Home Region: Mongolia (Central and Northern Eurasia)

Zungharian Empire

1670 CE 1757 CE

D G SC WF R

EQ 2020 mn_zungharian_emp / MnZungh

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

[cultural assimilation; Khalkhas] [absorption] Update here

Succeeding Entity:

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General Description

The Zungharian polity was, according to Atwood, ^[1] "the last great independent power of the steppe". The tribal name "Zunghar" first appeared in the seventeenth century, as part of the Oirat confederation of steppe tribes; their rise to dominance within the confederation began under the leadership of Khara-Khula (d. 1634), but it was only in the 1670s, under Galdan, that they officially became the confederacy’s leading tribe, and recognised as such even by the Dail Lama, who gave Galdan the title of Boshogtu Khan. ^[1] At its height, the Zungharian polity included portions of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, western Mongolia, neighbouring areas of southern Siberia, and Xinjiang. ^[2] In 1755, the Qing empire was able to annex the Zungharians following a relatively quick and bloodless military campaign; because the Zungharians had successfully repelled the Chinese army several times before, the cause for this sudden collapse can most likely be found in the conflict between the successors of the last great Zugharian ruler, Galdan-Tseren (d. 1735). ^[3]
Population and political organization
The Zungharian ruler, known as Khung-Taiji, benefited from the support of an office (yamu) or court (zarghu) composed of four chief officials, known as ministers (tüshimed), judges (zarghuchis), or grand councillors (zaisangs). Galdan-Tseren, the only Zungharian ruler to also be known by the title of Khan, added six additional councillors. Each of the tribes that made up the Zungharian-led confederacy (previously known as the Oirat confederacy) and its own ruler who was himself supported by his own councillors, as well as minor functionaries such as standard-bearers and trumpeters. Finally, each tribe was itself subdivided into otogs, which were themselves subdivided into smaller units (of 40 and then 20 households) governed by local commoner officials. ^[4]
Sources say that the Zungharian polity included "200,000 households"; ^[4] with a conservative estimate of 3-8 people per household, the population would therefore have been in the range of 600,000-1,600,000 people.

[1]: (Atwood 2004, 622)

[2]: (Rogers 2012, 236)

[3]: (Atwood 2004, 623-624)

[4]: (Atwood 2004, 421)

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

4 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 History

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases Coding in Progress.

Power Transitions

7 Power Transition

Instability Events

10 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp) was in:
(1695 CE 1745 CE)	Orkhon Valley

Home NGA: Orkhon Valley

General Variables

Identity and Location Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	45 T	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Original Name	Zungharian Empire	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Alternative Name	Zungharia	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Alternative Name	Zunghars	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Alternative Name	Junghar	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Alternative Name	Dzungar	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Temporal Bounds Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	[1679 CE ➜ 1745 CE]
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Duration	[1670 CE ➜ 1757 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	none	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Supracultural Entity	Oirats	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Succeeding Entity	China - Early Qing	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	cultural assimilation	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Preceding Entity	cultural assimilation; Khalkhas [absorption] Update here
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Degree of Centralization	confederated state	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Language Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Mongolic	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Language	Oirat	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Religion Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Polity Territory	[170,000 to 210,000] km²	1700 CE
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Polity Population	[600,000 to 1,600,000] people	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	[2 to 3]	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Religious Level	[1 to 2]	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Military Level	[3 to 6]	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Administrative Level	[2 to 5]	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Professions Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Absent Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Merit Promotion	Absent Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Examination System	Absent Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Law Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Absent Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Judge	Absent Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Court	Absent Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Port	Absent	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Canal	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Bridge	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Information / Writing System Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Script	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Nonwritten Record	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Sacred Text	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Religious Literature	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Practical Literature	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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History	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Information / Money Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Precious Metal	Absent	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Paper Currency	Absent	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Foreign Coin	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Article	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Information / Postal System Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Courier	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Information / Measurement System Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Modern Fortification	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moat	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Fortified Camp	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Earth Rampart	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Ditch	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Complex Fortification	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Long Wall	unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Military use of Metals Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Iron	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Copper	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Bronze	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Projectiles Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Sling	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Self Bow	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Javelin	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Crossbow	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Composite Bow	Present Inferred	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Atlatl	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Handheld weapons Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Sword	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Spear	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Polearm	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Dagger	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Battle Axe	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Animals used in warfare Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Elephant	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Donkey	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Camel	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Armor Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Shield	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Scaled Armor	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Plate Armor	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Limb Protection	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Leather Cloth	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Helmet	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Chainmail	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Breastplate	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Naval technology Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Unknown Suspected	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Absent	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Present	1670 CE 1757 CE
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Human Sacrifice Zungharian Empire (mn_zungharian_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More