Home Region:  Mongolia (Central and Northern Eurasia)

Zungharian Empire

1670 CE 1757 CE

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Preceding Entity: Add one more here.
[cultural assimilation; Khalkhas] [absorption]   Update here

Succeeding Entity:
No Polity found. Add one here.

The Zungharian polity was, according to Atwood, [1] "the last great independent power of the steppe". The tribal name "Zunghar" first appeared in the seventeenth century, as part of the Oirat confederation of steppe tribes; their rise to dominance within the confederation began under the leadership of Khara-Khula (d. 1634), but it was only in the 1670s, under Galdan, that they officially became the confederacy’s leading tribe, and recognised as such even by the Dail Lama, who gave Galdan the title of Boshogtu Khan. [1] At its height, the Zungharian polity included portions of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, western Mongolia, neighbouring areas of southern Siberia, and Xinjiang. [2] In 1755, the Qing empire was able to annex the Zungharians following a relatively quick and bloodless military campaign; because the Zungharians had successfully repelled the Chinese army several times before, the cause for this sudden collapse can most likely be found in the conflict between the successors of the last great Zugharian ruler, Galdan-Tseren (d. 1735). [3]
Population and political organization
The Zungharian ruler, known as Khung-Taiji, benefited from the support of an office (yamu) or court (zarghu) composed of four chief officials, known as ministers (tüshimed), judges (zarghuchis), or grand councillors (zaisangs). Galdan-Tseren, the only Zungharian ruler to also be known by the title of Khan, added six additional councillors. Each of the tribes that made up the Zungharian-led confederacy (previously known as the Oirat confederacy) and its own ruler who was himself supported by his own councillors, as well as minor functionaries such as standard-bearers and trumpeters. Finally, each tribe was itself subdivided into otogs, which were themselves subdivided into smaller units (of 40 and then 20 households) governed by local commoner officials. [4]
Sources say that the Zungharian polity included "200,000 households"; [4] with a conservative estimate of 3-8 people per household, the population would therefore have been in the range of 600,000-1,600,000 people.

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 622)

[2]: (Rogers 2012, 236)

[3]: (Atwood 2004, 623-624)

[4]: (Atwood 2004, 421)

General Variables
Social Complexity Variables
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Religion Variables Coding in Progress.
Human Sacrifice Coding in Progress.
Crisis Consequences Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp) was in:
 (1695 CE 1745 CE)   Orkhon Valley
Home NGA: Orkhon Valley

General Variables
Identity and Location
Utm Zone:
45 T
[1670, 1757]

Original Name:
Zungharian Empire
[1670, 1757]

Alternative Name:
Zungharia
[1670, 1757]
Alternative Name:
Zunghars
[1670, 1757]
Alternative Name:
Junghar
[1670, 1757]
Alternative Name:
Dzungar
[1670, 1757]

Temporal Bounds
Peak Years:
[1679 CE ➜ 1745 CE]
 

"Galdan had been subjugating Mongol tribes since the 1670s, taking control of all of eastern Turkestan by 1679." [1] "In sum, competition with the Qing state drove the Zunghars to undertake significant steps toward “self-strengthening.” Like many earlier nomadic empires, they established cities, developed agriculture, fostered trade, and generated tax revenues, but the primary motivation was not “as- similation” to settled societies’ customs but mobilization of resources for defense. Internal upheaval after the death of Galdan Tseren in 1745, however, curtailed these investments." [2]

[1]: (Lorge 2005, 161)

[2]: (Perdue 2005, 307)


Duration:
[1670 CE ➜ 1757 CE]
 

1635? “In 1635, the year following Ligdan Khan’s death, the Oirat prince Ba’atur Khongtaiji (1634-53) of the Choros clan united all four Oirat tribes and founded the Dzungar (Junghar) khanate, with himself as its leader (see Chapter 6 above). In1640, at his instigation, an assembly was convened of Oirat, Khalkha, Koko Nor and Kalmuk rulers and representatives of the high clergy, at which the Oirat Mongol Legal Code was drafted and enacted, under which all were urged to consolidate their own internal position and to pool their efforts in order to resist the Manchus. However, fragmented as they were, the Mongols found these measures extremely difficult to carry out in practice. [1]
location of Kerulen river EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kherlen_River

[1]: ( Ishjamts 2003, 219-220)


Political and Cultural Relations
Suprapolity Relations:
none
[1670, 1757]

Supracultural Entity:
Oirats
[1670, 1757]

"By 1690 three different Oirat confederations, or states, had emerged. In Tibet the Khoshuds, with some Khoids and Torghuds, formed the khanate of Tibet under the descendants of Güüshi Khan (see UPPER MONGOLS). Strad- dling the Volga, the Torghuds, with some Dörböds and Khoshuds, formed the Kalmyk Khanate under Khoo-Örlög’s descendants. The Kalmyks numbered at their height 40,000-50,000 households. In the Oirat homeland of Zungharia, the ZÜNGHARS, an offshoot of the Dörböd also ruled by the Choros, displaced the Khoshud in 1676. The Zünghar principality included the Zünghars, Dör- böds, Khoshuds, and Khoids (with some attached Torghuds) and is said to have numbered 200,000 house- holds. From this time until 1771 the Oirats remained powerful players in Inner Asian politics." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 421)


Succeeding Entity:
China - Early Qing
[1670, 1757]

Relationship to Preceding Entity:
cultural assimilation
[1670, 1757]

“In 1688, on the pretext of supporting the Khalkha right wing, Galdan marched eastward, leading 30,000 Oirat troops over the Khangai into the Khalkha pastures. The Khalkha left-wing army commanded by Tüshiyetü Khan fought valiantly for three days but was routed. The khan and his younger brother, the first Jebzundamba Khutughtu, followed by hundreds of thousands of the Khalkha multitude, fled in panic across the Gobi into present-day Inner Mongolia to seek protection under the Manchu ( Qing) emperor Kang Xi." [1]

[1]: (Miyawaki et al 2003, 149)


Preceding Entity:
cultural assimilation; Khalkhas [absorption]    Update here
 

“In 1688, on the pretext of supporting the Khalkha right wing, Galdan marched eastward, leading 30,000 Oirat troops over the Khangai into the Khalkha pastures. The Khalkha left-wing army commanded by Tüshiyetü Khan fought valiantly for three days but was routed. The khan and his younger brother, the first Jebzundamba Khutughtu, followed by hundreds of thousands of the Khalkha multitude, fled in panic across the Gobi into present-day Inner Mongolia to seek protection under the Manchu ( Qing) emperor Kang Xi." [1]

[1]: (Miyawaki et al 2003, 149)


Degree of Centralization:
confederated state
[1670, 1757]

"Atwood (2006, p. 209) describes the Zunghar political structure as ‘‘a confederated pattern of several ruling lineages competing for domination, and linked by marriage alliance.’’ Such a system contrasts sharply with the single-lineage type of power structure found in the earlier Mongol empire." [1]

[1]: (Rogers 2012, 236)


Language
Linguistic Family:
Mongolic
[1670, 1757]

Language:
Oirat
[1670, 1757]

"Oirat speech is a distinctive dialect or language of the Mongolian family. " [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 419)


Religion

Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Polity Territory:
[170,000 to 210,000] km2
1700 CE

in squared kilometers. "At its height it encompassed a region that included portions of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, western Mongolia and surrounding areas of southern Siberia, and Xinjiang." [1] "The Zunghar Mongols were based in the grasslands of the Yili River region of northern Xinjiang, in the remote northwest of what is now China." [2]
1928421.84 sq km based on Perdue’s map at the end of the 17th century, estimated using Google area calculator. [3] This would give us a range of 170,000-210,000 sq kilometers.

[1]: (Rogers 2012, 236)

[2]: (Holcombe 2010, 168)

[3]: (Perdue 2005, 3)


Polity Population:
[600,000 to 1,600,000] people
[1670, 1757]

People. "The Zünghar principality included the Zünghars, Dörböds, Khoshuds, and Khoids (with some attached Torghuds) and is said to have numbered 200,000 households. From this time until 1771 the Oirats remained powerful players in Inner Asian politics." [1]
With an estimate of 3-8 people per household, the population would be in the range of 600,000-1,600,000 people. (AD’s guess)

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 421)


Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
[2 to 3]
[1670, 1757]

levels.
Perdue’s map [1] indicates the presence of regional capitals and towns; however these probably corresponded to the Chinese administration.Erdeni Batur had built a capital for the Zunghars at Kubak Zar near Tashkent but it fell into disuse after his death (before the start of our polity) [2] Zunghar farms are also mentioned [3] From this we can infer at least two levels, towns and villages/farms, even though this society was nomadic.
1. Towns
2. Villages/hamlets/farms
"In sum, competition with the Qing state drove the Zunghars to un- dertake significant steps toward “self-strengthening.” Like many earlier nomadic empires, they established cities, developed agriculture, fostered trade, and generated tax revenues, but the primary motivation was not “as- similation” to settled societies’ customs but mobilization of resources for defense." [4]
"Those Oirats who stayed in Jungaria, led by the Choros under their khan Baatur-Khongtaiji (1634-53), consolidated their hold on the area, symbolizing this by stabilizing their headquarters in the form of a city which became the modern Chuguchak (Tacheng)." [5]

[1]: (Perdue 2005, 3)

[2]: (Perdue 2005,106)

[3]: (Perdue 2005)

[4]: (Perdue 2005, 307)

[5]: (Soucek 2000, 170)


Religious Level:
[1 to 2]
[1670, 1757]

levels.
"A nobleman might donate up to 10,000 horses for a single religious service or requisition his subjects to become bandi (novices) or lay servants in the monasteries. The clergy and their “disciples” were protected from both violence and state duties. Novices who had married without taking the major vows were probably common although legally discouraged. The monasteries were mostly nomadic, although in 1638 a Zünghar ruler requested pigs from Russia to give to the monasteries. At its height the Kalmyk chief lama’s estate of shabinar (disciples, or serfs), for example, reached 3,000-4,000 households. Galdan-Tseren organized the entire clergy into nine jisai (Mongolian, jisiya), with 9,000 lamas and 10,600 households of shabinar. To improve the clergy, he requisitioned 500 pupils, each with two yurts, three servants, two horses, and 100 sheep to be trained by a respected Tibetan lama. One special otog, or camp district, named Altachin, “goldsmiths,” was dedicated to making Buddhist images." [1]
1. Lamas, divided into 9 jisai.
2. Novices (bandi)

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 422)


Military Level:
[3 to 6]
[1670, 1757]

levels. Might have paralleled the administrative level (AD inference).
1. Khan (Khung Taiji)
2. Appanages (ulus or anggi) controlled by a noyod or taiji noble. - Military chief?3. Otog (a camp district composed of several clans and usually with 3,000 to 6,000 households) governed by zaisang officials. Otog military chief?4. Groups of 40 households governed by demchi officials. military chief?5. Groups of 20 households governed by shülengge officials. military chief?6. Individual soldier


Administrative Level:
[2 to 5]
[1670, 1757]

levels.
1. Khung-Taiji ruler, later known as Khan
2. 54 albachi zaisang (tax officials) administering 24 otogs
2. Nobles administering 21 anggis (six Choros, one Khoshud, two Torghud, eight Khoid, and (presumably) four Dörböd)
"While often called the “Zunghar Khanate,” the Zünghar ruler bore the title of khan only rarely. Instead, the Zünghar ruler bore the title of Khung-Taiji, a title derived from Chinese huang-taizi, “crown prince” and originally meaning viceroy or regent for the khan. The title of khan was taken later, if at all, and only by special grant from an outside power, such as the Dalai Lama. While Galdan held the title of khan, his nephew and successor Tse- wang-Rabtan was merely Khung-Taiji. GALDAN-TSEREN (r. 1727-45) is usually called khan, but it is unclear from whom he received the title." [1]
"Galdan-Tseren reorganized the Zünghar principality, nominally numbering 200,000 households, into directly ruled otogs and appanages, or anggis. His directly subject households, nomadizing in the Ili valley, numbered 24 otogs administered by 54 albachi zaisang (tax officials), with a nominal strength of 87,300 households. These were his personal Choros subjects, captured Siberian and Mongolian peoples, and functional units such as the 4,000 Kötöchi-Nar (equerries), 1,000 Buuchin (musketeers), 5,000 Uruud (craftsmen), and 2,000 ZAKHACHINs (borderers). The appanages of the great nobles, which surrounded the Ili center, were arranged into 21 anggis, specified as six Choros, one Khoshud, two Torghud, eight Khoid, and (presumably) four Dörböd. The anggis did not pay regular taxes to the ruler." [1]
"The Kalmyk and Zünghar confederations were similar in many ways. Both were divided into tribes (AIMAG), which themselves were conglomerations of exogamous yasun (bones, or patrilineages). The khan or khung-taiji was assisted by an office (yamu) or court (zarghu) composed of four chief officials, variously called ministers (tüshimed), judges (zarghuchis; see JARGHUCHI), or zaisangs (from Chinese zaixiang, grand councillor). These were commoner retainers of the ruler’s tribe. The Zünghar ruler GALDAN-TSEREN (r. 1727-45) expanded the council by adding six zarghuchis to assist the four tüshimed.The people were assigned to appanages (ulus or anggi) controlled by a nobility (noyod or taiji; see NOYAN) of the tribes’ particular ruling “bones.” Below the noyods were the tabunangs, or sons-in-law or those who had married women of the noyod lineages. The positions of “four ministers,” or “judges,” were restricted to such tabunangs of the ruler. Below them were minor functionaries: standard bearers, trumpeters, aides-de-camp (kiya), and so on.Each appanage was divided into otogs (a camp district composed of several clans and usually with 3,000 to 6,000 households; see OTOG). The otogs were divided into groups of 40 households, and they in turn into 20s. Each of these units had officials: zaisangs, demchis, and shülengges, respectively. These local officials were all accounted commoners. Commoners without office were divided into the “good” (said), the “middle,” and the “base.” " [2]
1. Khan
_Social structure_
2. Tribes3. Patrilineages (yasun)
_Central government_
2. 4 Chief officials at court, called ministers (tüshimed), judges (zarghuchis; see JARGHUCHI), or zaisangs. These were tabunangs of the ruler.3. Six zarguchis to assist them
_Distribution of the people_
2. Appanages (ulus or anggi) controlled by a noyod or taiji noble.
__Appanage central government__
3. Tabunangs: sons-in-law or those who had married women of the noyod lineages4. Minor functionaries: standard bearers, trumpeters, aides-de-camp, etc.
__Administrative hierarchy of the appanage__
3. Otog (a camp district composed of several clans and usually with 3,000 to 6,000 households) governed by zaisang officials.4. Groups of 40 households governed by demchi officials.5. Groups of 20 households governed by shülengge officials.

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 622)

[2]: (Atwood 2004, 421)


Professions
Professional Soldier:
Present
[1670, 1757]

continuity with Mongolian Empire?


Professional Priesthood:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"At its height the Kalmyk chief lama’s estate of shabinar (disciples, or serfs), for example, reached 3,000-4,000 households. Galdan-Tseren organized the entire clergy into nine jisai (Mongolian, jisiya), with 9,000 lamas and 10,600 households of shabinar. To improve the clergy, he requisitioned 500 pupils, each with two yurts, three ser- vants, two horses, and 100 sheep to be trained by a respected Tibetan lama. One special otog, or camp dis- trict, named Altachin, “goldsmiths,” was dedicated to making Buddhist images." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 422)


Professional Military Officer:
Present
[1670, 1757]

continuity with Mongolian Empire?


Bureaucracy Characteristics
Specialized Government Building:
Absent
[1670, 1757]

This quotation suggests that there were no specialized government buildings (the ’palace yurt’ doubled as an elite residence and was also non-permanent): "Local officials were responsible for keeping their people in line and reporting external or internal disorder. The commoner officials were required to assemble periodically at the palace-yurt (örgöö) of their noyon, and otog elders had to assemble the demchis; failure to appear was subject to a fine." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 421-422)


Merit Promotion:
Absent
[1670, 1757]

Family connections used to obtain positions. "The Kalmyk and Zünghar confederations were similar in many ways. Both were divided into tribes (AIMAG), which themselves were conglomerations of exogamous yasun (bones, or patrilineages). The khan or khung-taiji was assisted by an office (yamu) or court (zarghu) composed of four chief officials, variously called ministers (tüshimed), judges (zarghuchis; see JARGHUCHI), or zaisangs (from Chinese zaixiang, grand councillor). These were commoner retainers of the ruler’s tribe. The Zünghar ruler GALDAN-TSEREN (r. 1727-45) expanded the council by adding six zarghuchis to assist the four tüshimed.The people were assigned to appanages (ulus or anggi) controlled by a nobility (noyod or taiji; see NOYAN) of the tribes’ particular ruling “bones.” Below the noyods were the tabunangs, or sons-in-law or those who had married women of the noyod lineages. The positions of “four ministers,” or “judges,” were restricted to such tabunangs of the ruler. Below them were minor functionaries: standard bearers, trumpeters, aides-de-camp (kiya), and so on." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 421)


Full Time Bureaucrat:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Local officials were responsible for keeping their people in line and reporting external or internal disorder. The commoner officials were required to assemble periodically at the palace-yurt (örgöö) of their noyon, and otog elders had to assemble the demchis; failure to appear was subject to a fine. Government was maintained almost entirely by in-kind contributions. The commoners were required to give food, mounts, and other necessary supplies to government messengers and “feed” their own nobles, tabunangs, and the high officials." [1]
This quote seems to indicate that high officials in the government were supported through tribute and had no other occupation. Besides, the presence of tax officials reinforces the probability that there were full-time bureaucrats. AD.
"According to Liang Fen, Galdan also established a rudimentary taxation system by delegating a traveling inspector to exact payments of horses, oxen, and sheep from fron- tier tribes, and to keep careful track of income and expenses. This man, who “represented Galdan’s eyes and ears . . . gathered up people and goods in his net.”7" [2]
"Galdan-Tseren reorganized the Zünghar principality, nominally numbering 200,000 households, into directly ruled otogs and appanages, or anggis. His directly subject households, nomadizing in the Ili valley, numbered 24 otogs administered by 54 albachi zaisang (tax officials), with a nominal strength of 87,300 households. These were his personal Choros subjects, captured Siberian and Mongolian peoples, and functional units such as the 4,000 Kötöchi-Nar (equerries), 1,000 Buuchin (musketeers), 5,000 Uruud (craftsmen), and 2,000 ZAKHACHINs (borderers). The appanages of the great nobles, which surrounded the Ili center, were arranged into 21 anggis, specified as six Choros, one Khoshud, two Torghud, eight Khoid, and (presumably) four Dörböd. The anggis did not pay regular taxes to the ruler." [3]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 421-422)

[2]: (Perdue 2005, 305)

[3]: (Atwood 2004, 622)


Examination System:
Absent
[1670, 1757]

Family connections used to obtain positions. "The Kalmyk and Zünghar confederations were similar in many ways. Both were divided into tribes (AIMAG), which themselves were conglomerations of exogamous yasun (bones, or patrilineages). The khan or khung-taiji was assisted by an office (yamu) or court (zarghu) composed of four chief officials, variously called ministers (tüshimed), judges (zarghuchis; see JARGHUCHI), or zaisangs (from Chinese zaixiang, grand councillor). These were commoner retainers of the ruler’s tribe. The Zünghar ruler GALDAN-TSEREN (r. 1727-45) expanded the council by adding six zarghuchis to assist the four tüshimed.The people were assigned to appanages (ulus or anggi) controlled by a nobility (noyod or taiji; see NOYAN) of the tribes’ particular ruling “bones.” Below the noyods were the tabunangs, or sons-in-law or those who had married women of the noyod lineages. The positions of “four ministers,” or “judges,” were restricted to such tabunangs of the ruler. Below them were minor functionaries: standard bearers, trumpeters, aides-de-camp (kiya), and so on." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 421)


Law
Professional Lawyer:
Absent
[1670, 1757]

not mentioned in the literature.


Judge:
Absent
[1670, 1757]

Non-specialised function. "The Kalmyk and Zünghar confederations were similar in many ways. Both were divided into tribes (AIMAG), which themselves were conglomerations of exogamous yasun (bones, or patrilineages). The khan or khung-taiji was assisted by an office (yamu) or court (zarghu) composed of four chief officials, variously called ministers (tüshimed), judges (zarghuchis; see JARGHUCHI), or zaisangs (from Chinese zaixiang, grand councillor). These were commoner retainers of the ruler’s tribe. The Zünghar ruler GALDAN-TSEREN (r. 1727-45) expanded the council by adding six zarghuchis to assist the four tüshimed." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 421)


Formal Legal Code:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"In 1640 the Qalqa and the Oyirad gave up their traditional enmity to form an alliance in the face of the growing threat from the Ch’ing Empire, and jointly promulgated a Mongol-Oyirad Code. The existence of a unified code does not necessarily presuppose that of a unified nation. The Code was in the tradition of Mongol laws since the Yasa of Chingis Khan in that it was applicable only to cases involving more than one of the member groups of the alliance. The Code notwithstanding, a chief had a full possession of his subjects, and cases arising within a group were left to be disposed of by the group itself." [1]
"the Oirats governed themselves pursuant to a document known as the Great Code of the Nomads (Iki Tsaadzhin Bichig). The Code was promulgated in 1640 by them, their brethren in Dzungaria and some of the Eastern Mongols who all gathered near the Tarbagatai Mountains in Dzungaria to resolve their differences and to unite under the banner of the Gelugpa sect. Although the goal of unification was not met, the summit leaders did ratify the Code, which regulated all aspects of nomadic life." [2]

[1]: (Miyawaki 1984, 178)

[2]: Tsem Rinpoche. September 21, 2010. Kalmyk People’s Origin - VERY INTERESTING. Accessed: January 26, 2018. http://www.tsemrinpoche.com/tsem-tulku-rinpoche/me/kalmyk-peoples-origin-very-interesting.html


Court:
Absent
[1670, 1757]

primarily nomadic society


Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Market:
Present
[1670, 1757]

Border markets. "The border trade not only altered Zunghar internal relations but also began to change relations with the frontier merchants. Border officials, realizing that merchants knew prices better than the government, decided to co- operate with them. They created a system of “merchant management under overall official supervision” (shangban er guan wei zongshe zhaokan).17 Nineteenth-century advocates of self-strengthening programs would later call this arrangement “official supervision and merchant management” (guandu shangban). The quantities of goods which the Zunghars brought to the border exceeded what local markets could bear. Dried grapes and rare medicinal products like sal ammoniac and antelope horn, obtained from mines in Turkestan and pastures in Mongolia, piled up in warehouses when no one could arrange distribution. Cattle and sheep served local interests better because they could be used to support military garrisons, but even these herds exceeded local demand. Furthermore, Zunghars constantly insisted on being paid in silver, thus threatening to cause a substan- tial bullion outflow." [1]

[1]: (Perdue 2005, 263)


Irrigation System:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Tsewang Rabdan and Galdan Tseren also developed agricultural produc- tion at Ili, the Irtysh River, and Ürümchi by bringing in Turkic oasis dwellers, called Taranchi, who knew the special skills of high-yielding irrigated agriculture. A Qing soldier captured by Tsewang in 1731 reported seeing wide fields and gardens, and even some Zunghars themselves began to take up agriculture, in the form of military colonies, imitating Qing prac- tice.10" [1] "In northwestern Mongolia irrigation systems existed with channels and even simple aqueducts made of hollow logs (onggocha/ongots). Many of these irrigation systems were ancient, dating back to the military farms created under the Mongol Empire (see CHINQAI; QARA-QORUM; SIBERIA AND THE MON- GOL EMPIRE)." [2]

[1]: (Perdue 2005, 306)

[2]: (Atwood 2004, 175)


Food Storage Site:
Present
[1670, 1757]

Warehouses at border markets. "The border trade not only altered Zunghar internal relations but also began to change relations with the frontier merchants. Border officials, realizing that merchants knew prices better than the government, decided to co- operate with them. They created a system of “merchant management under overall official supervision” (shangban er guan wei zongshe zhaokan).17 Nineteenth-century advocates of self-strengthening programs would later call this arrangement “official supervision and merchant management” (guandu shangban). The quantities of goods which the Zunghars brought to the border exceeded what local markets could bear. Dried grapes and rare medicinal products like sal ammoniac and antelope horn, obtained from mines in Turkestan and pastures in Mongolia, piled up in warehouses when no one could arrange distribution. Cattle and sheep served local interests better because they could be used to support military garrisons, but even these herds exceeded local demand. Furthermore, Zunghars constantly insisted on being paid in silver, thus threatening to cause a substan- tial bullion outflow. " [1]

[1]: (Perdue 2005, 263)


Transport Infrastructure
Road:
Present
[1670, 1757]

Caravans. There must have been established trade routes and possibly roads. "Although disputes continued to break out with Russia over levies of tribute, refugees, and Russian military expansion southward, Zunghar caravans traveled frequently to Semipalatinsk, Tobolsk, and Yamyshev and became a significant presence in Siberian markets.9 (See Table 8.1.)" [1]

[1]: (Perdue 2005, 306)


Port:
Absent
[1670, 1757]

landlocked region


Canal:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Bridge:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Special-purpose Sites
Mines or Quarry:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Because of their need of weaponry the Dzungar rulers opened iron, copper and silver mines and produced spears, shields, gunpowder, cannon, bullets and iron utensils." [1] "Copper, lead, and fine steel came from the ground. Rocks by the water’s edge produced gold and pearls: [there were so many that] they put them aside and did not use them. No one could surpass them in swift horses and numbers of barbarian riders.” (As this passage indicates, he seems to have learned the technology of Persian steel refining from his contacts with east Turkestan.)" [2]

[1]: (Miyawaki et al 2003, 164)

[2]: (Perdue 2005, 304)


Information / Writing System
Written Record:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"While Tibetan language and scriptures were diligently studied in the monasteries, for civil purposes the Kalmyks and Zünghars used Oirat Mongolian in Zaya- Pandita’s clear script, in which a number of diplomatic letters have survived in Russian archives." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 422)


Script:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"While Tibetan language and scriptures were diligently studied in the monasteries, for civil purposes the Kalmyks and Zünghars used Oirat Mongolian in Zaya- Pandita’s clear script, in which a number of diplomatic letters have survived in Russian archives." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 422)


Phonetic Alphabetic Writing:
Present
[1670, 1757]

Oirat Mongolian is alphabetic, and so is the Tibetan script.


Nonwritten Record:
Present
[1670, 1757]

oral tradition?


Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Scientific Literature:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Sacred Text:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"While Tibetan language and scriptures were diligently studied in the monasteries, for civil purposes the Kalmyks and Zünghars used Oirat Mongolian in Zaya-Pandita’s clear script, in which a number of diplomatic letters have survived in Russian archives." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 422)


Religious Literature:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Large numbers of Buddhist translations are mentioned, but the only surviving historical works from before the loss of indepen- dence are Zaya Pandita’s hagiography Sarayin gerel (Light of the moon), written in Zungharia around 1690, and Emchi (Physician) Ghabang-Sharab’s Dörbön Oyirodiyintöüke (History of the four Oirats), written in Kalmykia in 1737." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 422-423)


Practical Literature:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Another interesting monument of Oirat intellectual activity consists of two detailed and comparatively accurate maps drawn by a Zünghar cartographer in 1742 and taken to Europe by a returning Swedish captive." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 423)


History:
Present
[1670, 1757]

" Large numbers of Buddhist translations are mentioned, but the only surviving historical works from before the loss of indepen- dence are Zaya Pandita’s hagiography Sarayin gerel (Light of the moon), written in Zungharia around 1690, and Emchi (Physician) Ghabang-Sharab’s Dörbön Oyirodiyintöüke (History of the four Oirats), written in Kalmykia in 1737." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 422-423)


Information / Money
Token:
Present
[1670, 1757]

[1]

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Precious Metal:
Absent
[1670, 1757]

[1]

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Paper Currency:
Absent
[1670, 1757]

[1]

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Indigenous Coin:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Like all Central Eurasian nomad rulers, the Junghars were intensely interested in fostering trade and, to that end, minted their own coins to unify the diverse currencies of the different petty states in their territory of East Turkistan." [1]

[1]: (Beckwith 2009, 239)


Foreign Coin:
Present
[1670, 1757]

[1]

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Article:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"To give an idea of the amount of trade involved in one of these official trade missions, in 1750 the Junghars “brought goods worth 186,000 taels, the largest amount ever, which they exchanged for 167,300 taels’ worth of cloth and tea, with the balance in silver.”23 The Junghars certainly profited from the trade, as did the urban peoples and merchants involved." [1]

[1]: (Beckwith 2009, 238-239)


Information / Postal System
Postal Station:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Caravan trade was tightly confined by the ecological parameters set by the desert, steppe, and oasis environment. Three institutions were critical to it: garrisons and watchtowers manned by soldiers to keep the peace; postal relay stations, originally established by the Mongol empire, for rapid communications; and caravanserai, to provide lodgings and trading places in the oases. " [1] This description refers to the wider geographic region, but we can infer that these features were also present in the Zungharian empire because of trade.

[1]: (Perdue 2005, 38)


Courier:
Present
[1670, 1757]

Government messengers are mentioned. To what extent where they full-time? "Government was maintained almost entirely by in-kind contributions. The commoners were required to give food, mounts, and other necessary supplies to government messengers and “feed” their own nobles, tabunangs, and the high officials." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 421-422)


Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
Wooden Palisade:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Stone Walls Non Mortared:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Stone Walls Mortared:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Settlements in a Defensive Position:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Modern Fortification:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Moat:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Fortified Camp:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Earth Rampart:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Ditch:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Complex Fortification:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Long Wall:
unknown
[1670, 1757]

Military use of Metals
Steel:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Iron:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Because of their need of weaponry the Dzungar rulers opened iron, copper and silver mines and produced spears, shields, gunpowder, cannon, bullets and iron utensils." [1]

[1]: (Miyawaki et al 2003, 164)


Copper:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Because of their need of weaponry the Dzungar rulers opened iron, copper and silver mines and produced spears, shields, gunpowder, cannon, bullets and iron utensils." [1]

[1]: (Miyawaki et al 2003, 164)


Bronze:
Present
[1670, 1757]

long been in use in the region. Majemir culture from 900 BCE is an example of one of the first iron-using cultures in the Altai region. [1] and by 300 BCE in the Ordos region of Mongolia iron was becoming much more frequently used for weapons and horse fittings. [2]

[1]: (Baumer 2012) Baumer, Christoph. 2012. The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors. I.B.Tauris. London.

[2]: (Di Cosmo 2002, 84) Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.


Projectiles
Tension Siege Engine:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Sling Siege Engine:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Sling:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Self Bow:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Javelin:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Handheld Firearm:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"What led to this sudden collapse? A few factors can be discounted. Neither the possession of firearms by the Qing nor some inherent weakness of nomadic polities seems plausible as an explanation, since the Zünghars had been overcoming these obstacles for many decades past." [1] "From 1697 on the Kalmyks as Russian allies received a regular supply of gunpowder and bullets from Russia as well as the use of cannons during war. Supplying Russian firearms to the Zünghars was still banned, however. Bukharan merchants and Zünghar trade missions frequently evaded these bans, and raids on Siberia also supplied firearms." [2]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 624)

[2]: (Atwood 2004, 422)


Gunpowder Siege Artillery:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Because of their need of weaponry the Dzungar rulers opened iron, copper and silver mines and produced spears, shields, gunpowder, cannon, bullets and iron utensils." [1]

[1]: (Miyawaki et al 2003, 164)


Crossbow:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Composite Bow:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"The first composite bow with bone reinforced ’ears’, a major development, may have been used around Lake Baikal, c.500 BC. Despite many individual external differences, across the steppe, and across time, the composite bow would remain essentially uniform in construction method." [1] and still used by the Qing: "Under the QING DYNASTY (1636-1912) training in archery was required of all bannermen. The military com- pound bow used was only about 1 1/4 meters (four feet) long, although ones more than two meters (six feet) long were also used for hunting." [2]

[1]: (Karasulas 2004, 19)

[2]: (Atwood 2004, 20)


Atlatl:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Handheld weapons
War Club:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Sword:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Even so, demand remained high for sabers, lances, bows and arrows, armor, and helmets, and these edged weapons were still the mainstay of the Oirat armies." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 422)


Spear:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Because of their need of weaponry the Dzungar rulers opened iron, copper and silver mines and produced spears, shields, gunpowder, cannon, bullets and iron utensils." [1]

[1]: (Miyawaki et al 2003, 164)


Polearm:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Dagger:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Among the steppe riders a dagger was typically carried in all periods, and a number of dagger designs are encountered in the archaeological and artistic record." [1]

[1]: (Karasulas 2004, 28)


Battle Axe:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Animals used in warfare
Horse:
Present
[1670, 1757]

Horses were the means of travel for mobile nomadic warriors since the establishment of cavalry forces by the mid-first millennium BCE


Elephant:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Donkey:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Dog:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Camel:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Liang Fen also notes: [Galdan] [...] loaded his cannon on camels. People who heard their thunderous roar near and far submitted." [1]

[1]: (Perdue 2005, 304-305)


Armor
Wood Bark Etc:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Shield:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Because of their need of weaponry the Dzungar rulers opened iron, copper and silver mines and produced spears, shields, gunpowder, cannon, bullets and iron utensils." [1]

[1]: (Miyawaki et al 2003, 164)


Scaled Armor:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Plate Armor:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Limb Protection:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Leather Cloth:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Laminar Armor:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Helmet:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Even so, demand remained high for sabers, lances, bows and arrows, armor, and helmets, and these edged weapons were still the mainstay of the Oirat armies." [1]

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 422)


Chainmail:
Present
[1670, 1757]

"Liang Fen also notes: [Galdan] did not obtain military supplies from distant places, because he was very clever at making high-quality weapons himself. He made armor with small links of chain mail, as light as cloth. " [1]

[1]: (Perdue 2005, 304)


Breastplate:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Naval technology
Specialized Military Vessel:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Small Vessels Canoes Etc:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]

Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service:
Unknown
[1670, 1757]


Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Luxury Goods
[1670, 1757]
Luxury Precious Metal: Present
Consumption by Ruler: Inferred Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present

‘’‘ gold, silver, bronze. “During the Qing Dynasty, the Zunghar Khanate had a wide range of goods imported from the Qing Empire. These goods included various items such as python robes, shuangxi robes, silk fabrics, embroidery threads, spices, food, medicines, and daily necessities. The python robes, originating from the Ming Dynasty, were highly decorative garments with intricate patterns symbolizing auspiciousness and the stability of the nation. They were worn by imperial princes, officials, and even non-ruling class individuals, with variations in the number of pythons and colors. The shuangxi robes were embroidered with the Chinese character "囍" (xi), representing joy and happiness in Han Chinese culture. The Zunghar Khanate purchased a significant number of python robes and gold shuangxi robes, indicating their growing acceptance of Central Plains culture and a shift away from their nomadic lifestyle. The purchases also reflected a divergence between the upper and lower classes of the Zunghar Khanate… In the ninth year of the Qianlong reign alone, a staggering 220,500 sheets of gold leaf, known as "佛金" (Buddhist gold), were purchased. These gold leaf sheets were specifically used for creating gilded Buddha statues. Furthermore, while the proportion of tea in the two trading events was not significant, it is evident that the Mongolian people had a strong demand for tea. This suggests that the Zunghar Khanate must have had alternative trade routes for procuring tea. (清朝卖给准噶尔的货物种类丰富,不但有成件的蟒袍、双喜袍,还有各种绸缎、花线、调味品、食品、药品和日用品等。这些商品中,尤为注意的是蟒袍和双喜袍。蟒袍源于明朝,因袍上绣有蟒纹而得名。至清代为吉服,皇子、亲王、郡王等文武百官,直至未入流皆可穿服,只是在蟒数和颜色上有所区别,并有一套完整而严格的规制。蟒袍是一种装饰性很强的服饰,几乎袍上的每个纹饰都有讲究,如波浪和山石的纹饰,除有吉祥绵续之外,还有国土永固之意。清代文武百官只有在朝贺、接驾、祝寿等场合穿用,它代表的是儒家或者中央政府的一种审美观。双喜袍即在袍上绣上“囍”的字样,代表的是一种汉地文化,至今汉族人在结婚的时候,还要在门口贴上红双喜的字样,以示吉利和喜庆。而准噶尔在乾隆九年购买了49件蟒袍,购买了3件金双喜袍;乾隆十三年购买了191件蟒袍,30件金双喜袍。两次相加,则购买的蟒袍和金双喜袍有273件,如果再加上其他年份的购买数,则数额更多。这些衣服价格很高,最低的为五丝蟒袍,10两一件,最高的为金双喜袍,20两一件,很显然,这是为准噶尔贵族购买的。购买这么多的蟒袍和金双喜袍说明准噶尔贵族有意或无意地接受了中原文化,逐渐脱离了游牧生活方式,越来越向往中原官僚的生活方式了,而这种向往又说明了准噶尔上层和下层民众的背离……仅乾隆九年购买的佛金一项,就有220500张佛金,这些佛金就是金箔,是用于制作金身佛像的。另外,两次贸易中茶叶所占贸易的比例并不高,但是蒙古人又对茶叶有极大的需求,看来准噶尔购买茶叶应该还有另外的贸易渠道。)” [Lv 2014, pp. 21-38] “During the Qing Dynasty, the Zunghar Khanate had a wide range of goods imported from the Qing Empire. These goods included various items such as python robes, shuangxi robes, silk fabrics, embroidery threads, spices, food, medicines, and daily necessities. The python robes, originating from the Ming Dynasty, were highly decorative garments with intricate patterns symbolizing auspiciousness and the stability of the nation. They were worn by imperial princes, officials, and even non-ruling class individuals, with variations in the number of pythons and colors. The shuangxi robes were embroidered with the Chinese character "囍" (xi), representing joy and happiness in Han Chinese culture. The Zunghar Khanate purchased a significant number of python robes and gold shuangxi robes, indicating their growing acceptance of Central Plains culture and a shift away from their nomadic lifestyle. The purchases also reflected a divergence between the upper and lower classes of the Zunghar Khanate… In the ninth year of the Qianlong reign alone, a staggering 220,500 sheets of gold leaf, known as "佛金" (Buddhist gold), were purchased. These gold leaf sheets were specifically used for creating gilded Buddha statues. Furthermore, while the proportion of tea in the two trading events was not significant, it is evident that the Mongolian people had a strong demand for tea. This suggests that the Zunghar Khanate must have had alternative trade routes for procuring tea. (清朝卖给准噶尔的货物种类丰富,不但有成件的蟒袍、双喜袍,还有各种绸缎、花线、调味品、食品、药品和日用品等。这些商品中,尤为注意的是蟒袍和双喜袍。蟒袍源于明朝,因袍上绣有蟒纹而得名。至清代为吉服,皇子、亲王、郡王等文武百官,直至未入流皆可穿服,只是在蟒数和颜色上有所区别,并有一套完整而严格的规制。蟒袍是一种装饰性很强的服饰,几乎袍上的每个纹饰都有讲究,如波浪和山石的纹饰,除有吉祥绵续之外,还有国土永固之意。清代文武百官只有在朝贺、接驾、祝寿等场合穿用,它代表的是儒家或者中央政府的一种审美观。双喜袍即在袍上绣上“囍”的字样,代表的是一种汉地文化,至今汉族人在结婚的时候,还要在门口贴上红双喜的字样,以示吉利和喜庆。而准噶尔在乾隆九年购买了49件蟒袍,购买了3件金双喜袍;乾隆十三年购买了191件蟒袍,30件金双喜袍。两次相加,则购买的蟒袍和金双喜袍有273件,如果再加上其他年份的购买数,则数额更多。这些衣服价格很高,最低的为五丝蟒袍,10两一件,最高的为金双喜袍,20两一件,很显然,这是为准噶尔贵族购买的。购买这么多的蟒袍和金双喜袍说明准噶尔贵族有意或无意地接受了中原文化,逐渐脱离了游牧生活方式,越来越向往中原官僚的生活方式了,而这种向往又说明了准噶尔上层和下层民众的背离……仅乾隆九年购买的佛金一项,就有220500张佛金,这些佛金就是金箔,是用于制作金身佛像的。另外,两次贸易中茶叶所占贸易的比例并不高,但是蒙古人又对茶叶有极大的需求,看来准噶尔购买茶叶应该还有另外的贸易渠道。)” [Lv 2014, pp. 21-38] “Among the accessories, rings and purses are the main items. Rings, known as 'suik', are ‘made of gold and silver and worn as earrings. They are adorned with pearls and are used by both men and women’. Purses, known as 'habutaga', are ‘made of satin fabric and have beautifully crafted tassels with subtle differences from those on the central plains region. The Zungharians have a wide variety of accessories, and aside from their homemade ones, they also acquire a significant number of exquisite accessories through trade with the central plains region. In a Russian document in 1689, it listed the stolen goods that the Zungharians demanded compensation for from the Russian authorities, we can see items such as sky blue beads, jewellery, coral prayer beads, silver jewellery, necklaces, and more. These accessories were undoubtedly popular within the Zungharian tribe, particularly among the nobility. (饰物主要有环和荷包。环,叫“绥克”,“金银为之,以坠耳。饰以珠,男妇皆用之”。荷包叫“哈布塔嘎”,“缎布为之,制与内地微异,结穗精美”。准噶尔人的饰物种类是颇多的,除了自制外,还从与中原地区贸易中得到大量精美饰物。我们从一份一六八九年准噶尔要求沙俄当局赔偿的被劫货物清单的俄文档案中可以看到:有天蓝色珠子、珠宝、珊瑚念珠、银首饰、项链等项目,这些首饰肯定是在准噶尔部内,至少是准噶尔部贵族中流行使用。)” [Editorial_Team 2007, p. 233]


[1670, 1757]
Luxury Spices Incense And Dyes: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Late Qing

"In the ninth year of the Qianlong reign in the Qing Dynasty, the data for the goods sold to the Zunghar Khanate were as follows: Silk and satin cloth accounted for 75.8% of the total trade value, amounting to 31,241.2 tael of silver out of a total of 41,240.35 tael. Tea accounted for 10.2%, totaling 4,218.6 tael. Religious items such as gold pieces for Buddha statues and hadas made up 1.39%, totaling 572.55 tael. Rhubarb accounted for 3.75%, totaling 1,545.75 tael. Other items like jujubes, rock sugar, ginger from Fujian, and tobacco accounted for 1.1%, totaling 467.8 tael. Daily household items like leather boxes and plates accounted for 0.7%, totaling 292.95 tael. Silver coins accounted for 6.5%, totaling 2,667.18 tael. In the thirteenth year of the Qianlong reign, silk and satin cloth, thread, and other materials accounted for 81.6% of the total trade value, totaling 60,839.45 tael out of 74,560.175 tael. Tea accounted for 13.2%, totaling 9,808.8 tael. Spices and food items like ginger from Fujian, rock sugar, pepper, and jujubes accounted for 0.23%, totaling 171.75 tael. Bowl and plate daily household items accounted for 0.48%, totaling 357.76 tael. Rhubarb accounted for 1.8%, totaling 1,310.9 tael. Silver coins accounted for 1.9%, totaling 1,439.52 tael. (乾隆九年清朝卖给准噶尔的货物数据,其中,绸缎、布匹为31241.2两白银,约占全部贸易额41240.35两的75.8%;茶叶为4218.6两,约占10.2%;佛金、哈达等宗教用品为572.55两,约占1.39%;大黄为1545.75两,约占3.75%;胶枣、冰糖、闽姜、烟等为467.8两,约占1.1%;皮箱、盘碗等日常生活用品为292.95两,约占0.7%;现银2667.18两,约占6.5%。表6为乾隆十三年清朝卖给准噶尔的货物数据,其中绸缎、布匹、花线等为60839.45两,约占总贸易额74560.175两的81.6%;茶叶为9808.8两,约占13.2%;闽姜、冰糖、胡椒、胶枣等调味品、食品为171.75两,约占0.23%;碗碟类日用品为357.76两,约占0.48%;大黄为1310.9两,约占1.8%;现银为1439.52两,约占1.9%。)” [Lv 2014, pp. 21-38]


[1670, 1757]
Luxury Glass Goods: Inferred Present
Place(s) of Provenance: foreign

’" “Three copper Buddha statues, one silver Eight Auspicious Symbols, one set of red glassware with five offerings, one Laguri incense burner, a pair of cymbals, a pair of bowls, one set of bell hammers, one Gabula drum, a pair of white conch shells, a pair of Suona horns, a pair of gong clappers, a pair of large trumpets, and a pair of drums with accompanying drumsticks. (铜佛三尊、银八吉祥一分、套红玻璃五供一分、拉古里旙一件、铙一对、钵一对、铃杠一分、嘎布拉鼓一件、白海螺一对、唢哪一对、杠动一对、大号一对、鼓一对(随锤一对)。)” [Editorial_Team 2005, p. 291] Note: In the Palace Workshops, it was discovered that the imperial court had previously planned to reward Amursana with a set of "Buddhist artifacts." These are the set of artifacts was divided into three wooden boxes wrapped in black felt for Amursana.


[1670, 1757]
Luxury Food: Present
Consumption by Ruler: Present
Consumption by Elite: Present
Consumption by Common People: Inferred Absent

‘" “The feudal aristocracy of the Zunghar Khanate amassed wealth through the exploitation of the local people, with the majority of these riches being concentrated in Ili and enjoyed by a select few privileged individuals, including high-ranking lamas. The affluent and influential members of society indulged in delicacies like cheese and yogurt during the summer, and enjoyed dishes of beef, mutton, and grain-based meals in the winter. On the other hand, the poor people could only afford to drink milk tea… (准噶尔封建贵族从各族人民身上搜刮来的财富,大部分被集中到伊犁,被少数特权人物(包括高级喇嘛)所占用,供他们挥霍享乐。“达官贵人,夏日食酪、酸乳、麦饭,冬日食牛羊肉、谷饭,贫人但饮乳茶”……)” [Editorial_Team 2007, p. 132]


[1670, 1757]
Luxury Fabrics: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Late Qing
Consumption by Ruler: Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present
Consumption by Common People: Inferred Absent

‘" “The various tribes brought silk fabrics and red-colored trays as gifts. Gardan remarked, "The journey is long, and we can't bring other items, but we must show our gratitude." He then instructed one of the Tajijis to present a horse, and the messenger returned with several hundred magnificent horses. They were also given vibrant embroidered garments made with woven gold. Gardan proudly displayed all these items, inviting the Tajijis and other tribes to come and admire them. Gaerdan pointed at the items and exclaimed, "Look!" The tribes responded in unison, "Look!" Gaerdan said, "These are rare in our land, they are products from the Central Plain." The tribes were all captivated and reluctant to leave, as they were shown the beauty.(诸夏馈以缯帛、赤色盘。嘎尔旦曰:“路远,他物不能去,然不可无报德者”。乃令一台吉出一马,使者遂驱名马数百骑以归。又与以织金的大蟒、立蟒刺绣诸彩色。嘎尔旦皆罗列露文绣于外,引各台吉及各夷来视之。嘎尔旦顾指之曰:“筛!”诸夷合声曰:“筛!”嘎尔旦曰:“我国独少此,此中国物也”。诸夷咸艳慕之,徘徊不能去云。盖示以中国之美也。)” [Liang 1987, p. 421] “The Zunghar pastoralists of that time had to buy cotton wadding, cotton thread for themselves, as well as satin, silk embroidery, and other materials used by the nobility, from the Central Plains region.(当时准噶尔部牧民所用的棉絮、棉线以及台吉、宰桑用的锦缎、丝绣等物,均需向中原地区购买。)” [Editorial_Team 2007, p. 87]


[1670, 1757]
Luxury Precious Stone: Present
Consumption by Ruler: Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present
Consumption by Common People: Inferred Absent

‘"gemstones, jade. “In 1695, a delegation from Zunghar Mongolia arrived in Moscow with a wealth of gifts. These included a silver water jug, silk brocade, two silver goblets, exquisitely crafted small boxes, saddles, cutlery, silk fabric, gold, eleven porcelain bowls, gemstones, and more. The gemstones alone were valued at an impressive 300 to 1000 rubles. In return, the Tsar presented Galdan with gifts such as fabric worth 300 rubles, a lynx ivory worth 100 rubles, fox fur worth 750 rubles, and double-sided mirrors. The total value of all the gifts exceeded one thousand rubles. (1695年,准噶尔蒙古使团携带大量礼物(包括银质水罐、锦缎、两个银杯、精致小箱子、马鞍子、餐具、绸缎、黄金、11只瓷碗、宝石等)到达莫斯科,其中仅宝石的价值就高达300至1000卢布,而沙皇赠给噶尔丹的礼物包括价值300卢布的呢料、价值100卢布的猞猁牙骨、价值750卢布的狐狸皮以及双面镜子等,所有礼物的价值达千余卢布。)” [Wang 2021, pp. 161-172] “Among the accessories, rings and purses are the main items. Rings, known as 'suik', are ‘made of gold and silver and worn as earrings. They are adorned with pearls and are used by both men and women’. Purses, known as 'habutaga', are ‘made of satin fabric and have beautifully crafted tassels with subtle differences from those on the central plains region. The Zungharians have a wide variety of accessories, and aside from their homemade ones, they also acquire a significant number of exquisite accessories through trade with the central plains region. In a Russian document in 1689, it listed the stolen goods that the Zungharians demanded compensation for from the Russian authorities, we can see items such as sky blue beads, jewellery, coral prayer beads, silver jewellery, necklaces, and more. These accessories were undoubtedly popular within the Zungharian tribe, particularly among the nobility. (饰物主要有环和荷包。环,叫“绥克”,“金银为之,以坠耳。饰以珠,男妇皆用之”。荷包叫“哈布塔嘎”,“缎布为之,制与内地微异,结穗精美”。准噶尔人的饰物种类是颇多的,除了自制外,还从与中原地区贸易中得到大量精美饰物。我们从一份一六八九年准噶尔要求沙俄当局赔偿的被劫货物清单的俄文档案中可以看到:有天蓝色珠子、珠宝、珊瑚念珠、银首饰、项链等项目,这些首饰肯定是在准噶尔部内,至少是准噶尔部贵族中流行使用。)” [Editorial_Team 2007, p. 233] “Tabak: A plate similar to those used on the central plain, used for serving food and soup. It is made of red copper, although some are made of wood. They come in different depths and sizes, with the more valuable ones being made of jade. There is a royal poem about the jade plate that goes: The jade plate has a diameter of two feet and a circumference of six feet and five inches. It can hold up to one stone of water, and its natural color is uncarved and bluish. Adorned with the beauty of Qionghua marshes, its radiance remains untouched by human hands. The finest jade comes from Kunlun, and on the auspicious day of Jiazi, it is presented to the emperor as a special guest. It is carried to the Jade Pool of the Queen Mother in the West, accompanied by ceremonial vessels. The utensils used during that time are still preserved, symbolizing eternal prosperity in the far west. Before the dawn of three thousand years, where do they originate from now, without a trace? Zunghar, lost and fallen in this world, has been seized by Amursana. The royal army has gone deep to pacify the rebellious ugliness, and the captured objects were taken away by fleeing enemies. However, I possess their abandoned precious artifacts, displayed on the right side of Yuan Ying's great hall… (塔巴克 形同内地之盘,盛食及羹,以红铜为之,亦有用木者。深浅大小不等,其贵重之盘则以玉为之。御制玉盘谣:玉盘博径得二尺,围六尺有五寸益。虚中盛水受一石,素质不雕其色碧。旁达孚尹琼华泽,葆光抚不留手迹。群玉之精出昆仑,吉日甲子天子宾。于西王母瑶池津,行觞介绍簠簋樽。尔时所御器今存,作镇西极永好完。未入震旦三千年,问今何来不胫偶。准噶尔亡沦世守,阿睦撒纳兹窃取。王师深入靖孽丑,于将获之联猭走。弃其重器为我有,元英大吕陈座右……)” [Fu 0] Note: The large jade plate once belonged to Amursana. It was captured as a war prize by the Qing army and later brought to the Qing Palace. The Forbidden City also houses another similar large jade plate, which Amursana was unable to take with him while fleeing. It was hidden in the ground and later discovered by farmers during their cultivation. ‘" “Among the accessories, rings and purses are the main items. Rings, known as 'suik', are ‘made of gold and silver and worn as earrings. They are adorned with pearls and are used by both men and women’. Purses, known as 'habutaga', are ‘made of satin fabric and have beautifully crafted tassels with subtle differences from those on the central plains region. The Zungharians have a wide variety of accessories, and aside from their homemade ones, they also acquire a significant number of exquisite accessories through trade with the central plains region. In a Russian document in 1689, it listed the stolen goods that the Zungharians demanded compensation for from the Russian authorities, we can see items such as sky blue beads, jewellery, coral prayer beads, silver jewellery, necklaces, and more. These accessories were undoubtedly popular within the Zungharian tribe, particularly among the nobility. (饰物主要有环和荷包。环,叫“绥克”,“金银为之,以坠耳。饰以珠,男妇皆用之”。荷包叫“哈布塔嘎”,“缎布为之,制与内地微异,结穗精美”。准噶尔人的饰物种类是颇多的,除了自制外,还从与中原地区贸易中得到大量精美饰物。我们从一份一六八九年准噶尔要求沙俄当局赔偿的被劫货物清单的俄文档案中可以看到:有天蓝色珠子、珠宝、珊瑚念珠、银首饰、项链等项目,这些首饰肯定是在准噶尔部内,至少是准噶尔部贵族中流行使用。)” [Editorial_Team 2007, p. 233]


[1670, 1757]
Luxury Fine Ceramic Wares: Inferred Present

“The furs brought by these men are being sold at inflated prices. Initially, they used to trade these goods for tea bricks, hada scarves, silk fabrics, porcelain bowls, and other items in Haje'er and Yubao. However, this time they have no intention of engaging in such trade and are solely focused on selling the furs at a much higher price. The government has taken over the purchasing of these fur goods, and although the official purchase price stands at over 78,000 taels of silver, these men have already made a significant profit compared to their previous trading arrangements. (该夷等此番所带皮张,开价浮多,原在哈济尔与玉保面称仍要茶封、哈达、绫缎、瓷碗等物交易,及至购觅远运前往,概不取用。今番皮货,官为收买,虽止价银七万八千余两,但较前搭货计算,夷人所得已多。)” [journalArticle_Trade of the Zunghar Khanate in...]



Human Sacrifice Data
Human Sacrifice is the deliberate and ritualized killing of a person to please or placate supernatural entities (including gods, spirits, and ancestors) or gain other supernatural benefits.
Coding in Progress.
Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions