Aro

levels. 1) Towns or village groups"" (obodo), 2) villages. It seems that Arochukwu was a collection of towns and villages, rather than a capital city. “Regrettably, there is no such collection of the oral traditions of the villages and towns making up the home chiefdom of Arochukwu, which would have been more relevant and reliable for the study of the Aro than the reports of British colonial officers.”. ^[1] “In the late nineteenth century, the Igbo-speaking area of Southeast- ern Nigeria consisted of numerous small-scale societies made up of wards, villages and village groups (’towns’, obodo), most of them with- out a marked degree of political centralisation and hereditary office- holding.6 Exceptions to this pattern - small kingdoms - existed among the towns along the Niger and among the West Niger Igbos. The seg- mentary social organisation was often reflected in dispersed settlement patterns (Ardener 1959).” ^[2] “At the height of their economic prosperity and influence, Arochukwu people founded satellite settlements outside their native homeland (but not tributary States) scattered in different parts of Igbo land. Some of the better-known settlements include Arondizogu, Aro-Okigwe, Aro-Ezinachi, Aro-Amuro, Aro-Ihube, Aro-Obinikpa, Aro-Ubahu etc (Imo State); Aro-Okporoenyi (Umuahia), Aro-Ngwa, Aro-Isuochi (Abia State); Aro-Ajalli (Anambra); Aro-Abakaliki (Ebonyi); Aro-Ngwo (Enugu) and Aro-Ikwerre in River State.” ^[3] “The knowledge here is being elucidated by the known practice of having Aro villages in the Igbo hinterland till date.” ^[4] “Before the foundation of Arochukwu confederacy, the Igbo and the Ibibio of the area operated a political system - village republicanism - based on gerontocracy. However, the end of Igbo-Ibibio hostilities, following the victory of Igbo-Akpa alliance against the Ibibio, culminated in the foundation of the Aro chiefdom comprising elements of the three ethnic groups. Thus, the political system which ultimately emerged - federation under one authority - appeared to be an ostensible aberration of the traditional Igbo-Ibibio system based on kinship. In the emergent organization, there was a king (chief) with a council of representatives of the various towns.” ^[5] “The members of the confederacy comprised neighbouring Aro towns like Abam, Edda and Ohaffia.” ^[6] "

[1]: Nwauwa, A. O. (1992). On Aro Colonial Primary Source Material: A Critique of the Historiography. History in Africa, 19, 377–385: 384. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DINGJJC2/collection

[2]: Harneit-Sievers, A. (2002). Federalism to the Bitter End: Politics and History in Southeastern Nigerian ‘Autonomous Communities’. Sociologus, 52(1), 47–76: 52. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HQRP8DG8/collection

[3]: Chidume, C., & Nmaju, U. (2019). The Aro Hegemony: Dissecting The Myth And Reality. 8, 76–87: 78. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WJ5NDV5U/collection

[4]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

[5]: Nwauwa, A. O. (1995). The Evolution of the Aro Confederacy in Southeastern Nigeria, 1690–1720. A Theoretical Synthesis of State Formation Process in Africa. Anthropos, 90(4/6), 353–364: 356. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G4DWA3GQ/collection

[6]: Oriji, J. N. (1987). THE SLAVE TRADE, WARFARE AND ARO EXPANSION IN THE IGBO HINTERLAND. Transafrican Journal of History, 16, 151–166; 154

levels. 1) High priest at Ibini Ukpabi, 2) other high priests, 3) local/itinerant priests/priest-doctors/herbalists. “Let us note that in the Igbo traditional setting, the oracle held executive, legislative, and judicial powers.” ^[1] “The Arochukwu kingdom was an economical, political and a (sic) oracular center as it was home of the powerful long juju oracle, the Aro king Eze Aro, and highest priest.” ^[2] “Neither Akuma nor his Akpa followers objected when the Igbo priest-doctor, Nachi, took over and through his son, Okenachi, created an hereditary chieftaincy in Arochukwu.” ^[3] “It is noteworthy that the priest of Ala (Eze Ala) lived a mystical life, surrounding himself with elaborate taboos. According to scholars who have studied these taboos in detail, the Ezeala in the Ngwa area for example, was forbidden to eat some animals said to be unholy, including carnivorous animals, rabbits and snakes. Moreover, to ensure that his humanity was not be betrayed, the Ezeala was not allowed to eat in the presence of common people or sleep outside his temple. Similarly, he was forbidden to cut his hair in public or drink palm wine with non-titled men. It was also a taboo for the Ezeala to see corpses, cross the Imo River, and greet anybody in the morning of the four-day Igbo market week before presiding over the communal propitiation ceremony of Ala (Allen 1933)” ^[4] “Nonetheless, it is necessary to point out that the establishment of the Aro trade network contributed to immense changes in Igbo cosmology. Chuku, the high God of the Igbo pantheon, is believed to live in heaven and was worshipped through the intermediary of other gods. In fact, before slavery, it is likely that many Igbo communities did not have any shrines of the high God. But when the Aro began to expand their trade network in the hinterland, they claimed to be agents of Chukwu, and helped to establish his shrines (Ihu Chukwu) in many communities. The Aro increased their popularity through these claims, since Chukwu was said to be the author of all blessings including fertility, good health and prosperity. Individuals who could not afford to travel to Arochukwu to consult the oracle would be obliged to offer sacrifices to Chukwu in their local shrines. In addition to the local priests of Chuku, the Aro propagated the Ekpe/Okonko society in Southern Igboland, using its leading members and multi-title holders as an arm of their trade network” ^[5] “While specific data on Amikwo dibia are lacking, it was customary for Igbo priest-doctors to segregate into ranked spheres of responsibility, with herbal knowledge at the lower echelons of the profession and more serious physical and psychosomatic healing powers confined to well-trained specialists who might also be endowed with divinatory powers. Amikwo’s dibia may have corresponded with the latter category (Green 1947: 53ff; Uchendu 1965: 81-2; Dike 1975: 10” ^[6] “Studies show that the Igbo has been in the concept of worshipping Ani (the earth goddess) but has never at any time seen Ani as the supreme deity and the Aro came up to assume leadership. The reason for this sudden importance of Aro is not unconnected to the existence of Ibini Ukpabi (British long juju) which must have existed from unidentified ancient period as a natural creation. Ibini Ukpabi known as and called Chukwu okike Abiama (God the creator of wonders) was said to be found in a cave and, strategically residing by a waterfall in one of Aro villages. The site created some amount of mysterious interpretations and awe around the oracle of Ibini Ukpabi. Aro gradually earned the suffix Chukwu and started being known as and called Arochukwu, almost making Aro Okigbo and other praise name less prominent. Why this became possible is simple to understand. Ndi Igbo from all walks of life went to Aro to consult “God” and simply explained that they went to Aro-Chukwu.” ^[1]

[1]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

[2]: Nwaezeigwe, D. N. T. (2013). THE ARO AND THE CONCEPT OF ARO-OKIGBO: FACTS AND FALACIES OF A HISTRIONIC IGBO HEGEMONY. 15, 12: 6.https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TU5APW74/collection

[3]: Nwauwa, A. O. (1995). The Evolution of the Aro Confederacy in Southeastern Nigeria, 1690–1720. A Theoretical Synthesis of State Formation Process in Africa. Anthropos, 90(4/6), 353–364: 356. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G4DWA3GQ/collection

[4]: Oriji, J. N. (2009). Transformations in Igbo Cosmology during Slavery: A Study of the Geneses of Place-Names, Totems & Taboos. Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 49(196), 953–967; 955. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KEADDRZW/collection

[5]: Oriji, J. N. (2009). Transformations in Igbo Cosmology during Slavery: A Study of the Geneses of Place-Names, Totems & Taboos. Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 49(196), 953–967; 958. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KEADDRZW/collection

[6]: Neaher, N. C. (1979). Awka Who Travel: Itinerant Metalsmiths of Southern Nigeria. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 49(4), 352–366; 354 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/W8VVXIMI/collection

levels. Different groups had their own military traditions, and there are various references to mercenaries – especially Abam mercenaries, as they were instrumental in the formation of the Aro Confederacy. Though it’s there were leaders of expeditions/raids, it’s not clear how formalised those roles were, and how much the system differed throughout the confederacy. “Basden further claimed that: The chief disturbers of the peace were certain bands of raiders who either acted on their own account or, more frequently, were hired by the men of one town to help them fight against another. Such men were the dreaded Abams on the eastern side of the Niger. The way in which the Aro used warriors who were collectively called the Abam to expand in the Igbo hinterland, has engaged the attention of modern historians.” ^[1] “Warfare and military training were institutionalized among the Abam. Their young men were from childhood, drilled in guerrila warfare. They were expected when they became adolescents, to behead a man in battle and return home with his head before they were granted full rights of citizenship. The youths were then called Ufiem (heros) and permitted: To don the eagle’s plume and red tail feathers of the parrot in token of (their) prowess in battle. In life (they) enjoy special privileges, and in death (are) accorded the dignity of a warrior’s funeral with the special dance known as okerenkwa.” ^[2]

[1]: Oriji, J. N. (1987). THE SLAVE TRADE, WARFARE AND ARO EXPANSION IN THE IGBO HINTERLAND. Transafrican Journal of History, 16, 151–166; 152. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MDDKHGKD/collection

[2]: Oriji, J. N. (1987). THE SLAVE TRADE, WARFARE AND ARO EXPANSION IN THE IGBO HINTERLAND. Transafrican Journal of History, 16, 151–166; 154. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MDDKHGKD/collection

levels. 1) Aro king/chief [Eze Aro], 2) council of representatives [Okpankpo], 2) other states’ kings/chiefs [eg Eze Ibom], 4) Ibini Ukpabi oracle, 5) high priests. This is not necessarily a direct hierarchy, as the oracle and high priests had both religious and administrative importance. “While pre-colonial Igboland had no large-scale political organisation extending beyond the level of the town, numerous connections existed be- tween communities: political or military alliances; secret societies like the ekpe or okonko and the ’clubs’ of ozo titled men; religious institutions such as oracles. Furthermore, there were two major zones of in- fluence, one of them based on the religious authority role of the Eze and itinerant priests of Nri, and the second one centred on Arochukwu with its commercial network of migrant traders and diasporas and organised around the Ibinukpabi.” ^[1] “Let us note that in the Igbo traditional setting, the oracle held executive, legislative, and judicial powers.” ^[2] “Ibini Ukpabi played a highly accepted governmental role until corruption came into it like any other human system. The organization of the oracle reflected the organization of Igbo and indeed that of Aro Kingdom. Eze Aro was represented in all of Igbo land including Idoma whose king Ochidoma actually come from the original name given by Eze Aro himself as Onyenachi Idoma; Onitsha whose first Obi was installed by Eze Aro; Ihiala where Eze Aro sent ogwugwu –a branch of Ibini Ukpabi, etc. These representatives were consulted on every matter by their people until the matter became heavy enough to reach Aro land. The Eze Aro himself referred cases to Eze Ibom isii when Ibini Ukpabi was needed to intervene. Eze Ibom isii called the Ibini Ukpabi chief priest who tried such cases too until they were found fit for the ‘supreme God’ to get involved. That was – a point of no return. This means that the Ibini Ukpabi chief priest only took over when the Eze Ibom isii could no longer handle any such cases.” ^[2] “Arochukwu has been another neglected Igbo chiefdom. Most of these states with hereditary leadership were peripheral to the Igbo heartland. Nevertheless, they were important because of their interactions with the heartland and the possibility of dating interactive events from their genealogies. The Aro evolved a confederate political system headed by a hereditary leadership, yet their genealogies have been ignored.” ^[3] “Before the foundation of Arochukwu confederacy, the Igbo and the Ibibio of the area operated a political system - village republicanism - based on gerontocracy. However, the end of Igbo-Ibibio hostilities, following the victory of Igbo-Akpa alliance against the Ibibio, culminated in the foundation of the Aro chiefdom comprising elements of the three ethnic groups. Thus, the political system which ultimately emerged - federation under one authority - appeared to be an ostensible aberration of the traditional Igbo-Ibibio system based on kinship. In the emergent organization, there was a king (chief) with a council of representatives of the various towns.” ^[4] The hereditary chiefdom (Eze Aro) of Arochukwu was not fully in place until about 1780. The Akpa did not generally use hereditary chiefdoms. On gaining control of the Arochukwu area, the leader of the mercenary troops, Akuma, became the first chief (c. 1690–1720). His successor was an Igbo priest-doctor, Nachi (c. 1720–1750), then Okenachi, Nachi’s non-biological son (c.1750–1780). “When Akuma’s soldiers had been victorious, their leader received the respect and leadership role which any victor might expect. In that sense, it is hardly surprising that he founded Arochukwu. Nevertheless, upon Akuma’s death, none of his sons attempted to fill his role. Neither Akuma nor his Akpa followers objected when the Igbo priest-doctor, Nachi, took over and through his son, Okenachi, created an hereditary chieftaincy in Arochukwu.” ^[4]

[1]: Harneit-Sievers, A. (2002). Federalism to the Bitter End: Politics and History in Southeastern Nigerian ‘Autonomous Communities’. Sociologus, 52(1), 47–76: 52–53. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/HQRP8DG8/collection

[2]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

[3]: Nwauwa, A. O. (1990). The Dating of the Aro Chiefdom: A Synthesis of Correlated Genealogies. History in Africa, 17, 227–245: 227. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TEXMFD2H/collection

[4]: Nwauwa, A. O. (1995). The Evolution of the Aro Confederacy in Southeastern Nigeria, 1690–1720. A Theoretical Synthesis of State Formation Process in Africa. Anthropos, 90(4/6), 353–364: 356. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G4DWA3GQ/collection

Various references to mercenaries and to military traditions. “Basden further claimed that: The chief disturbers of the peace were certain bands of raiders who either acted on their own account or, more frequently, were hired by the men of one town to help them fight against another. Such men were the dreaded Abams on the eastern side of the Niger. The way in which the Aro used warriors who were collectively called the Abam to expand in the Igbo hinterland, has engaged the attention of modern historians.” ^[1] “Warfare and military training were institutionalized among the Abam. Their young men were from childhood, drilled in guerrila warfare. They were expected when they became adolescents, to behead a man in battle and return home with his head before they were granted full rights of citizenship. The youths were then called Ufiem (heros) and permitted: To don the eagle’s plume and red tail feathers of the parrot in token of (their) prowess in battle. In life (they) enjoy special privileges, and in death (are) accorded the dignity of a warrior’s funeral with the special dance known as okerenkwa.” ^[2] “Some Abiriba elders stated that the people of Arochukwu came under attack by the belligerent Ibibio sometime in the late 17th century. This time the Ibibio people used masquerades (Ekpo Ibibio) to frighten and wage a guerrilla war against the Aro. Probably due to the agelong cordial relationship that had existed between Abiriba and Aro, they (Aro) asked for assistance from Abiriba to deal with the Ibibio menace and the request was granted. Abiriba sent seven warriors to fight the Ibibio masquerades called in Abiriba parlance “okiri-Ibibio”. The seven warriors were Nkuma Agbaike (leader), Owom Upko, Gbagbali Ohunnunu, Alawara Adimaribonkwu, Okoronta Agwuocha and two others whose names we cannot immediately ascertain (Chief Ejim Akuma, 1996). The seven warriors fought and defeated the Ibibio masquerades that had laid siege on Aro land. As the victorious Abiriba warriors were returning home, they were given a gift of a mirror by the Eze Aro. […] According to late Chief Ejim Akuma (a local historian), Abiriba warriors did not fight as mercenaries but fought for glory, blood heroism, to secure their homeland and protect their movement outside Abiriba and their business interest as long-distance travellers and traders. They also fought to liberate communities under siege, especially communities that share historical link or affinity with them or simply on request.” ^[3]

[1]: Oriji, J. N. (1987). THE SLAVE TRADE, WARFARE AND ARO EXPANSION IN THE IGBO HINTERLAND. Transafrican Journal of History, 16, 151–166; 152. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MDDKHGKD/collection

[2]: Oriji, J. N. (1987). THE SLAVE TRADE, WARFARE AND ARO EXPANSION IN THE IGBO HINTERLAND. Transafrican Journal of History, 16, 151–166; 154. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MDDKHGKD/collection

[3]: Chidume, C., & Nmaju, U. (2019). The Aro Hegemony: Dissecting The Myth And Reality. 8, 76–87: 80. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WJ5NDV5U/collection

Religious and social roles overlapped, but if we take priest-doctor to be a priesthood role, professional priests were present. “While specific data on Amikwo dibia are lacking, it was customary for Igbo priest-doctors to segregate into ranked spheres of responsibility, with herbal knowledge at the lower echelons of the profession and more serious physical and psychosomatic healing powers confined to well-trained specialists who might also be endowed with divinatory powers. Amikwo’s dibia may have corresponded with the latter category (Green 1947: 53ff; Uchendu 1965: 81-2; Dike 1975: 10” ^[1]

[1]: Neaher, N. C. (1979). Awka Who Travel: Itinerant Metalsmiths of Southern Nigeria. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 49(4), 352–366; 354 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/W8VVXIMI/collection

“Let us note that in the Igbo traditional setting, the oracle held executive, legislative, and judicial powers.” ^[1]

[1]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

“Let us note that in the Igbo traditional setting, the oracle held executive, legislative, and judicial powers.” ^[1]

[1]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

There are no mentions of a formal or written code, but many references to the Ibini Ukpabi oracle playing a key judicial role. Any disputes which couldn’t be resolved locally might be sent on to the oracle. So there were clearly social rules in place, but they may have differed throughout the confederacy in form and application. “Ibini Ukpabi played a highly accepted governmental role until corruption came into it like any other human system. The organization of the oracle reflected the organization of Igbo and indeed that of Aro Kingdom. Eze Aro was represented in all of Igbo land including Idoma whose king Ochidoma actually come from the original name given by Eze Aro himself as Onyenachi Idoma; Onitsha whose first Obi was installed by Eze Aro; Ihiala where Eze Aro sent ogwugwu –a branch of Ibini Ukpabi, etc. These representatives were consulted on every matter by their people until the matter became heavy enough to reach Aro land. The Eze Aro himself referred cases to Eze Ibom isii when Ibini Ukpabi was needed to intervene. Eze Ibom isii called the Ibini Ukpabi chief priest who tried such cases too until they were found fit for the ‘supreme God’ to get involved. That was – a point of no return. This means that the Ibini Ukpabi chief priest only took over when the Eze Ibom isii could no longer handle any such cases. Let us note that in the Igbo traditional setting, the oracle held executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The knowledge here is being elucidated by the known practice of having Aro villages in the Igbo hinterland till date.” ^[1] “Violations of the sacred laws of Ala were seen as taboos and were regarded as the most serious offense that an individual could commit in Igbo society (Am, Alu). The taboos covered a wide spectrum of crimes ranging from incest to stealing farm crops. C. K. Meek’s study offers an insightful analysis of the centrality of Ala in the Igbo system of jurisprudence: "Ala is the fountain of human morality, and in consequence, a principal legal sanction. Homicide, kidnapping, poisoning, stealing, adultery [...] and all offenses against Ala must be purged by rites to her. Ala deprives evil men of their lives, and her priests are the guardian of public morality. Laws are made in her name, and by her, oaths are sworn. Ala is in fact, the unseen president of the community" (Meek 1937:25)” ^[2] “Let us note that in the Igbo traditional setting, the oracle held executive, legislative, and judicial powers.” ^[3] “Equally, a justice system was controlled by the Aro. Before the formation of the chiefdom, an oracle of very local significance, Ibini-Ukpabi, was controlled by the Ibibio. It has been pointed out that during the Aro strife, Nachi, the itinerant Edda priest-doctor whom the Igbo invited to make war medicine against the Ibibio, initiated and "developed it from a comparatively local oracle to the widespread power which it attained" (Mathews 1927a: 9). Shortly, Ibini-Ukpabi drew a large population towards Arochukwu from far and wide. The oracle became famous; it was believed, "because of the precision with which it detected crimes, deciphered the unfamiliar and forecast the unknown" (Dike and Ekejiuba 1978: 273). […] In an acephalous system, justice within each village group appears to have been administered as fairly and satisfactorily as in any chiefdom system. However, the weakness of the acephalous mode of government was in dealing with intervillage relationships and disputes. Where land was plentiful, village groups might expand without clashing with one another. But as population density grew, inter- village and -town disputes were certain to increase, and there was clearly no established mechanism to deal with them. Such disputes were more in- tense in matters of land, property, inheritance, and persistent warfare. "Sometimes the only recourse that could be agreed upon was to consult an out- side agency, the Aro or another oracle" (Ottenberg 1958: 303). […] Impartial justice was becoming a ser- vice for which the society demonstrated a need. It had become a scarce commodity which the Aro monopolized.” ^[4] “He noted that the Aro indigenous system was founded on a "clan" basis whereby matters of importance were deliberated on by a special body fully representative of the whole chiefdom while allowing each town the power to regulate purely domestic affairs. […] Shankland concentrated only on the precolonial administrative and judicial systems of the Aro”. ^[5]

[1]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

[2]: Oriji, J. N. (2009). Transformations in Igbo Cosmology during Slavery: A Study of the Geneses of Place-Names, Totems & Taboos. Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 49(196), 953–967: 954. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KEADDRZW/collection

[3]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

[4]: Nwauwa, A. O. (1995). The Evolution of the Aro Confederacy in Southeastern Nigeria, 1690–1720. A Theoretical Synthesis of State Formation Process in Africa. Anthropos, 90(4/6), 353–364: 359. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G4DWA3GQ/collection

[5]: Nwauwa, A. O. (1992). On Aro Colonial Primary Source Material: A Critique of the Historiography. History in Africa, 19, 377–385: 383. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/DINGJJC2/collection

“Let us note that in the Igbo traditional setting, the oracle held executive, legislative, and judicial powers.” ^[1]

[1]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

“The development of the Atlantic commerce stimulated the southward migration and relocation of peoples, and initiated population push on settlements along the major arteries of trade. Arochukwu was one of these settlements along the major trade routes which experienced an unprecedented population pressure from neighbouring communities.” ^[1]

[1]: Nwauwa, A. O. (1995). The Evolution of the Aro Confederacy in Southeastern Nigeria, 1690–1720. A Theoretical Synthesis of State Formation Process in Africa. Anthropos, 90(4/6), 353–364: 358. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G4DWA3GQ/collection

Markets. “The development of the Atlantic commerce stimulated the southward migration and relocation of peoples, and initiated population push on settlements along the major arteries of trade. Arochukwu was one of these settlements along the major trade routes which experienced an unprecedented population pressure from neighbouring communities.” ^[1]

[1]: Nwauwa, A. O. (1995). The Evolution of the Aro Confederacy in Southeastern Nigeria, 1690–1720. A Theoretical Synthesis of State Formation Process in Africa. Anthropos, 90(4/6), 353–364: 358. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G4DWA3GQ/collection

“Ibini Ukpabi known as and called Chukwu okike Abiama (God the creator of wonders) was said to be found in a cave and, strategically residing by a waterfall in one of Aro villages. The site created some amount of mysterious interpretations and awe around the oracle of Ibini Ukpabi. Aro gradually earned the suffix Chukwu and started being known as and called Arochukwu, almost making Aro Okigbo and other praise name less prominent. Why this became possible is simple to understand. Ndi Igbo from all walks of life went to Aro to consult “God” and simply explained that they went to Aro-Chukwu. Presently the word is no longer Aro-chukwu but Arochukwu” ^[1]

[1]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

No reference to any indigenous paper currency being present, only traded items, slaves and brass rods. There may have been other forms of local currency, so can’t be certain. “From another historian we get the reasons for the Aro Expedition as follows: “Reasons for the war advanced by Sir Ralph Moore, the British High Commissioner of the Nigerian Coast Protectorate, included: To put a stop to slave dealing and the slave trade generally with a view to the Slave Dealing Proclamation No. 5 of 1901 being enforced throughout the entire territories as from first of January next; to abolish the Juju hierarchy of the Aro tribe, which by superstition and fraud causes much injustice among the coast tribes generally and is opposed to the establishment of Government. The power of the priesthood is also employed in obtaining natives for sale as slaves and it is essential to finally break it; to open up the country of the entire Aro to civilization; to induce the natives to engage in legitimate trade; to introduce a currency in lieu of slaves, brass rods, and other forms of native currency and to facilitate trade transactions; to eventually establish a labour market as a substitute to the present system of slavery”” ^[1]

[1]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 8. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

No reference to any indigenous coins being present, only traded items, slaves and brass rods. There may have been other forms of local currency, so can’t be certain. “From another historian we get the reasons for the Aro Expedition as follows: “Reasons for the war advanced by Sir Ralph Moore, the British High Commissioner of the Nigerian Coast Protectorate, included: To put a stop to slave dealing and the slave trade generally with a view to the Slave Dealing Proclamation No. 5 of 1901 being enforced throughout the entire territories as from first of January next; to abolish the Juju hierarchy of the Aro tribe, which by superstition and fraud causes much injustice among the coast tribes generally and is opposed to the establishment of Government. The power of the priesthood is also employed in obtaining natives for sale as slaves and it is essential to finally break it; to open up the country of the entire Aro to civilization; to induce the natives to engage in legitimate trade; to introduce a currency in lieu of slaves, brass rods, and other forms of native currency and to facilitate trade transactions; to eventually establish a labour market as a substitute to the present system of slavery”” ^[1]

[1]: Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 8. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection

As per Innocent (referenced below), it seems unlikely there was indigenous currency. However, Chuku refers to cash as a result of trading in the Niger Delta, so it’s possible foreign currency was sometimes used, at least in the mid- to late-19th century: “the beginning of kernel export in the 1870s presented the Igbo and Ibibio women with an unprecedented opportunity to earn cash”. ^[1]

[1]: Chuku, G. (2004). Igbo Women and Economic Transformation in Southeastern Nigeria, 1900-1960. Routledge: 54.https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/PA65FGCE/collection