed or zaisang) of the Privy Council (yamu or zarghu) :::: 4. Albachi zaisang (officials) ::::: 5. Demchis (rulers of 40s) :::::: 6. Shülengge (rulers of 20s)
[1]: (Atwood 2010: 615) Atwood, Christopher. 2010. “Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CK8T6ER
[2]: (Atwood 2010: 618) Atwood, Christopher. 2010. “Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CK8T6ER
Although there were legal codes among the Mongolians, the Oirat did not establish a formal legal code until 1640 – ten years after this polity period ends: “The contrast of this newly emerging picture with the legal practices of the Oirat polity is quite sharp. The Oirat and Khalkha aristocrats agreed consensually upon a single, relatively comprehensive law code at an assembly in 1640, more or less exactly the kind of abstract body of law promulgated on a single occasion that Chinggis Khan’s jasaq was not. These were later supplemented by decrees of Galdan Khung-Taiji (later Boshogtu Khan) among the Zünghars and by Dondug-Dashi of the Kalmyks (Doronatib 1985: 1–16, 202–05, 230–36; Riasanovsky 1937/1965: 46–52). A similar law-code has been discovered for the Upper Mongols in Tibet, although it has not yet been published (Cerengbal 2002). Significantly, the Mongol-Oirat code of 1640 begins with provisions designed to create a ‘collective security’ regime among the semiautonomous Khalkha and Oirat principalities (Doronatib 1985: §§1–4; Riasanovsky 1937/1965: 93). The formal promulgation of a code thus appears to be an aspect of the consensual (at the elite level) and aristocratic nature of the Oirat polity, as opposed to the almost purely monarchic and despotic Chinggisid polity.” [1] “In the 1640 law code, the four tüshimed were treated as commoners and hence were not members of the ruling lineages of their ethnie. In the Mongol-Oirat Code, the ‘four ministers of the court’ or ‘four ministers who handle administration’ (yamutu dörben tüshimed or jasag barigsan dörben tüshimed ) appear in one set of provisions alongside the tabunang-ud (‘sons-in-law’), after the great, middle, and lesser nobles (noyad) but before the headmen of the otogs (camp districts).” [2] “Law codes from the Oirats show a pervasively class-based judicial system with fines based in various ways on the status of the offender and/or victim (Riasanovsky 1937/1965: 46–52). A similar system is not reported in the Chinggisid empire. The authority system in both polities was buttressed by a patriarchal and patrilocal family ideology that prescribed strict hierarchies of age and sex, subordinating daughters-inlaw to their mothers-in-law, sons to their fathers, and wives to their husbands (Doronatib 1985: §§25–31; Riasanovsky 1937/1965: 101–102). Curiously the practice of including servants as part of the property transferred in noble marriages is not mentioned in the provisions of the Oirat law codes about inje or dowries (Doronatib 1985: §§33–37; Riasanovsky 1937/1965: 100). Still, such provisions existed under Chinggis Khan and were codified later under the Qing (Nayiraltu and Altan’orgil 1989: II, §§841– 842; Lifan Yuan 1826/1998: 247–48; Zhang et al. 1998: §§832–834). Most likely, the dowries of the great lords were simply unregulated. They were the ones who would be likely to have human dowry and their dowries are not mentioned in the Mongol-Oirat Code.” [3]
[1]: (Atwood 2010: 623) Atwood, Christopher. 2010. “Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CK8T6ER
[2]: (Atwood 2010: 615-616) Atwood, Christopher. 2010. “Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CK8T6ER
[3]: (Atwood 2010: 621-622) Atwood, Christopher. 2010. “Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CK8T6ER
Monasteries “Oirat people overwhelmingly recognize him [Baibagas Khan] as "A Great Benefactor" Baibagas because he made Buddhism an official religion in Oirat, he guided his people to the path of ten good virtues, and protected them from the ten non-virtues. Oirat Zaya Paṇḍita Namkhaijamts was among the boys of the khans in the federation, he studied in the very famous three monasteries Gandan, Sera and Drepung monasteries (Tib. Dga’ ldan rnam par rgyal ba’i gling, se rwa, ‘bras spungs dgon pa)133 in Lhasa, he was conferred ‘Lowrenba’ because of his deep knowledge. He returned to his homeland in Oirat to make the contribution of expanding the religion, and building monasteries.” [1]
[1]: (Dorj 2020: 32) Dorj, Lkhagvasuren. 2020. “History and Contemporary Situation of Oirat Buddhist Monasteries in Western Mongolia”. Doctoral Dissertation, Budapest: Eötvös Loránd University. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AH2RCMNY
Monasteries. “Oirat people overwhelmingly recognize him [Baibagas Khan] as "A Great Benefactor" Baibagas because he made Buddhism an official religion in Oirat, he guided his people to the path of ten good virtues, and protected them from the ten non-virtues. Oirat Zaya Paṇḍita Namkhaijamts was among the boys of the khans in the federation, he studied in the very famous three monasteries Gandan, Sera and Drepung monasteries (Tib. Dga’ ldan rnam par rgyal ba’i gling, se rwa, ‘bras spungs dgon pa)133 in Lhasa, he was conferred ‘Lowrenba’ because of his deep knowledge. He returned to his homeland in Oirat to make the contribution of expanding the religion, and building monasteries.” [1]
[1]: (Dorj 2020: 32) Dorj, Lkhagvasuren. 2020. “History and Contemporary Situation of Oirat Buddhist Monasteries in Western Mongolia”. Doctoral Dissertation, Budapest: Eötvös Loránd University. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AH2RCMNY
Books on Buddhist teachings, rituals and tantric practices were written by monks. [1] “In the first half of the fifteenth century, the historical sources describe the structure of the Four Oirat as follows: ‘the Choros, Torguud (Torghud) and Khoshuud (Khoshud) form one Oirat;2 the Khoid and Baatuud (Baatud) Tümen formed another Oirat;3 the Barga and Buriad (Buriyat) formed an Oirat;4 and the Ör Mongol [probably a term for East Mongols] formed one Oirat’.” [2]
[1]: Dorj 2020: 53. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AH2RCMNY
[2]: (Natsagdorj and Ochir 2010: 524) Natsagdorj,Sh. and Ochir, A. 2010. “Six Tümen,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SVB2D3XK
Royal seals. “The sources record that Adai was executed in 1438. The same year Togoon sent gifts and horses to the emperor of Ming as an expression of his gratitude. In reply, the emperor sent him fifty rolls of silk and a letter with the following words ‘You have fulfilled the hopes of your predecessor lords, I understood your boundless loyalty when I saw your envoys and the horses that were sent as gifts. You showed that you have succeeded in taking your revenge on Alutai (Arugtai); vengeance that has been passed down from one generation to the next. I have heard that you have found the imperial seal and were going to bring it (to me). This is also a correct thought. But before this time many states existed and lasted many years not because they had seals. Therefore Prince (van), if you found that seal, keep it for yourself.’11 The royal seal was a symbol of potential Yuan revival. Perhaps the Ming emperor refused it because Togoon meant the seal of the Yuan to be used in its place of origin.” [1]
[1]: (Jamsran 2010: 502) Jamsran, L. 2010. “The Crisis of the Forty and the Four,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D8IE2XAD
“It seems that Buddhism was introduced around the beginning of the 17th century and there was nearly no evidence of Buddhism in Oirat before that time. Therefore, Oirat Buddhism was written from the first half of the 17th century.” [1]
[1]: (Dorj 2020: 30) Dorj, Lkhagvasuren. 2020. “History and Contemporary Situation of Oirat Buddhist Monasteries in Western Mongolia”. Doctoral Dissertation, Budapest: Eötvös Loránd University. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AH2RCMNY
Gold; silver. “The Ming made overtures to Arugtai Taish, bestowing on him the title of ‘Obedient Prince’ (henani van), and ‘Prince of Khar-Khorin’ in 1413, along with a golden helmet, a horse with saddle and bridle, silk, various precious things and 3,000 dan (hundredweight) of grain.” [1] “Taisun Khaan and Esen Taish increased the number of annual envoys to the Ming to one thousand. Good horses were presented to the Ming emperor, and a quantity of gold, silver, silk and cloth of equal value was received in return.” [2]
[1]: (Jamsran 2010: 500) Jamsran, L. 2010. “The Crisis of the Forty and the Four,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D8IE2XAD
[2]: (Jamsran 2010: 506) Jamsran, L. 2010. “The Crisis of the Forty and the Four,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D8IE2XAD
Messengers; envoys. “Although the Ming attempted to put restrictions on the number of Mongol envoys, and to reduce the amounts of gifts and the volume of the trade, from 1436 onward the number of Mongol messengers had, despite this, actually increased from several tens of persons to several thousand… Restrictions were also applied to the number of Mongol messengers allowed to come to Beijing, which was to be between three and five, the rest were kept in Datong.” [1]
[1]: (Jamsran 2010: 506) Jamsran, L. 2010. “The Crisis of the Forty and the Four,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D8IE2XAD