General Description
The period between c. 1100 and the mid-8th century BCE has been seen as one of decline for the Elamite civilization,
[1]
[2]
which had by that time occupied the highlands of the south-western Iranian plateau and the fertile lowlands of the Susiana plain for over a millennium. These historically obscure centuries represent a transitional phase between the Middle Elamite and Neo-Elamite Kingdoms. Following M.-J. Steve, we have split the period at 900 BCE, resulting in a ’crisis phase’ between 1100 and 900 and an early Neo-Elamite period between 900 and 744 BCE.
[3]
In his ’Elamite war’ of 1125-1104 BCE, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I invaded Elam and forced the Elamite king Hutelutush-Inshushinak to abandon Susa.
[4]
[5]
After this date, there is a drastic reduction in written sources for the history of Elam, both in Mesopotamian documents (either Babylonian or Assyrian) and in inscriptions and tablets from Elam itself.
[2]
The traditional interpretation has been that there was a disintegration of centralized authority in Elam between the Babylonian invasion and the reemergence of well-attested Elamite kings in the 8th century BCE.
[6]
However, some scholars question this, pointing out that systematic archaeological excavation of many Elamite sites has yet to be carried out.
[7]
Further, the gaps in the Mesopotamian historical sources, instead of reflecting the disappearance of Elam as a political entity, may be a function of the political crises and famine that affected Assyria and Babylonia during this period.
[2]
Population and political organization
Due to a scarcity of evidence, the political organization of Elam in the centuries between c. 1100 and 744 BCE remain unclear. Some archaeologists and historians argue that Elam split into multiple autonomous chiefdoms after the Babylonian invasion,
[8]
while others believe it maintained its unity as an organized and centralized state.
[7]
Documents excavated at the site of Anshan dating to the 11th century BCE hint at the survival of some form of royal administration, at least in the highlands.
[9]
Secure population estimates for the area under Elamite control in this period are lacking.
[1]: (Liverani 2014, 461) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q.
[2]: (Diakonoff 1985, 18) Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. "Elam." In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 1-24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA.
[3]: (Steve 1992, 21-22) Steve, M.-J. 1992. Syllabaire élamite: Histoire et Paléographie. Civilisations Du Proche-Orient 2. Neuchâtel: Recherches et Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NVMM9G55.
[4]: (Carter and Stolper 1984, 43) Carter, Elizabeth, and Matthew W. Stolper. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SDF8S3B.
[5]: (Vallat 1998) Vallat, F. 1998. "Elam I: The History of Elam." Encyclopaedia Iranica. London: Mazda Publishers. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elam-i. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ACKKUDJ.
[6]: (Liverani 2014, 527-28) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q.
[7]: Wouter Henkelman 2016, personal communication.
[8]: (Hansman 1985, 30) Hansman, J. 1985. "Anshan in the Median and Achaemenian Periods." In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 25-35. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IXD6RNNR.
[9]: (Waters 2000, 10) Waters, Matthew W. 2000. A Survey of Neo-Elamite History. Helsinki: The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JH4EIDJU.
Elam - Neo-Elamite II |
Preceding: Elam - Crisis Period (ir_elam_8) [None] |
quasi-polity | |
confederated state |
Unknown |
Unknown |
Unknown |
inferred Present |
Absent |
Unknown |
Unknown |
inferred Present |
Unknown |
Unknown |
absent |
Absent |
Absent |
inferred Present |
Present |
inferred Present |
Absent |
Absent |
Absent |
inferred Present |
Absent |
inferred Present |
Unknown |
Unknown |
inferred Absent |
Unknown |
inferred Present |
inferred Absent |
Present |
Absent |
Unknown |
Year Range | Elam I (ir_neo_elam_1) was in: |
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(900 BCE 744 BCE) | Susiana |
Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Duration | [900 BCE ➜ 744 BCE] | Confident | |||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Succeeding Entity | Elam - Neo-Elamite II | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Preceding Entity
1100 BCE 900 BCE
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Elam - Crisis Period (ir_elam_8) [None] | Confident | |||||||||
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Degree of Centralization | quasi-polity | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Degree of Centralization | confederated state | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Linguistic Family | NO_VALUE_ON_WIKI | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More |
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More |
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More |
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Irrigation System | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Road | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More |
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Written Record | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Script | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Nonwritten Record | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Non Phonetic Writing | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More |
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Precious Metal | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Paper Currency | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Indigenous Coin | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Foreign Coin | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Article | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Postal Station | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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General Postal Service | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Courier | Present | Confident Uncertain | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Courier | Absent | Confident Uncertain | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More |
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Wooden Palisade | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Stone Walls Non Mortared | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Stone Walls Mortared | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Settlements in a Defensive Position | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Modern Fortification | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moat | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Fortified Camp | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Earth Rampart | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Ditch | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Complex Fortification | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Long Wall | absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Tension Siege Engine | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Sling Siege Engine | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Sling | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Self Bow | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Javelin | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Handheld Firearm | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Crossbow | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Composite Bow | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Atlatl | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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War Club | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Sword | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Spear | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Polearm | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Dagger | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Battle Axe | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Wood Bark Etc | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Shield | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Scaled Armor | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Plate Armor | Absent | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Limb Protection | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Leather Cloth | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Laminar Armor | Absent | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Helmet | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Chainmail | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Breastplate | Unknown | Suspected | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More | |||||||
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Moralizing Enforcement is Broad | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life | Present | Inferred | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites | Present | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain | Absent | Confident | 900 BCE 744 BCE | ||||||||
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Variable | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | See More |
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