| # | Polity | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | Edit | Desc |
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There were a few canoe-mooring holes in the South Point of the Big Island
[1]
, but it is unclear who built them, and these probably do not constitute ports in any case.
[1]: Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pg. 273. |
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Bohemia is landlocked. If there were canals and/or ports for them during this period it has not been discussed in the literature consulted.
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"Canoes, particularly the larger vessels, needed ports, or areas for landing, collection and, indeed, construction. Before the second half of the nineteenth century, there were few ports between the Nile and the Kagera river, the latter approximately representing Buganda’s southern extremity. There existed, rather, numerous smaller landing stages which were used according to season. [...] By the late nineteenth century, the port of Munyonyo had also become established on the eastward-facing shore between modern-day Entebbe and Kampala. The origins of this port are unclear, but it first came to prominence in the late 1860s when Mutesa established one of his ’capitals’ there."
[1]
[1]: (Reid 2010: 238-240) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2H64W34U/collection. |
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"There was geographically widespread trade between Cahokia and other communities (and between those other communities themselves) especially along the Mississippi. However, this trade appears to have been low volume, with only small amounts being exchanged at any given time. Canoes identified so far are small, unable to carry high volumes of commodities. There is no evidence for centralized control of this exchange, except perhaps for high-status goods and exceptional ritual objects."
[1]
[1]
[1]: (Trubitt 2014, 18) |
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No evidence of water transport.
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No water transport known.
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Boats were in widespread use, but there is no archaeological evidence of port structures in the Predynastic Period.
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Landlocked quasi-polity.
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lacustrine ports would not be developed until the later Postclassic at Tenochtitlan when they were needed to logistically unload goods onto the urban island; otherwise beaches were used to land canoes.
[1]
[1]: Hassig, Ross. (1985) Trade, tribute, and transportation: The sixteenth-century political economy of the Valley of Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg.56-66. |
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Lacustrine ports would not be developed until the later Postclassic at Tenochtitlan when they were needed to logistically unload goods onto the urban island; otherwise beaches were used to land canoes.
[1]
[1]: Hassig, Ross. (1985) Trade, tribute, and transportation: The sixteenth-century political economy of the Valley of Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg.56-66. |
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The Portus Tiberinus, a river harbour on the Tiber, was believed, in Roman times, to have been long inhabited
[1]
Other sources disagree between the earliest being from the Roman Kingdom under Ancus Marcius and Cosa, founded much later in 273 BCE "the earliest Roman port thus far known."
[2]
Since it is not clear from the Cornell quote which "Roman times" thought that the Portus Tiberinus had been long inhabited, and what "long inhabited" means in terms of dates, and whether that habitation was in the sense of a port rather than a small community which happened to be located where the port would later be, I have coded absent.
[1]: T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 48 |
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The Portus Tiberinus, a river harbour on the Tiber, was believed, in Roman times, to have been long inhabited
[1]
Other sources disagree between the earliest being from the Roman Kingdom under Ancus Marcius and Cosa, founded much later in 273 BCE "the earliest Roman port thus far known."
[2]
Since it is not clear from the Cornell quote which "Roman times" thought that the Portus Tiberinus had been long inhabited, and what "long inhabited" means in terms of dates, and whether that habitation was in the sense of a port rather than a small community which happened to be located where the port would later be, I have coded absent.
[1]: T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 48 |
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Smith et al mention harbor sites: ’Other models, each with specific archaeological correlates, could be utilized to examine other relationships. Information on fortifications, boat houses, or the size of dwellings might be used to generate data on the position of farms in political hierarchies. The size and distribution of chapels, cemeteries, and other sacred structures could provide information on religious hierarchies. Other features of the landscape (réttar, þing sites), trail or road markers (Jónsson 1980), boundary markers (Jónsson 1983), and trading or harbor sites (Þorkelsson [Page 195] 1984) could provide information on patterns of regional integration. Modern agricultural data on the productivity of different vegetative communities could also be integrated with archaeological information on farm complexes to estimate their foddering capabilities, their potential productivity, and the degree to which their resources were over- or under-exploited or changed through time (cf. McGovern 1980). The integration of data on economic, political, and ecclesiastic rank, economic strategies, regional integration, and biological productivity should permit detailed analyses of the structure of and changes in regional socioeconomic and political organization and evaluation of the role of different social and ecological factors in causing or directing cultural change.’
[1]
It appears these harbors were the result of private initiative: ’The polity did not maintain any ports.’
[2]
[1]: Smith, Kevin P., and Jeffrey R. Parsons 1989. “Regional Archaeological Research In Iceland: Potentials And Possibilities”, 194 [2]: Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins |
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European traders constructed ports and coastal forts: ’The claim of the Portuguese to be, in comparatively modern times, the first European discoverers of and settlers in Gold Coast is supported by more reliable and satisfactory evidence. According to several Portuguese writers including de Barros, Alphonso, the king of Portugal, farmed out in 1469 for five years the Guinea trade to one Fernando Gomez, at the rate of five hundred ducats, or about £138 17 s. 9 d.; the said Gomez having undertaken on his part to explore five hundred leagues, that is, three hundred miles each year, starting from Sierra Leone. In 1471 he directed that the coast-line should be discovered as it lay. This was done by Joao de Santaren and John de Scobar, who, skirting the coast past what is now Liberia, rounded Cape Palmas, went as far as the island of St. Thomas, and on the return voyage discovered Odena in five degrees of latitude. Fernando Po island was discovered in 1472 by Fernando da Poo. And so much gold was found at Odena that they called that port El Mina, afterwards known as the Castle, or Mina. These men also found gold at Chama, and it is said that Gomez opened a gold-mine at Approbi near Little Kommenda, the Aldea des Terres of the Portuguese.’
[1]
As far as we can tell, Akan polities did not construct ports.
[1]: Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 55 |
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According to SCCS variable 15 ’Water Transport’ ’5’ or ’Sail powered craft’ were present. We are unsure whether pre-colonial seafaring practices would include ports in our own sense of the term. We have provisionally assumed that this was not the case. We have found information on canoe houses (see below). Islanders traditionally used canoes for sea travel: ’All Micronesians relied heavily on water travel, although the high islanders used canoes principally in the sheltered coastal waters of their home islands. Micronesian canoes had a single hull with one outrigger. Canoes used in protected waters were often simple dugouts, but the oceangoing vessels, found especially in the central Carolinian atolls, the Marshalls, and the Gilberts, had sides built up of irregular planks that were caulked and sewn together with cord made from coconut-husk fibre.’
[1]
[1]: (Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE. |
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Due to the open coastal area and shallow waters, there are very few natural ports on the Ghanaian coast. The sources reviewed only mention colonial ports built by European traders and colonizers, such as Fort Elmina, which was controlled first by Portuguese, then Dutch, and then British forces.
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"There was geographically widespread trade between Cahokia and other communities (and between those other communities themselves) especially along the Mississippi. However, this trade appears to have been low volume, with only small amounts being exchanged at any given time. Canoes identified so far are small, unable to carry high volumes of commodities. There is no evidence for centralized control of this exchange, except perhaps for high-status goods and exceptional ritual objects."
[1]
[1]
[1]: (Trubitt 2014, 18) |
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ only ’unimproved trails’ were used for land transport, not roads.
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"There are [...] no signs of communal construction activities, and no preserved facilities to store agricultural surplus. [...] It has to be considered that the preservation of features in Nok sites is generally poor and that the amount of data is not too large and regionally restricted to a rather small key study area."
[1]
[1]: (Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 253) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R. |
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"Most of the movement between the American Bottom and Peoria occurred on the water—up and down the Illinois and Mississippi rivers. Canoes and bateaux of the seventeenth and eighteenth century were capable of transporting tons of cargo, and the lack of rapids and the slow currents of these rivers presented few problems for upstream travel. Further, throughout most of human history in North America, most people spent much of their time in the river valleys, where game, water, and rich soils were abundant."
[1]
"There were no formal “ports”, although rivers were major transportation routes. There was an extensive network of footpaths that crisscrossed Eastern North America as one of your quotes suggests. I wouldn’t really call them roads, though. Most of them paralleled rivers and were unimproved or informal—they simply represented the best route between locations and so were used over and over. They were not part of a formally planned transportation system."
[2]
[1]: (Mazrim 2007, 57-58) [2]: (Peregrine 2016, personal communication) |
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"There was geographically widespread trade between Cahokia and other communities (and between those other communities themselves) especially along the Mississippi. However, this trade appears to have been low volume, with only small amounts being exchanged at any given time. Canoes identified so far are small, unable to carry high volumes of commodities. There is no evidence for centralized control of this exchange, except perhaps for high-status goods and exceptional ritual objects."
[1]
[1]
[1]: (Trubitt 2014, 18) |
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"There was geographically widespread trade between Cahokia and other communities (and between those other communities themselves) especially along the Mississippi. However, this trade appears to have been low volume, with only small amounts being exchanged at any given time. Canoes identified so far are small, unable to carry high volumes of commodities. There is no evidence for centralized control of this exchange, except perhaps for high-status goods and exceptional ritual objects."
[1]
[1]
[1]: (Trubitt 2014, 18) |
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"The early second millennium saw new developments in the Indus region. By 1900 BCE many of the cities were in decline. The cultural (and probably political) unity of the Indus region was breaking down and with it the ability to organize large-scale trade and distribution networks. [...] Lothal, a major trade center in Harappan times, was reduced to a village of mud huts and the “dock” abandoned."
[1]
[1]: (McIntosh 2008, 194) Jane McIntosh. 2008. The Ancient Indus Civilization. Oxford; Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio. |
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ only ‘1’ or ’unimproved trails’ were used for land transport, not roads. The colonial powers built forts and coastal towns, which were raided by the Japanese during World War II: ’In December 1941 the Japanese entered World War II when they bombed Pearl Harbor. In January 1942 they captured Rabaul and the next month they attacked Port Moresby from the air. The battle of the Coral Sea in May thwarted a sea invasion, so the Japanese attempted a land invasion of Port Moresby. In July 1942 they landed between Buna and Gona on the Northern Division coast (Robinson 1979:12). Individual battles such as those on the Kokoda Trail, which became part of the Australian national mythology, have merged in the minds of Papua New Guinean villagers. [Page 43] However, the war has become a most important division in contact history, marking the beginning of a new era.’
[1]
[Even in colonial settlements, services were of a makeshift character.] We have provisionally assumed that natives had little access to these ports.
[1]: Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 42 |
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Alan Covey: There was some maritime trade that moved up and down the Pacific coast, but not necessarily ports. Also, it is worth noting that rivers in the Andes served as barriers to transport, rather than facilitators of easy movement of people and goods.
[1]
[1]: (Covey 2015, personal communication) |
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Lacustrine ports would not be developed until the later Postclassic at Tenochtitlan when they were needed to logistically unload goods onto the urban island; otherwise beaches were used to land canoes.
[1]
[1]: Hassig, Ross. (1985) Trade, tribute, and transportation: The sixteenth-century political economy of the Valley of Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg.56-66. |
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landlocked
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" Before the second half of the nineteenth century, there were few ports between the Nile and the Kagera river, the latter approximately representing Buganda’s southern extremity. There existed, rather, numerous smaller landing stages which were used according to season."
[1]
[1]: (Reid 2010: 238-240) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2H64W34U/collection. |
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"There are [...] no signs of communal construction activities, and no preserved facilities to store agricultural surplus. [...] It has to be considered that the preservation of features in Nok sites is generally poor and that the amount of data is not too large and regionally restricted to a rather small key study area."
[1]
[1]: (Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 253) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R. |
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landlocked and no major riverrine port?
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Boats were in widespread use, but there is no archaeological evidence of port structures in the Predynastic Period.
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ only ‘1’ or ’unimproved trails’ were used for land transport, not roads. Ecuadorian settlers established ports and colonial towns, some of which were destroyed by Shuar warriors: ’The spread of commercial interests in this area did not, however, proceed unchallenged. A port at the mouth of the Morona River and colony of 80 persons to its north, founded by a Peruvian comerciante in 1904, had vanished by 1905-destroyed by Jívaro (probably Huambisa) reportedly in retaliation for the victimization of one of their women (Vacas Galindo 1905:396). Military garrisons established by Peru and Ecuador in this zone of contention between the two countries had also, from time to time, skirmished with the local Indians, and, in 1915, some Jívaro (again probably Huambisa) destroyed the Peruvian army base on the upper Morona River (Karsten 1935:14; Stirling 1938:28).’
[1]
’The spread of commercial interests in this area did not, however, proceed unchallenged. A port at the mouth of the Morona River and colony of 80 persons to its north, founded by a Peruvian comerciante in 1904, had vanished by 1905-destroyed by Jívaro (probably Huambisa) reportedly in retaliation for the victimization of one of their women (Vacas Galindo 1905:396). Military garrisons established by Peru and Ecuador in this zone of contention between the two countries had also, from time to time, skirmished with the local Indians, and, in 1915, some Jívaro (again probably Huambisa) destroyed the Peruvian army base on the upper Morona River (Karsten 1935:14; Stirling 1938:28).’
[1]
The Shuar likely had little to no access to those ports.
[1]: Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 94 |
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ only ‘1’ or ’unimproved trails’ were used for land transport, not roads. Ecuadorian settlers established ports and colonial towns, some of which were destroyed by Shuar warriors: ’The spread of commercial interests in this area did not, however, proceed unchallenged. A port at the mouth of the Morona River and colony of 80 persons to its north, founded by a Peruvian comerciante in 1904, had vanished by 1905-destroyed by Jívaro (probably Huambisa) reportedly in retaliation for the victimization of one of their women (Vacas Galindo 1905:396). Military garrisons established by Peru and Ecuador in this zone of contention between the two countries had also, from time to time, skirmished with the local Indians, and, in 1915, some Jívaro (again probably Huambisa) destroyed the Peruvian army base on the upper Morona River (Karsten 1935:14; Stirling 1938:28).’
[1]
’The spread of commercial interests in this area did not, however, proceed unchallenged. A port at the mouth of the Morona River and colony of 80 persons to its north, founded by a Peruvian comerciante in 1904, had vanished by 1905-destroyed by Jívaro (probably Huambisa) reportedly in retaliation for the victimization of one of their women (Vacas Galindo 1905:396). Military garrisons established by Peru and Ecuador in this zone of contention between the two countries had also, from time to time, skirmished with the local Indians, and, in 1915, some Jívaro (again probably Huambisa) destroyed the Peruvian army base on the upper Morona River (Karsten 1935:14; Stirling 1938:28).’
[1]
It is assumed here that river ports were constructed during the Ecuadorian rather than the Spanish colonial period, but this remains in need of further confirmation. We have also assumed that Shuar communities had little to no access to these ports either way. The variable was provisionally coded absent.
[1]: Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 94 |
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largest city size is about 500 and it is unlikely they had developed road maintenance linking any port to other cities, as would be necessary for a port.
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Present in Mongolian Empire, this region landlocked.
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Polity was landlocked.
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The Hittites did not have its own ports, nor a fleet. They used the services of vassal states, such as Ugarit.
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The Hittites did not have its own ports, nor a fleet. They used the services of vassal states, such as Ugarit.
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No water transport known.
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Not enough data, though it seems to reasonable infer absence.
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landlocked region
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The Valley of Oaxaca is landlocked.
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The Valley of Oaxaca is landlocked.
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The Valley of Oaxaca is landlocked.
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The Valley of Oaxaca is landlocked.
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The Valley of Oaxaca is landlocked.
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The Valley of Oaxaca is landlocked.
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The Valley of Oaxaca is landlocked.
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The Valley of Oaxaca is landlocked.
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The Valley of Oaxaca is landlocked.
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Icelanders continued to trade with Norway by sea, although the flow of goods was interrupted at times: ’Trade and economic conditions continued as before without any distinct manifestation either of progress or decline. The destructive civil wars of the Sturlung period had undoubtedly done much to weaken the people’s strength, but and had hampered somewhat their intercourse with foreign lands, but the more peaceful era inaugurated by the union with Norway brought no perceptible change in prevailing conditions. Some scholars have considered the provision in the union agreement that six ships should be sent to Iceland every year as evidence that the commerce with Iceland at this time was declining, but K. Maurer has shown that this conclusion is erroneous. For various reasons few ships would arrive in Iceland during some years, but the same happened also during the most vigorous period of Icelandic national life, as in 1187 and 1219, when the Icelandic annals record that no ship arrived in Iceland. [He proceeds to describe some famines during the Commonwealth Period.] The old spirit of maritime enterprise was dying out among the Icelanders, as among all the Scandinavian peoples. No progress was made in trade or ship-building, and the Hanseatic merchants had already made their appearance as competitors for the control of Scandinavian commerce.’
[1]
’Though few ships might at times arrive in Icelandic harbors, many Norwegian merchantmen usually visited Iceland every year. The Icelandic annals state that in 1340 eleven ships came to Iceland, in 1345 twevle ships, in 1357 eighteen ships besides two which foundered on the voyage. Seagoing vessels were also built in Iceland. Many Icelanders owned ships with which they undoubtedly carried on trade, as had always been their custom, though most of the commerce was now in the hands of Norwegian merchants. But the import trade, which had always been small, could not supply the growing needs of the people. The Icelandic annals show that at times there must have been great need of imports, since it happened that the mass could not be celebrated for want of wine. During years when no ships came to Iceland, or when only one or two arrived each year, the need of articles for which people were wholly dependent on imports must have been very great. Still more deplorable was the inadequacy of imports during periods of famine and other great calamities, when little aid could be given the stricken population. Under ordinary circumstances commerce was probably sufficient to supply the people with the necessary articles, but the meaning of the provision regarding commerce inserted in the "Gamil sáttmáli", and constantly repeated in the union agreement, seems to have been that the Norwegian government should not suffer commerce at any time to fall below the specified minimum amount.’
[2]
Fish became an important resource for export: ’It is not until around 1300 that fish exports are mentioned in reliable sources. Icelandic fish is first noted in English export records in 1307. In 1340 a court ruling was made in Norway that merchants were obliged to pay tithes on fish, fish oil and sulphur imported from Iceland, and not only on woollen cloth, as had been customary. The ruling states that this is because until recently little fish has been exported from Iceland, and a large quantity of woollen cloth, but that now fish and fish oil are exported from there in quantity.’
[3]
Karlsson mentions fishing stations and trading centres: ’It was in the years after 1300 that seasonal fishing stations became esablished on the southwest coast, and the wealthiest sector of society began to congregate in this region. The most powerful chieftains had almost all been based inland. Now the prosperous élite began to settle along the coast between Selvogur in the southwest and Vatnsfjördur in the West Fjords. Hvalfjördur and Hafnarfjördur developed into Iceland’s most important trading centres. The royal administration in Iceland was located at Bessastadir [...] This period saw the development of the mixed agrarian/fishing society that typefied the Icelandic economy for centuries. In January and Feburary, people travelled from rural areas to the fishing stations, where they remained until spring, fishing from small boats. This was the most favourable fishing season, as fish stocks were plentiful, the weather was cool enough to permit fish to be dried before spoiling, and relatively few hands were required on the farm. People were thus domiciled in rural areas, on farms.’
[4]
It is unclear whether these were communally or privately owned. We have assumed private initiative for the time being.
[1]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 209 [2]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 228p [3]: Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. "A Brief History of Iceland", 24 [4]: Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. "A Brief History of Iceland", 24p |
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ only ‘1’ or ’unimproved trails’ were used for land transport, not roads.
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Inland site would not have had a port.
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Inland site would not have had a port.
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Inland site would not have had a port.
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Inland site would not have had a port.
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lacustrine ports would not be developed until the later Postclassic at Tenochtitlan when they were needed to logistically unload goods onto the urban island; otherwise beaches were used to land canoes.
[1]
[1]: Hassig, Ross. (1985) Trade, tribute, and transportation: The sixteenth-century political economy of the Valley of Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg.56-66. |
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Built-up transport infrastructure was introduced in the early Russian period (see next sheet).
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The Sakha relied on recently introduced boats and rafts rather than ships and ports: ’Besides these above mentioned indirect proofs, direct traditions have been preserved among the Yakut which testify to the fact that the Yakut became acquainted with boats, nets, and fishing in general only comparatively recently.’
[1]
’Last of all, the Yakut do not have a single name of their own for fishing boats and vessels. Rafts are given the Russian name puluot, or bulot; in general they call boats by the Tungus name ogongcho. Karbas sewn out of boards are called, as in Russian, karbas. They fr ankly ackn owledge that the birch-bark boat is of Tungus origin, calling it tongus or omuk ogongcho. The round-bottomed Russian barge, the dug-out, is called ustrus, while the flat-bottomed vetka is given the most varied names, depending on the locality; in the neighborhood of Olekminsk, in the Yakutsk Okrug, and on the Aldan the Yakut have the same name for it as the Buryat - bat, or they give it the Russian name - betky; on the Boganida it is called toy, on the Vilyuy, Kolyma, and Yana, it is sometimes called tyy, sometimes ty. The Yenisey Ostyak use just this same word ti (ti) with a drawn out i on the end for a boat of medium size, which has the same relation as the Yakut ty on the one side to the birch-bark boat, and on the other side to the karbas (see fig. 34).’
[2]
The Russian invaders established riverside fortresses: ’In 1632 the Russian invaders erected a little fortress called Lesnoi Ostroshek, on the eastern bank of the Lena; ten years later they transferred it seventy kilometers to the south, where it became the center of the territory under the name of the City of Yakutsk. The fortress, now the City, of Olekminsk was erected by a Cossack party under the command of Buza in 1635. In the summer of 1637 Buza built two flat-bottomed ships, called kocha, and descended to the mouth of the Lena River, and traveled in an easterly direction on the Polar Sea. Not far from the mouth of the Omoloi River he was barred by ice and was compelled to abandon his ships. For three weeks his party walked over mountain ridges until they arrived at the upper reaches of the Yana River, where they met Yakut and took many sable skins from them as tribute.’
[3]
During the Russian period, steamers and freight ships were introduced: ’All the other roads are swampy and in summer were passable only on horseback; even this means of transportation is very difficult, particularly in the northern districts. In winter sledges are everywhere drawn by horses; in the northern districts reindeer and dogs are also used. Many Tungus, Lamut, and Yukaghir use the reindeer for riding, particularly in the mountainous districts between the great rivers. In summer small steamers ply the Lena and Viliui rivers. On the Yana, Indighirka, and Kolyma rivers and their tributaries large boats are used for carrying freight as well as for passengers. During the winter freight carried on pack-horses or by reindeer sledges from the shores of the Okhotsk Sea (Okhotsk, Yamsk, Ayan or Ola) over the mountains to the upper course of the Kolyma River, is floated down on pontoon-like rafts consisting of two large boats covered with a bridge. Such rafts are provided with a rudder and are propelled with long poles. As they cannot be poled up the river they are sold to the inhabitants of Nishne Kolymsk, who make boats of different sizes from them. Recently I learned that a steamer coming through Bering Strait now visits Nishne Kolymsk every summer, bringing flour and other commodities for sale or exchange for furs.’
[4]
The Sakha did not construct ports of their own. It remains unclear to which extent they made use of Russian ports.
[1]: Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 528 [2]: Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 525 [3]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut”, 221 [4]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut”, 187 |
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landlocked
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The Hittites did not have its own ports, nor a fleet. They used the services of vassal states, such as Ugarit.
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Assumed as Cappadocia was landlocked.
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e.g. Basra.
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Seljuk Empire was involved in trade.
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"Ripa was the name of the Tiber port area; to be exact, the east side was the Ripa Graeca, called Marmorata at its southern end under the Aventino, and the west side, in Trastevere, was the Ripa Romea."
[1]
[1]: (Wickham 2015, 127) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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‘maritime infrastructure - including docks, warehouses, and canals - was built or improved, and new coastal shipping routes were established to better link the provinces with major cities like Osaka and Edo’
[1]
[1]: Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.334. |
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There were ports all along the English coast, the most notable being London, Dover, and Sarre.
[1]
“In the seventh and eighth century, trade with the Continent seems to have become increasingly important to Anglo-Saxon kings, as can be seen from the development of the sceatta and penny coinages, the rise of the specialized trading base (wic) and the priority given to acquiring ports by kingdoms like Mercia and Wessex which to begin with were not ideally placed to participate in foreign trade.”
[2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 40) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN [2]: (Yorke 1990: 166) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN |
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"Classe continued to function as an important commercial port throughout the Ostrogothic period, actively encouraged by Theoderic."
[1]
[1]: (Deliyannis 2016: 255) Deliyannis, D. M. 2016. Urban Life and Culture. In Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa (eds) A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy pp. 234-262. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JG677MNK/item-list |
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“The King of Min Wang Shenzhi was good at attracting mer- chants home and aboard. He opened trade ports at Fuzhou, Haikou and Huang Qishan Mountain. He enjoyed the support of his people throughout the country. He named the new ports “Gantang Port.” Wang not only had ports constructed and conducted extensive foreign trade, he also exerted himself to construct the city, expanding the scale of Fuzhou City and repairing the palace. Fuzhou City became more and more prosperous.”
[1]
[1]: (Fu and Cao 2019: 187-188) Fu, C. and W. Cao. 2019. Cities During the Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms Period, and the Turning Point of Chinese Urban History. In Fu and Cao (eds) Introduction to the Urban History of China pp. 185 - 196. Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TJXI5EU4/library |
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"Fārs was home to a few major ports for the Indian Ocean maritime trade, such as Kīsh and Hormuz. Such port cities served as relay stations for the trade of goods from China, Southeast Asia, and India to not only the region of Azarbaijān, the center of the Ilkhanate, but also to Iraq, Anatolia (Rūm), Ḥijāz, Yemen, Syria, and Egypt. Under Mongol rule, some merchants were patronized as ortoγs or privileged merchants by the Mongol court and shared their profits from the Indian Ocean trade with Mongol emperors, princes, or commanders (amīrs)."
[1]
[1]: (Yokkaichi 2019, 432) Yokkaichi, Y. 2019. The Maritime and Continental Networks of Kīsh Merchants under Mongol Rule. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient , 2019, Vol. 62, No. 2/3, Mobility Transformations and Cultural Exchange in Mongol Eurasia, edited by Michal Biran (2019), pp. 428-463https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RN4R76ZS/library |
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Caspia Sea port?
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"The brisk trade and commercial activities with western and far eastern countries through the ports of Kerala was the chief concern of Hoysala rulers. That necessity compelled them to have control over the Kerala territories as the part of their kingdom. From Vishnuvardhana onwards this perception worked out successfully. [...] There is no doubt to say that Malabar region of Kerala including Wayanad was from Vishnu onwards completely under the Hoysala sway."
[1]
[1]: (Dhiraj 2015, 204) Dhiraj, M.S. 2015. MEDIEVAL KERALA THROUGH THE HOYSALA INSCRIPTIONS. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 76: 199-206. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K6FNNZZE/item-list |
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Gangling and Qiantang.
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Used to acquire timber from Lebanon and other foreign products.
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Used to acquire timber from Lebanon and other foreign products.
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Present within the earlier Mamluk period.
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Canton, Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo, Shanghai, Jiaozhou Bay, Dalian, Port Arthur
The most impressive/costly building(s) |
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There was a coast and there was trade with Japanese peoples.
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The coffee trade was an important source of revenue for the imamate: ’Besides the wealth to be extracted from the southern peasantry, the Imams of the period also had available, if they could retain control, taxes from a burgeoning coffee trade. The rise and fall of the Yemeni coffee trade with Europe matches almost exactly the trajectory of the Imamate’s wealth (see Boxhall 1974; Niebuhr 1792). The English and Dutch established factories at Mocha in 1618; the trade was probably at its height around 1730; and the world price of coffee finally crashed at the start of the nineteenth century, at which point one gets mention of Imams debasing the currency (al-’Amri 1985: 59). This wealth, however, had always to be fought for; the rulers became wealthier and more powerful than hitherto, but still were liable to dispute among themselves.’
[1]
Accordingly, ports were probably present.
[1]: Dresch, Paul 1989. "Tribes, Government and History in Yemen", 200 |
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During the Ayyubid period Mamluk governor Tughtakin improved port facilities at Aden: "Seventy or eighty ships called annually at the port of his time, and annual revenue averaging 600,000 dinars was delivered to the treasury in a fortress in Ta’izz. The figure compares favourably with the 500,000 which Queen Arwa at first received from Aden."
[1]
In comparison the Egyptian port of Damietta in 1254 CE brought in 30,000 dinars.
[1]
[1]: (Stookey 1978, 103) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. |
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Present in Ramesside period.
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According to SCCS variable 15 ’Water Transport’ ’5’ or ’Sail powered craft’ were present. Islanders traditionally used canoes for sea travel: ’All Micronesians relied heavily on water travel, although the high islanders used canoes principally in the sheltered coastal waters of their home islands. Micronesian canoes had a single hull with one outrigger. Canoes used in protected waters were often simple dugouts, but the oceangoing vessels, found especially in the central Carolinian atolls, the Marshalls, and the Gilberts, had sides built up of irregular planks that were caulked and sewn together with cord made from coconut-husk fibre.’
[1]
Ports were established in the colonial period: ’The high islands of the Chuuk group have mangrove swamps along their coasts, as well as rainforests in the central mountainous areas. The native people are Micronesians who fish, raise pigs and poultry, and grow taro, breadfruit, yams, and bananas. Copra is the chief cash crop. The islands are popular with scuba divers, who come to explore the lagoon’s shipwrecks, many of which have become foundations for new reef growth. The largest urban area is on Weno; the rest of the population resides mostly in traditional villages scattered around the islands. Chuuk has a commercial dock and an international airport, both located on Weno. Total land area 49.1 square miles (127.2 square km). Pop. (2010) 48,654.’
[2]
One author mentions small piers attached to some colonial-era villages: ’There is an excellent pier in Chorong, a lesser one in Winisi, and adequate stands of breadfruit, coconuts and other trees; in addition there are taro swamps, good gardening land, springs, wells, a baseball field, meeting houses, and the other things we have described as necessary to an adequate economic and social life on Truk.’
[3]
[1]: (Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE. [2]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands [3]: Gladwin, Thomas, and Seymour Bernard Sarason 1953. “Truk: Man In Paradise”, 70 |
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Port at Marseille.
[1]
[2]
Francia-England-Frisia trading network
[3]
Domberg - another trade centre in north
[4]
Quentovic: trade centre/port in north
[4]
Dorestad: 240 ha site 80 wells
[4]
trade centre/port in north
[1]: (Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 259) [2]: (Hen 1995, 232) [3]: (Wood 1994, 302) [4]: (Wood 1994, 293-297) |
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Many coastal communities were engaged with trade especially during the Final Neolithic (4500-3000 BCE); although maritime exchange was attested throughout the Neolithic, it was only the Final Neolithic that trade was intensified.
[1]
[2]
Imported pottery and obsidian found in the coastal sites of Nerokourou, in West Crete, and Petras Kephala, in the eastern region of the island, indicate close trade connections with the Attic-Kephala cultural region (Attica, Euboia and the north-western Cyclades).
[3]
[4]
[5]
The travelled distances suggest that mariners used a sea craft with capabilities similar to those of the longboat.
[6]
[7]
Discussing Neolithic trade, Tomkins argued that "Although distant raw materials and objects had long been esteemed as status makers (e.g., Perles 1992; Tomkins 2004, 48), it is only late in FN [ i.e. Final Neolithic] that peoples seek overly to control their acquisition, production, and distribution. In the case of metal, although finished objects, mainly of non-Aegean type, had been circulation for millennia, it is surely significant that our earliest direct evidence for Aegean metallurgy, in the form of ores, crucibles, or slags, comes only late on FN and appears at large coastal sites (e.g., Kea Kephala, Nisiros, Petras Kephala; Broodbank 2000,158-59; Papadatos 2007) and apparently as deliberate depositions at ritual cave sites (e.g., Kitso, Alepotrypa; Tomkins 2009). At FN IV Petras-Kephala, obsidian and metal appear to have arrived in raw form and were then processed and transformed into finished products at the site 9papadatos 2007, 167; D’Annibale 2008, 192). The near absent of obsidian and metal at contemporary inland sites in Crete (Carter 1998) suggest that trading communities like Petras Kaphala would have been been able to construct advantageous social relationships with other prosperous groups, a senario that finds support in occasional finds of obsidian blades and metal objects at FN IV inland villages such as Knossos and Phaistos (A.J. Evans 1928, figure 3f; Todaro and Di Tonto 2008, 183, 185). In this way, trading served and stimulated a wider demand for nonlocal products and practices that would have been possible only if communal controls on accumulation and consumption had been loosened and households were now free to pursue more over and ambitious strategies of accumulation. The development of trading, of restricted control over the production of prestige objects and of hierarchies of access in the late FN should thus be understood in terms of the first emergence of an economy in prestige goods, smaller in scale but broadly analogous to that of the Bronze Age."
[8]
[9]
[1]: Perlès, C. 1992. "Systems of exchange and organization in Neolithic Greece," Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 5, 115-64 [2]: Broodbank, C. 2000. An Island Archaeology of the Early Cyclades, New York-Cambridge, 166-70. [3]: Papadatos, Y. and Tomkins, P. 2013. "Trading, the longboat, and cultural interaction in the Aegean during the late fourth millennium B.C.E.: the view from Kephala Petras, East Crete," American Journal of Archaeology 117, 353-81 [4]: Vagnetti, L. 1996. "The Final Neolithic: Crete enters the wider world," Cretan Studies 5, 29-39 [5]: D’Annibale, C. 2008. "Obsidian in transition: the technological reorganization of the obsidian industry from Petras Kephala (Siteia) between Final Neolithic IV and Early Minoan I," in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context, Sheffiled, 190-200. [6]: Tomkins, P. 2010. "Neolithic antecedents," in Cline, E. H. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC), Oxford, 31-49 [7]: Broodbank, C. 1989. "The longboat and society in the Cyclades in the Keros-Syros culture," American Journal of Archaeology 85, 318-37. [8]: The above passage is from Tomkins, P. 2010. "Neolithic antecedents," in Cline, E. H. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC), Oxford, 41 where there is also the cited bibliography [9]: for a recent discussion see Papadatos, Y. and Tomkins, P. 2013. "Trading, the longboat, and cultural interaction in the Aegean during the late fourth millennium B.C.E.: the view from Kephala Petras, East Crete," American Journal of Archaeology 117, 353-81. |
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port facilities built for Karimi merchants; one of the main ports was Alexandria
[1]
Saladin’s wall had encompassed the al-Maqs area, which was inhabited mostly by Copts and functioned as an outer port for Cairo
[2]
Fustat was a port, though facilities were very primitive.
[3]
[1]: (Petry 1998, 230) [2]: (Raymond 2001, 97) [3]: (Raymond 2000, 99) |
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“Other important cities in the kingdom were the port cities, Kanyakumari, Kottalam and Suchindram.”
[1]
[1]: (Kamlesh 2010, 596) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection |
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“The premier Chola port was Puhar (also known as Kaveripumpattinam), the major Pandya port was Korkai, while Tondi and Muchiri were important ports in the Chera Kingdom.”
[1]
[1]: (Singh 2008, 384) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection |
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“The Dutch had the same benefit, far from the 1660s, they had increasingly begun to concentrate their attention on the far south, from their headquarters at Nagapattinam. This port was also in Maratha territory, for it was in the Thanjavur kingdom.”
[1]
“In 1739 the new raja of Thanjavur, Pratap Singh (1739-63), had to hand over the port-town of Karaikal to the French in return for their help.”
[2]
[1]: (Seshan 2012, 37-38) Seshan, Radhika. 2012. Trade and Politics on the Coromandel Coast: Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries. Delhi: Primus Books. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MF855FSF/collection [2]: (Lieban 2018, 56) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection |
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“Under the Pandyas their capital Madurai and the Pandyan port Korkai were great centres of trade and commerce.”
[1]
[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 351) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection |
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“The capital of the Sui Empire was Ch’ang-an, a city on the way out of China to the Jade Gate, the gate to the riches of the West. The greatest market for luxury goods was now situated to the advantage of the merchants using the great land route. The sea trade in the goods of Western Asia became less profitable and remained so throughout the dynasty. […] In 604, Sui Yang- ti inherited from his father a land that was more prosperous than ever before and full of a new energy born of unification moved his capital to Lo-yang, and moved several ten thousand families of rich merchants and great Heaven (i.e., from all the prefectures of the empire) to the eastern capital. He built tens of thousands of dragon-ships and phoenix-boats with timber brought from (the lands) south of the Yangtse, to sail between his eastern capital and the river capital (Chiang-tu, that is, Yang-chou). […] The route to and from Ch’ih-t’u is very important. It represented one of the regular routes of the Nanhai commandery (i.e. the port of Canton) day and night for 20 days, each day meeting Chiao-shih Shan (off the coast of Annam, near Tourane).”
[1]
[1]: (Wang 1998, 62-66) Wang, G. 1998. The Nanhai Trade: The Early History of Chinese Trade in the South China Sea. Times Academic Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/GUNGWU/titleCreatorYear/items/DKVACIQM/item-list |
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“By 1717, Patiño’s navy was spending more than 4 million escudos per year. Ships and dockyards had been built, and more ships were leased from other powers to mount a massive and successful invasion of Sardinia.”(Maltby 2009: 173) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH “Building on the policies of Philip V, his successors gradually relaxed trade restrictions until by 1789 every port within the empire had the right to trade with any of the others. The flota system had been abandoned by 1740, but within the empire, Bourbon policy remained decidedly protectionist.”(Maltby 2009: 82) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
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The Archangel Port (Arkhangelsk), located on the White Sea, is one of the oldest Russian ports, significant for its role as Russia’s primary sea port prior to the establishment of Saint Petersburg. Historically, it served as Russia’s only window to Western Europe for trade, especially during the 16th and 17th centuries. Archangel was pivotal in facilitating trade in timber, fur, and other goods, connecting Russia with markets in England and other European countries. With the founding of Saint Petersburg in the early 18th century, the port’s prominence declined, but it remained an important regional trade hub.
[1]
[1]: “История,” АМТП, accessed December 14, 2023, https://ascp.ru/history/. Zotero link: 8RV3MW35 |
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The Archangel Port (Arkhangelsk), located on the White Sea, is one of the oldest Russian ports, significant for its role as Russia’s primary sea port prior to the establishment of Saint Petersburg. Historically, it served as Russia’s only window to Western Europe for trade, especially during the 16th and 17th centuries. Archangel was pivotal in facilitating trade in timber, fur, and other goods, connecting Russia with markets in England and other European countries. With the founding of Saint Petersburg in the early 18th century, the port’s prominence declined, but it remained an important regional trade hub.
[1]
[1]: “История,” АМТП, accessed December 14, 2023, https://ascp.ru/history/. Zotero link: 8RV3MW35 |
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NOTE: not mentioned explicitly by any source, but seems extremely likely, since the Rashtrakutas possessed most of India’s West coast.
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“Whydah was probably already in rebellion against Allada by the mid-seventeenth century, when a contemporary source reports that the coastal village of "Foulaen" (as noted earlier, probably Glehue, the port of Whydah), although subject to the king of Allada, defied his authority, and even sent brigands by night to raid the coastal villages of his kingdom.”
[1]
[1]: Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 213. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection |
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“Well before the nineteenth century, the Lower Niger was a very busy commercial waterway. It is clear that in the period 1800-44, Aboh and Idah (the capital of the Igala kingdom, situated east of the Niger-Benue confluence further north), controlled much of this trading system. Not only were Aboh and Idah "the hubs of the inland trade routes, storage depots, and the home ports of the major traders," it appears that they also controlled the largest number of canoes on the river.”
[1]
[1]: Nwaubani, Ebere. “The Political Economy of Aboh, 1830-1857.” African Economic History, no. 27, 1999, pp. 93–116: 93. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FZIM9AVA/collection |
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“This remarkable road was the last leg of the regular route from Dahomey’s Atlantic port of Whydah to the royal capital at Abomey.”
[1]
[1]: Alpern, S. B. (1999). Dahomey’s Royal Road. History in Africa, 26, 11–24: 11. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J4ZASAV6/collection |
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“It seems that the slave trade at Gwato, the port of Benin proper, was only active for approximately thirty years after the opening of the Portuguese factory there, in 1486.”
[1]
[1]: Graham, J. D. (1965). The Slave Trade, Depopulation and Human Sacrifice in Benin History: The General Approach. Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 5(18), 317–334. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/4AS9CVZH/collection |
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Ports were present across the US since the preceding period. There were ports all along the coast of the US such as Boston, Salem, Portland and Haven and inland ports such as Buffalo, Cleveland, Louisville, and Memphis.
[1]
[1]: Volo and Volo 2004: 4-5. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97. |
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The Soviet Union had a total of 70 ports, of which 26 were major ports, and eleven were inland ports.
Examples: Port of Novorossiysk, Port of Saint Petersburg, Port of Vostochny [1] [1]: Saurabh Sinha, “7 Major Ports in Russia,” Marine Insight, last modified August 25, 2021, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.marineinsight.com/know-more/7-major-ports-in-russia/. Zotero link: 5AVNP8XA |
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“In this period, generally four kinds of incomes are referred to Dharmasanam, the income from charities was the first kind. Manorarthy was the second, which implied the tax on land. Karaithurai was the third one. Which means the contract money for using the ports by the foreign trading companies. The English Factory records inform that Ragunatha Nayak demanded seven thousand Rial as Karaithurai from the British. Five thousand Chakkarams were collected for Nagai [Nagaputtinam] port from the Dutch. The fourth one was ‘Sungam’ or tolls which was levied on merchandise imported into or exported from local places. Ragunathan Nayak collected eighteen thousand madai (a kind of money) as a toll tax.”
[1]
[1]: (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 457) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection |
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The following quote comes from diary of 16th and 17th century Flemish gemstone trader Jacques de Coutre. “Tuticorin [Thoothukudi] is a port located south of Cape Comorin. If necessary they can winter there with the carracks. There is a church run by Theatine fathers, but the land belongs to the nayak of Madurai.”
[1]
[1]: (de Coutre 2014, 206) de Coutre, Jacques. 2014. The Memoirs and Memorials of Jacques de Coutre: Security, Trade and Society in 16th- and 17th – Century Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PFS4W8V3/collection |
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“Most of the lithic inscriptions are found on the sculpted walls of the temples especially in their capital city, Kanchipuram and the port city Mamallapuram.”
[1]
[1]: (Kamlesh 2010, 563) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection |
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“By the thirteenth century Mogadishu, Merca and Brava had become important Muslim and commercial centres on the eastern seaboard of the Horn. Many Muslim merchants of Arab, Persian and probably Indian origin lived in these towns.”
[1]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 138) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/search/tam/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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While the Kanem-Borno empire did not have a sea border, there were many rivers within the geographical area and some of the Mai (Sultans/rulars), especially Mai Idris Alooma, improved these river crossings to improve communications. “We hear also of how he replaced the small boats at ferry points with larger vessels thus obviating the long delays that had hampered the movement of his expeditionary forces at rivers.”
[1]
[1]: GAVIN, R. J. (1979). Some Perspectives on Nigerian History. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 9(4), 15–38: 24. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/BPED9ADF/collection |
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The following quote suggests that trading ports on the Gambia River were likely present. “The Senegambia’s link to the expansive interior trade incorporated several commercial complexes that were connected to the major empires in West Africa besides Mali to the north and Jolof to the east, allowing the flow of a variety of foreign commodities into the region. Part of this conglomerate of networks made use of the Gambia River to gain salt, rice, grasses, and dried fish that would be bartered for iron, cloth, kola, and in all likelihood luxury items (a notable portion of which were of European origin) that until that time could only be obtained from interior markets.”
[1]
[1]: (Gijanto 2016, 31-32) Gijanto, Liza. 2016. The Life of Trade: Events and Happenings in the Niumi’s Atlantic Center. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7XNBIF95/collection |
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The following quote suggests that coastal trading centres or ports were likely present. “For instance, R. Nagaswamy reviews the dates of the Roman remains found in Alakankulam, and concludes, perhaps a little hastily, that ‘costal trade round Cape Caomorin was active not in the first century AD, but in the fourth-fifth centuries AD,’ V. Begley remarks that recent findings on the Arikamedu site are assigned to the period between the third to the seventh century AD, indicating that trading activity probably decreased after the first-second centuries AD, but did not cease entirely.”
[1]
[1]: (Gillet 2014, 286) Gillet, Valérie. 2014. ‘The Dark Period: Myth or Reality?’ Indian Economic and Social History Review. Vol. 51:3. Pp 283-302. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/NMH86RIS/collection |
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Present since previous polity. “In Hungary, several projects increased the navigability of the Danube and Tisza Rivers. By the 1830s a Danube Steamship Society offered regular service between Vienna and Pest. In 1847 the society’s fleet of forty- one ships transported over 900,000 passengers. In the 1830s a new Adriatic shipping line created the first regular link between Trieste / Trst and the coastal towns of Dalmatia and Ottoman Mediterranean ports like Constantinople, Alexandria, and Salonica.”
[1]
[1]: (Judson 2016: 115) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW |
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“All three capitals: Kahone, Diakhao, and Lambaye, were established in the mid-sixteenth century when the fertile coastal provinces of the Empire of Jolof- an inland empire established in the thirteenth century-gained independence … They prospered as independent kingdoms during the mercantilist era and, together, constituted the ‘Peanut Basin’ that developed during the colonial era. They maintained trade relations with the European and Eura-african merchants who frequented their port cities, and diplomatic relations with the Dutch, French and English/British chartered companies that claimed to monopolize trade along their coasts.”
[1]
[1]: (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection |
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As the canals were navigable it may be that there were specific sites that were set up as ports.
[1]
[2]
[1]: “Hohokam Culture (U.S. National Park Service)”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/34YMDDCN/library [2]: Barnhart 2018: 137, 142. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VPVHH2HJ |
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The existing transport infrastructure in the UK was developed throughout the Empire at great expense.
[1]
[1]: ( Porter 1999: 129, 254-56, 351, 529, 660, 685, 702) Porter, Andrew, ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GTF9V4CG |
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"Canoes, particularly the larger vessels, needed ports, or areas for landing, collection and, indeed, construction. Before the second half of the nineteenth century, there were few ports between the Nile and the Kagera river, the latter approximately representing Buganda’s southern extremity. There existed, rather, numerous smaller landing stages which were used according to season. [...] By the late nineteenth century, the port of Munyonyo had also become established on the eastward-facing shore between modern-day Entebbe and Kampala. The origins of this port are unclear, but it first came to prominence in the late 1860s when Mutesa established one of his ’capitals’ there."
[1]
[1]: (Reid 2010: 238-240) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2H64W34U/collection. |
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“All three capitals: Kahone, Diakhao, and Lambaye, were established in the mid-sixteenth century when the fertile coastal provinces of the Empire of Jolof- an inland empire established in the thirteenth century-gained independence […] They prospered as independent kingdoms during the mercantilist era and, together, constituted the ‘Peanut Basin’ that developed during the colonial era. They maintained trade relations with the European and Eura-african merchants who frequented their port cities, and diplomatic relations with the Dutch, French and English/British chartered companies that claimed to monopolize trade along their coasts.”
[1]
[1]: (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection |
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Regarding the trade between the French and the Waalo on the Senegal River in 1686 CE. “The trading was generally conducted in Biert, in Maca, which La Courbe calls: ‘The stopover of the little junket, is a stopover or port on the river at eight leagues from our settlement.’ Trading also occurred at Bouscar, situated at twelved locations in Saint-Louis, forming a cluster of several villages in a great plain on the edge of the water. This commerce took place primarily at the crossroads of the desert which was the major market of Waalo and of which the European voyagers provided numerous descriptions.”
[1]
[1]: (Barry 2012, 64) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection |
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"Apart from the traditional ports of the north and north-west of the island, and on the east coast, those of the west coast too became important in this trade. Besides, the island’s numerous bays, anchorages and road-steads offered adequate shelter for the sailing ships of this period. Trade in the Indian Ocean at this time was dominated by the Arabs, who were among the leading and most intrepid sailors of the era…Luxury articles were the main commodities to this category belonged Sri Lanka’s gems and pearls.”
[1]
[1]: (De Silva 1981, 71-72) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection |
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The Ajuran Sultanate ruled over smaller clan confederacies including the Muzzafar Dynasty who presided over Mogadishu.
[1]
“On the return trip from his first voyage to India, Vasco da Gama simply passed by Mogadishu in 1499 without making any attempt to control it. And the Portuguese descriptions show that it was still in a very strong and prosperous condition. Rich commercial ships were anchored in its harbour, and it was in regular and active contact with India and Arabia.”
[2]
[1]: (Mukhtar 2003, 35) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list [2]: (Tamrat 2008, 59) Tamrat, Taddesse, 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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"Of the various axes of Ifè’s interaction sphere, none was as important as the northern axis. This strategic area linked Ilé-Ifè with the trade termini on the River Niger and gave the Yorùbá world access to the commercial traffic between the Western Sudan and the Mediterranean. Saharan copper and salt, as well as Mediterranean and Chinese silk and other clothing materials, were entering the Yorùbá region from across the Niger by the eleventh or twelfth century in exchange for sundry rain forest goods, of which Ifè glass beads and ivory were the most highly prized. Therefore, early in its development, Ilé-Ifè employed military and diplomatic strategies to open up and protect the trade routes to the River Niger, especially between Moshi and Osin tributaries. These efforts are encapsulated in the oral traditions regarding the activities of Òrànmíyàn, who is said to have launched military campaigns in the River Niger area. The stories of this legendary figure reveal Ilé-Ifè’s efforts to secure the safe passage of its exports and imports across the river. Indeed, Ifè trading stations were located in this zone of trading termini, in addition to several Yorùbá-speaking communities that occupied a 310-kilometer stretch of land on both banks of River Niger for most of the Classical period. This was a zone of transition in which trading stations, and port towns and villages received exports from Ilé-Ifè and other parts of the Yorùbá world and imports from the Sudan."
[1]
[1]: (Ogundiran 2020: 115) |
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“All three capitals: Kahone, Diakhao, and Lambaye, were established in the mid-sixteenth century when the fertile coastal provinces of the Empire of Jolof- an inland empire established in the thirteenth century-gained independence […] They prospered as independent kingdoms during the mercantilist era and, together, constituted the ‘Peanut Basin’ that developed during the colonial era. They maintained trade relations with the European and Eura-african merchants who frequented their port cities, and diplomatic relations with the Dutch, French and English/British chartered companies that claimed to monopolize trade along their coasts.”
[1]
[1]: (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection |
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“Anurādhapura itself, as the capital city, became increasingly important as a commercial centre. There was from early times a colony of Yavannas (Greeks) and by the fifth century AD a colony of Persian merchants too. Fa Hsien refers to the imposing mansions of the resident merchants, and states that one of them probably had the office of ‘guild lord’. There were also colonies of Tamil merchants in the city. This, of course, was apart from the indigenous merchants. The only other towns of commercial importance were the ports of the north-west, in particular Mahatittha. Trade in all these centres, it would appear, was mainly in foreign luxury goods. […] From the seventh century onwards till the Cōḷa occupation these commercial ties assumed ever-increasing importance on account of the profits available from the island’s foreign trade, and the importance of Mahatittha in the trade of the Indian Ocean. Up to the eve of the Cōḷa invasions in the tenth century, internal trade at least had been largely in the hands of the Sinhalese merchants who dominated the main market towns and were granted special charters by the kings. During the period of Cōḷa rule in the tenth and eleventh centuries, Indian merchant alliances displaced these Sinhalese merchants, especially along the principal trade routes of the Rājarṭa. But their ascendancy was of limited duration and did not survive the restoration of Sinhalese power.”
[1]
[1]: (De Silva, 1981, 43-44) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection |
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“Anurādhapura itself, as the capital city, became increasingly important as a commercial centre. There was from early times a colony of Yavannas (Greeks) and by the fifth century AD a colony of Persian merchants too. Fa Hsien refers to the imposing mansions of the resident merchants, and states that one of them probably had the office of ‘guild lord’. There were also colonies of Tamil merchants in the city. This, of course, was apart from the indigenous merchants. The only other towns of commercial importance were the ports of the north-west, in particular Mahatittha. Trade in all these centres, it would appear, was mainly in foreign luxury goods. […] From the seventh century onwards till the Cōḷa occupation these commercial ties assumed ever-increasing importance on account of the profits available from the island’s foreign trade, and the importance of Mahatittha in the trade of the Indian Ocean. Up to the eve of the Cōḷa invasions in the tenth century, internal trade at least had been largely in the hands of the Sinhalese merchants who dominated the main market towns and were granted special charters by the kings. During the period of Cōḷa rule in the tenth and eleventh centuries, Indian merchant alliances displaced these Sinhalese merchants, especially along the principal trade routes of the Rājarṭa. But their ascendancy was of limited duration and did not survive the restoration of Sinhalese power.”
[1]
[1]: (De Silva, 1981, 43-44) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection |
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“The “modernity” of the capital, while exemplary in its scale and expense, paled with the cost of public works in the regions; railroads crisscrossed the country by the 1880s, electrical and telephone utilities by the 1890s, and vast bonds were issued to finance new state and municipal buildings, schools, and trams… Increased urbanization and mobility along the 18,000 kilometers of railway (as well as a vast telegraph system, new roads, seaports, telephone networks, and reliable postal delivery) complemented existing transportation networks like mule trains (Connolly 1997).”
[1]
[1]: (Bunker and Macias-Gonzalez 2011: 68) Bunker, Steven B. and Macías-González, Víctor M. 2011. “Consumption and Material Culture from Pre-Contact through the Porfiriato,” in A Companion to Mexican History and Culture, ed. William H. Beezley. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp54–82. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SDIQ5VE7 |
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Ports were used for trading along the coast as well as to mainland Europe, and the in-land waterways were utilised by barges and smaller boats.
[1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 24) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI |
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“Rivers, on the other hand, were very important. The most obvious example is the Thames, the great river in southeastern England which flows into the North Sea (map 1). The Thames served as the highway by which nearly every one of England’s migrant groups penetrated its interior. Usually, they settled along its banks – another reason why the southeast is the most populous part of England. Later, the Thames, along with other major rivers (the Severn to the west; the Mersey, the Great Ouse, Humber, Trent, Tyne, and Tees to the north: map 1), served as principal highways and trade routes. In the eighteenth century, they would be linked in a great national canal system. Though England had a system of roads emanating from London as first laid down by the Romans, water transportation (around the coast or, internally, via the river system) remained the cheapest and safest way to travel or to ship goods.”
[1]
“The port town of Southampton was typical of many corporate boroughs; its privileges were ancient, and were first guaranteed by a twelfth-century charter. By 1447 the city gained county status, an important right freeing it from the jurisdiction of the surrounding shire.”
[2]
[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 13-14) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U [2]: (Stater 2002: 54) Stater, Victor. 2002. The Political History of Tudor and Stuart England. London; New York: Routledge, 2002. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WWPXBUHX |
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There were ports all along the English coast, the most notable being London, Dover, and Sarre.
[1]
“In the seventh and eighth century, trade with the Continent seems to have become increasingly important to Anglo-Saxon kings, as can be seen from the development of the sceatta and penny coinages, the rise of the specialized trading base (wic) and the priority given to acquiring ports by kingdoms like Mercia and Wessex which to begin with were not ideally placed to participate in foreign trade.”
[2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 40) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN [2]: (Yorke 1990: 166) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN |
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“In Hungary, several projects increased the navigability of the Danube and Tisza Rivers. By the 1830s a Danube Steamship Society offered regular ser vice between Vienna and Pest. In 1847 the society’s fleet of forty- one ships transported over 900,000 passengers. In the 1830s a new Adriatic shipping line created the fi rst regular link between Trieste / Trst and the coastal towns of Dalmatia and Ottoman Mediterranean ports like Constantinople, Alexandria, and Salonica.”
[1]
[1]: (Judson 2016: 115) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW |
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“The port of al-Mahdiyya which was then called al-Ma’murä, was one of the biggest ports in Morocco. Pirates of various nations attempted to occupy it. It was from this port, which came under Salé, a town then settled by Andalusians, that Moroccan ships sailed to fight the Spaniards and other enemies.”
[1]
[1]: (Ogot 1992: 223) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP |
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“Honolulu, with the best harbor in the group, serving a rich and productive area, attracted the trading ships and became the commercial metropolis of the kingdom, and finally also the political capital. The growth of trade at Honolulu in the early decades of the nineteenth century caused the establishment of some facilities in the harbor, such as wharves and a shipyard.”
[1]
[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 19) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB |
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"’Umara [...] mentions that the Ziyadids collected taxes levied on the ships that came from India"
[1]
[1]: (Peli 2008: 259) Peli, A. 2008. A history of the Ziyadids through their coinage (203—442/818—1050). Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies , 2008, Vol. 38, Papers from the forty-first meeting of the Seminar for Arabian Studies held in London, 19-21 July 2007 (2008), pp. 251-263. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADM7C94B/library |
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Istanbul.
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Istanbul.
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There was a coast on the Caspian sea which would have been useful for traders - was there a port here?
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Landlocked. However, Amu Darya river presumably used for trade. Were there any large ports on this river in Bactria? Potentially so: "According to the report of Aristobulos (quoted by Strabo XI.7.3), the Oxus river was navigable and many Indian goods were transported on it as far as the Hyrcanian Sea, and from there to Albania and the Pontic region."
[1]
[1]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 310) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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Accounts from Rome of Transactions in Kushan ports.
[1]
"According to the report of Aristobulos (quoted by Strabo XI.7.3), the Oxus river was navigable and many Indian goods were transported on it as far as the Hyrcanian Sea, and from there to Albania and the Pontic region."
[2]
"Ships arriving from the Mediterranean anchored at Barygaza, Sopara, and Kalyana."
[3]
[1]: Harl, Kenneth W. Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 BC to AD 700. JHU Press, 1996. p. 302 [2]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 310) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. [3]: (Liu 2010, 55) Liu, Xinru. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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"... the coastal cities of the east and southeast emerged for the first time in Chinese history as major centers of shipbuilding and international trade."
[1]
E.g. Quanzhou, southern coast. "According to labels found among the cargo, the ship belonged to the imperial clan, and corroborates other documents showing that nobles were directly involved in trade (Chaffee 2001:34)."
[2]
[1]: (Hartman 2015, 22) [2]: (Miksic 2013, 102) Miksic, John N. 2013. Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300-1800. NUS Press. |
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"There were numerous colonies of foreign merchants not only in the capital itself but also in Yangchow, in Canton and in other ports on the south coast."
[1]
"their prosperous settlement in Canton was wiped out only in 879 during the course of a peasant rebellion."
[2]
[1]: (Rodzinski 1979, 122) [2]: (Rodzinski 1979, 132) |
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"Fray Pedro de Aguado (/1581/ 1906, 5:69) describes the ’...towns of Concha and Ancones, where Jagua and Jairada, and Guachaca, and Nando, and Naguanje are, towns of principal lords, river ports and Ocean ports’."
[1]
Could have been present earlier than the 16th century if there was international trade. "It seems difficult to assess their significance within the system, as there is no evidence for flagstone paths outside of the Sierra Nevada (unlike the case of the Incas); the long-distance flow of products could have been carried out through the sea and the rivers." "Resulta difícil evaluar su significado dentro del sistema, puesto que no existen evidencias de caminos enlosados por fuera de la Sierra Nevada (en el caso de los incas sí); el flujo de productos a larga distancia pudo efectuarse a través del mar y los ríos."
[2]
However most data about international trade relates to the Tairona II period (1350-1525 CE) and the Neguanje periods.
[1]: (Langebaek 2005, 71-79) [2]: (Oyuela-Caycedo 1990, 63) |
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Evidence on port services is rather limited since extensive building activities during the Roman period has obliterated earlier facilities.
[1]
The harbor of Phalassarna, west Crete, a well-planned port ringed by stone quays with mooring stones and connected to the sea through two artificial channels, is an exception, although the port served more the needs of pirates than of traders.
[2]
[3]
[1]: Sanders, I. F. 1982. Roman Crete: An Archaeological Survey and Gazetteer of Late Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine Crete, Warminister, 144 [2]: Hadjidaki, E. 1988. "Preliminary report of excavations at the harbor of Phalasarna in West Crete," AJA 92, 463-79 [3]: Frost, F. and Hadjidaki, E. 1990. "Excavations at the harbor of Phalasarna in Crete," Hesperia 59, 513-27. |
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|
Aden was the principal port
[1]
[1]: Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 178, Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/ |
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|
Transportation by boats was very important in the Badarian culture, and there is also evidence for trade exchange
[1]
Therefore, ports and canals cannot be completely excluded. Information from the Badarian remains shows that they imported raw materials like wood, turquoise, shells and ivory. Additionally, some artifacts have been found that are proof of trade exchange with e.g. Palestine, Red Sea, Syria.
[1]: Trigger, B. G. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pg. 29. |
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|
Memphis had docks. "However, Memphis reverted to its former administrative role for most of the Late Period (Twenty-sixth to Thirty-first Dynasties) (Jeffreys 1999: 488-90; Jones 1999: 491-3). A fortified Saite palace surmounted a 20 m high mound at Memphis, with colossal columns bearing the cartouches of King Apries. The city held a garrison, several temples, an Apis Bull embalming installation, workshops, housing for diverse ethnic groups (e.g., Egyptians, Phoenicians, Persians, Greeks), water channels, docks, and an outer fortification."
[1]
[1]: (Mumford 2010, 332) |
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|
Memphis and Aswan were two large ports. At Avaris there was a dockyard called Perunefer.
[1]
Avaris: "We know from Ramesside documents that, at the time of Piramesse, it was a major navy base. It was "the marshalling place of thy (scil. the king’s) chariotry, the mustering place of thy army, the mooring place of thy ships’ troops."
[2]
"The famous Tale of Wenamun tells that Egyptian exports to the Levant consisted mostly of humble commodities, like fish, hides, linen cloths, papyrus and natron at the very end of the 2nd millennium, when Tanis replaced Avaris/Per-Ramesses as an active harbour frequented by the fleets of institutions but also of private merchants. That was also a period when Egyptian semi-luxury goods found a broad diffusion in the Aegean and the Levant (Mumford 2007: 259; Moreno García 2014a: 22-26)."
[3]
[1]: (Garcia ed. 2013, 435-436) [2]: (Bietak in Maree ed. 2010, 139) [3]: (Juan Carlos Moreno García, Recent Developments in the Social and Economic History of Ancient Egypt, 21) |
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|
Present after the reunification of Egypt. Did the Theban Kings conduct any trade via Red Sea ports?
|
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|
Excavations at Tell el Dab’a uncovered major harbour site.
[1]
"[E]ntire length of the Syrian and Palestinian coast was dotted with seaports which were open to traffic."
[2]
Probably a harbour at Tell el-Dab’a. The people of this town were likely "engaged in foreign trade, sea travel and boat production."
[3]
[1]: (Booth 2005, 40) [2]: (Wilson and Allen 1939, 24) [3]: (Bietak in Maree ed. 2010, 140) |
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|
Spain had a number of major ports.
[1]
[2]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 75) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT [2]: (Payne 1973, 296) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP |
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|
e.g. the ports at Kommos (south-central Crete) and Kydonia (west Crete). Data points to networks of interchange with the Aegean, Mainland Greece, Anatolia, Cyprus, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Sardinia.
[1]
[1]: Rutter, J. B. 1999. "Cretan external relations during LM IIIA2-B (ca. 1370-1200 B.C.): A view from the Messara," in Phelps, W., Lolos, Y., and Vichos, Y. (eds), The Point Iria Wreck: Interconnections in the Mediterranean ca. 1200 B. C. Proceedings of the International Conference, Island of Spetses, September 19, 1998, Athens, 139-86; Betancourt, P. P. "Minoan trade," in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, Cambridge, 219-23. |
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|
c230 B.C. Port of Adulis founded by Ptolemy Euergetes.
[1]
The Roman author Pliny in ’Natural History’ c70 CE described Adulis as a large trading centre.
[2]
"The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, around 50 CE, described Adulis as ’a fair sized village’" about 3.3km from the coast and calls Adulis ’a legally limited port’ "though there has been considerable debate about what this means (e.g. Casson 1989, Appendix 1)."
[2]
The seaport Adulis was "the most famous ivory market in northeast Africa."
[3]
[1]: (Connell and Killon 2011, xxix) Dan Connell. Tom Killon. 2011. Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Second Edition. Scarecrow Press. Lanham. [2]: (Glazier and Peacock 2016) Darren Glazier. David Peacock. Historical background and previous investigations. David Peacock. Lucy Blue. eds. 2016. The Ancient Red Sea Port of Adulis, Eritrea: Results of the Eritro-British Expedition, 2004-5. Oxbow Books. Oxford. [3]: (Falola 2002, 60) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport. |
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|
Bordeaux
[1]
Many ports at mouth of Rhone. Louis IX in the 1260s CE built a new fortified port on royal lands called Aigues Mortes.
[2]
Ports
[3]
North Sea: Montreuil-sur-Mer, Boulogne, and Calais. Mediterranean: Collioure, Agde, Aigues-Mortes (late Capetian), and Marseille.
[1]: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1256 [2]: (Spufford 2006, 171-172) [3]: (Reyerson 1995, 1740-1741) |
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|
Port at Marseille.
[1]
[2]
Francia-England-Frisia trading network
[3]
Domberg - another trade centre in north
[4]
Quentovic: trade centre/port in north
[4]
Dorestad: 240 ha site. 80 wells.
[4]
: trade centre/port in north
[1]: (Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 259) [2]: (Hen 1995, 232) [3]: (Wood 1994, 302) [4]: (Wood 1994, 293-297) |
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|
Port at Marseille.
[1]
[2]
Francia-England-Frisia trading network
[3]
Domberg - another trade centre in north
[4]
Quentovic: trade centre/port in north
[4]
Dorestad: 240 ha site 80 wells
[4]
trade centre/port in north
[1]: (Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 259) [2]: (Hen 1995, 232) [3]: (Wood 1994, 302) [4]: (Wood 1994, 293-297) |
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|
"Ripa was the name of the Tiber port area; to be exact, the east side was the Ripa Graeca, called Marmorata at its southern end under the Aventino, and the west side, in Trastevere, was the Ripa Romea."
[1]
[1]: (Wickham 2015, 127) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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“Central Java has been the dwelling place of humans and their supposed predecessors since the earliest times, and the world’s oldest human remains have been found in that island, specifically around Merapi. In prehistoric times, Java was visited by traders from the surrounding countries, who introduced the technology of metalworking. Maritime relations with China and India increased enormously in the first centuries of the common era, and Javanese ships sailed the Asian waters as far as Madagascar."
[1]
[1]: (Raben 2004, 687) |
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|
Relationship between village producers and international traders mediated by four layers of merchants and markets: rice, salt, beans, and dyestuffs were taken by the producers to the farmers’ market; merchants bought the produce and passed it to intermediary wholesalers; then passed on to merchants on the coast who delivered it to ports; then delivered to international merchants.
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Tarling 1993, 203) |
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|
The port of Acre was captured by the original Hasmonean revolt; additionally, Alexander Jannaeus took control of the ports of Dor and Caesaria.
|
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|
"Dor was strongly connected by maritime trade to Phoenicia (Stern 2000; Gilboa 2005) and must have served as the main maritime gate of the northern kingdom. The fact that Ahab married a Phoenician princess (1 Kgs 16:31) testifies to the close commercial interests of the northern kingdom on the coast and in Phoenicia."
[1]
Smaller port at Ashkelon as well.
[2]
[1]: Finkelstein (2013:108) [2]: McMaster (2014:86) |
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|
"Trade continued to flourish, both within India and overseas. When [Chinese pilgrim] returned to China he did so not by the long overland route but aboard an Indian vessel sailing from Tamralipti in Bengal."
[1]
Port at Tamralipti on the Bay of Bengal. East Indian coast traded with the Eastern Roman Empire.
[2]
[1]: (Keay 2010, 145-146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X. [2]: (Roy 2016, 21) Kaushik Roy. 2016. Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia. Routledge. Abingdon. |
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Ports had existed on the coastline and in the estuaries of the major river arteries previous to the Mauryan period. Some were small settlements whereas others become large vibrant cities. These were primarily on the eastern and western coastal strips. The two most important was the city of Bharukaccha at the mouth of the Narmada river.
[1]
[1]: Allchin, Frank Raymond, and George Erdosy. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge University Press, 1995. p. 140-142 |
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|
Baghdad was near large rivers that connected it to wider trade networks. Ports along the Persian gulf also provided outlets to trade.
[1]
[2]
[1]: Hourani, George Fadlou. Arab seafaring: in the Indian Ocean in ancient and early medieval times. Princeton University Press, 1995. pp. 65-71 [2]: Bloom, Jonathan M., and Sheila Blair, eds. The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture p. 334 |
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Ports were important areas usually closely related to commercial areas called Karums from where goods could be moved onto other settlements. Ur had two harbours on the Euphrates and one on a canal.
[1]
[1]: Crawford, H. 2007. Architecture in the Old Babylonian Period. In Leick, G. (ed.) The Babylonian World. London: Routledge. p.82 |
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|
"As a southern city easily connected to the Persian Gulf, Ur appears to have been involved in maritime commercial activities organised by its main sanctuary, the temple of Nanna (and his divine consort Ningal)."
[1]
"Textual references to maritime trade make it clear that ships from Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha docked at Sumerian ports, and there is some indication that Sumer’s merchants sailed to Dilmun and probably Magan."
[2]
[1]: (Liverani 2014, 190) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani. [2]: (McIntosh 2005: 140) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. |
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|
Sīrāf was the most important port on the Persian Gulf. Adud al-Daula also held control of the ’Umān peninsula, which had ports that were very important for shipping.
[1]
Imports came through coastal cities Siraf and Najairam.
[2]
[1]: Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq’s. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.282 [2]: (Ring, Watson and Schellinger 2014, 644) Ring, Trudy. Watson, Noelle. Schellinger, Paul. 2014. Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. |
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|
"Elymais coined its own money, conducted its own public works programs"
[1]
"Elymais’ emergence as an independent state was paralelled by the rise of Characene (also called Mesene), and Arab state at the head of the Persian Gulf and centered at the city of Spasinu Charaz. Both Elymais and Characene controlled important trade routes connecting the Iranian plateau and Mesopotamia with sea and land routes from India and China."
[1]
[1]: (Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592 |
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|
e.g. Omana, annexed by Meredat, Parthian ruler of the kingdom of Characene.
[1]
Trade with India by sea "via Spasinu-Charax on the Persian Gulf".
[2]
[1]: (Potts 2013, 280) Potts, D T. in Reade, Julian ed. 2013. Indian Ocean In Antiquity. Routledge. [2]: (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 134) Koshelenko, G. A. Pilipko, V. N. Parthia. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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|
e.g. Omana, annexed by Meredat, Parthian ruler of the kingdom of Characene.
[1]
Trade with India by sea "via Spasinu-Charax on the Persian Gulf".
[2]
[1]: (Potts 2013, 280) Potts, D T. in Reade, Julian ed. 2013. Indian Ocean In Antiquity. Routledge. [2]: (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 134) Koshelenko, G. A. Pilipko, V. N. Parthia. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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|
Ports established on Arab side, such as at Muscat in Oman (6th C).
[1]
"China and glass, textiles, garments, amber, papyrus and spices were imported; pepper and nard from Media, corn, cattle and manufactured goods were exported."
[2]
[1]: (Daryaee 2009, 136) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. [2]: (Wilcox 1986, 24) Wilcox, P. 1986. Rome’s Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing. |
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|
Ports were present on the Mediterranean coast and on eastern coasts connecting to India along the coast of Baluchistan. For example, the Seleucid port Alexandria, later Antioch-on-the-Erythraean Sea.
[1]
.
[1]: Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p77 |
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|
’the location of Nara, surrounded by hilly terrain to the north, east, and west, did not allow easy access to the port of Naniwa, which had assumed increasing importance with the emergence of a centralized state in the eighth century.’
[1]
[1]: Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.455 |
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|
"Ripa was the name of the Tiber port area; to be exact, the east side was the Ripa Graeca, called Marmorata at its southern end under the Aventino, and the west side, in Trastevere, was the Ripa Romea."
[1]
[1]: (Wickham 2015, 127) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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|
Port known as Classis.
[1]
Ravenna had harbours and ports but the coastline and riverine network underwent major changes.
[2]
[1]: (http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/ravenna.html) [2]: (Deliyannis 2010, 288) Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. |
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|
Warehouses and shipyards.
[1]
"A maritime power, Venice served as an entrepot for trade between Europe and the Middle East".
[2]
[1]: (Ching and Jarzombek 2017, 457) Francis D K Ching. Mark M Jarzombek. 2017. A Global History of Architecture. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons. [2]: (Martin and Romano 2000, 1) John Martin. Dennis Romano. Reconsidering Venice. John Martin. Dennis Romano. eds. 2000. Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297-1797. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore. |
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|
In the Asuka area there were at least two ports that could have played an important role for trade along the Seto Island Sea and beyond
[1]
.
[1]: Brooks, T, 2013. "Early Japanese Urbanism: A Study of the Urbanism of Proto-historic Japan and Continuities from the Yayoi to the Asuka Periods."Unpublished thesis, Sydney University, 66. |
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|
’there were other reasons for relocating the capital. For one thing, the location of Nara, surrounded by hilly terrain to the north, east, and west, did not allow easy access to the port of Naniwa, which had assumed increasing importance with the emergence of a centralized state in the eighth century.’
[1]
[1]: Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.455 |
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|
’When we consider the growth of the cities during the Kamakura period in the light of Japan’s relations with East Asia, we must take special note of the prosperity of the port cities along the Inland Sea, such as Hakata, Kamakura, and Kusado Sengen’
[1]
‘Reflecting the importance of sea transportation in commerce, port towns continued to proliferate. The most important among them were those located on the Seto Inland Sea and Lake Biwa. These port towns developed as the entrepots for goods bound for the capital region. For example, Otsu and Sakamoto in Omi Province grew in importance as the transshipping centers of such products as rice, lumber, salt, paper, and fish brought from the eastern provinces in the Togoku and Tokaido regions. Hyogo, Sakai, and Yodo on the Yodo River were active ports for many goods shipped to the capital region from Kyoto and several ports on the Inland Sea. Most of the products coming from San’in and Hokuriku passed through Wakasa to ports around Lake Biwa and then to the capital region. By the end of the Kamakura period, the capital region, the local markets, and these port towns constituted a commercial network.’
[2]
[1]: Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.410 [2]: Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.364 |
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|
Though the seat of power during Angkor moves to the Tonle Sap, it remains attached to the shorelines of the Mekong and its tributaries. Inscriptions make reference to transport by boat.
[1]
Ports were undoubtedly used, but unlike the monumental ports of the Mediterranean, the structures in Cambodia must have been more modest if we look at how port areas are organized nowadays in the Mekong. The drastic water level changes prevents the construction of fixed structures, therefore the ports may have been composed of stilted buildings, floating platforms and elevated trackways from the platforms to the shore or from boats to the shore. (RA’s doctoral fieldwork observations). Perhaps the largest ports were built by the state, but smaller transit points for riverine trade would have probably been organized by local communities, as they wouldn’t require great investments.
[2]
. Other researchers have suggested that there were no ports: ’[...] Cambodia had no deep-water port of its own until the 1950s’
[3]
’Given the location of Angkor in relation to Chinese or Cham ports, some or much of the reported trade was probably overland rather than via coastal ports.’
[4]
It could be argued that the type of boats used in Cambodia do not require deep ports, but larger boats are documented in the bas-reliefs of Angkor
[5]
. Even though there may not have ventured into the Tonle Sap lake, the large planked vessel represented in the Bayon indicates that large vessels arrived in Angkorian ports. Similarly, ethnographic data shows an extensive use of boats for transport, so even if the coastal trade may have been limited, as Lusting suggests, trade using inland waters must have been necessarily conducted. (RA’s doctoral fieldwork observations).
[1]: (Higham 2001, p. 41-42) [2]: pers. comm. Daniel Mullins [3]: (Chandler 2008, p.10) [4]: (Lustig 2009, p. 98) [5]: (Roveda 2007, p.320) |
||||||
|
Though the seat of power during Angkor moves to the Tonle Sap, it remains attached to the shorelines of the Mekong and its tributaries. Inscriptions make reference to transport by boat.
[1]
Ports were undoubtedly used, but unlike the monumental ports of the Mediterranean, the structures in Cambodia must have been more modest if we look at how port areas are organized nowadays in the Mekong. The drastic water level changes prevents the construction of fixed structures, therefore the ports may have been composed of stilted buildings, floating platforms and elevated trackways from the platforms to the shore or from boats to the shore.
[2]
. Perhaps the largest ports were built by the state, but smaller transit points for riverine trade would have probably been organized by local communities, as they wouldn’t require great investments.
[2]
. Other researchers have suggested that there were no ports: ’[...] Cambodia had no deep-water port of its own until the 1950s’
[3]
’Given the location of Angkor in relation to Chinese or Cham ports, some or much of the reported trade was probably overland rather than via coastal ports.’
[4]
It could be argued that the type of boats used in Cambodia do not require deep ports, but larger boats are documented in the bas-reliefs of Angkor
[5]
. Even though there may not have ventured into the Tonle Sap lake, the large planked vessel represented in the Bayon indicates that large vessels arrived in Angkorian ports. Similarly, ethnographic data shows an extensive use of boats for transport, so even if the coastal trade may have been limited, as Lusting suggests, trade using inland waters must have been necessarily conducted.
[2]
.
[1]: (Higham 2001, p. 41-42) [2]: pers. comm. Daniel Mullins [3]: (Chandler 2008, p.10) [4]: (Lustig 2009, p. 98) [5]: (Roveda 2007, p.320) |
||||||
|
Though the seat of power during Angkor moves to the Tonle Sap, it remains attached to the shorelines of the Mekong and its tributaries. Inscriptions make reference to transport by boat.
[1]
Ports were undoubtedly used, but unlike the monumental ports of the Mediterranean, the structures in Cambodia must have been more modest if we look at how port areas are organized nowadays in the Mekong. The drastic water level changes prevents the construction of fixed structures, therefore the ports may have been composed of stilted buildings, floating platforms and elevated trackways from the platforms to the shore or from boats to the shore. (RA’s doctoral fieldwork observations). Perhaps the largest ports were built by the state, but smaller transit points for riverine trade would have probably been organized by local communities, as they wouldn’t require great investments.
[2]
. Other researchers have suggested that there were no ports: ’[...] Cambodia had no deep-water port of its own until the 1950s’
[3]
’Given the location of Angkor in relation to Chinese or Cham ports, some or much of the reported trade was probably overland rather than via coastal ports.’
[4]
It could be argued that the type of boats used in Cambodia do not require deep ports, but larger boats are documented in the bas-reliefs of Angkor
[5]
. Even though there may not have ventured into the Tonle Sap lake, the large planked vessel represented in the Bayon indicates that large vessels arrived in Angkorian ports. Similarly, ethnographic data shows an extensive use of boats for transport, so even if the coastal trade may have been limited, as Lusting suggests, trade using inland waters must have been necessarily conducted. (RA’s doctoral fieldwork observations).
[1]: (Higham 2001, p. 41-42) [2]: pers. comm. Daniel Mullins [3]: (Chandler 2008, p.10) [4]: (Lustig 2009, p. 98) [5]: (Roveda 2007, p.320) |
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|
"The middle section of the Niger, linking Timbuktu to Djenne (about 400 km upstream), and to Gao (about the same distance downstream), was the busiest inland waterway in West Africa... With its development, water transport transformed the middle Niger into one of the great centres of indigenous trade in Africa. It encouraged the growth of specialized occupations, such as the building and operation of canoes; it lead to the development of specialized ports on the water-ways; and it contributed to the political and economic homogeneity of the region."
[1]
"Kabara was the true military and commercial port through which all goods were exported from Timbuktu, to Djenne, Mali, and the Upper Niger in general, or Tirekka, Gao, and Tademekka, Kukia and the Dendi country, that is, present-day Upper Dahomey (Benin)."
[2]
[1]: (Reader 1998, 271) [2]: (Diop 1987, 132) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago. |
||||||
|
Though the seat of power during Angkor moves to the Tonle Sap, it remains attached to the shorelines of the Mekong and its tributaries. Inscriptions make reference to transport by boat.
[1]
Ports were undoubtedly used, but unlike the monumental ports of the Mediterranean, the structures in Cambodia must have been more modest if we look at how port areas are organized nowadays in the Mekong. The drastic water level changes prevents the construction of fixed structures, therefore the ports may have been composed of stilted buildings, floating platforms and elevated trackways from the platforms to the shore or from boats to the shore. (RA’s doctoral fieldwork observations). Perhaps the largest ports were built by the state, but smaller transit points for riverine trade would have probably been organized by local communities, as they wouldn’t require great investments. (RA’s guess). Other researchers have suggested that there were no ports: ’[...] Cambodia had no deep-water port of its own until the 1950s’
[2]
’Given the location of Angkor in relation to Chinese or Cham ports, some or much of the reported trade was probably overland rather than via coastal ports.’
[3]
It could be argued that the type of boats used in Cambodia do not require deep ports, but larger boats are documented in the bas-reliefs of Angkor
[4]
. Even though there may not have ventured into the Tonle Sap lake, the large planked vessel represented in the Bayon indicates that large vessels arrived in Angkorian ports. Similarly, ethnographic data shows an extensive use of boats for transport, so even if the coastal trade may have been limited, as Lusting suggests, trade using inland waters must have been necessarily conducted. (RA’s doctoral fieldwork observations). Furthermore, in 1644 the Dutch were able to go up to Oudong in the Tonle Sap river with their large ships, where they recorded seeing two Portuguese yatchs and several Chinese junks
[5]
. So even though harbour infrastructures have not been identified yet, cities like Phnom Penh and Oudong acted as inland port cities.
[1]: (Higham 2001, p. 41-42) [2]: (Chandler 2008, p.10) [3]: (Lustig 2009, p. 98) [4]: (Roveda 2007, p.320) [5]: (Van der Kraan 2009: 51-520 |
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|
Though the seat of power moves inland, it remains attached to the shorelines of the Mekong and its tributaries. Inscriptions make reference to transport by boat.
[1]
Ports were undoubtedly used, but unlike the monumental ports of the Mediterranean, the structures in Cambodia must have been more modest if we look at how port areas are organized nowadays in the Mekong. The drastic water level changes prevents the construction of fixed structures, therefore the ports may have been composed of stilted buildings, floating platforms and elevated trackways from the platforms to the shore or from boats to the shore.
[2]
[1]: (Higham 2001, 41-42) [2]: pers. comm. Daniel Mullins |
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’At any rate, Oc Eco is generally considered to have been the main port of Fu-nan; its capital, if there was one, has not been located precisely.’
[1]
’Malleret concluded that the port [near the modern Vietnamese village of Oc-Eco in the Mekong Delta] was used by pilgrims and traders moving between India and China in the first centuries of the Christian era.’
[2]
’This is certainly plausible, for Chinese records report that ships were being built in Funan’s ports, including the ships that the Funan monarch Fan Shihman had ordered constructed for his third-century expedition of conquest against Malay Peninsula port-polities (Miksic: 2003a, 22).’
[3]
[1]: (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.69) [2]: (Chandler 2008, p. 19) [3]: (Hall 2010, p. 49) |
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’At any rate, Oc Eco is generally considered to have been the main port of Fu-nan; its capital, if there was one, has not been located precisely.’
[1]
’Malleret concluded that the port [near the modern Vietnamese village of Oc-Eco in the Mekong Delta] was used by pilgrims and traders moving between India and China in the first centuries of the Christian era.’
[2]
’This is certainly plausible, for Chinese records report that ships were being built in Funan’s ports, including the ships that the Funan monarch Fan Shihman had ordered constructed for his third-century expedition of conquest against Malay Peninsula port-polities (Miksic: 2003a, 22).’
[3]
’The Funanese had already built a canal network near their port, and a canal 90 km long linking their port to an inland city, Angkor Borei, in which channels and bray were constructed for flood control and dry-season water supply, but the canal is considered to have been for transportation, and within a trading polite, not for irrigation.’
[4]
[1]: (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.69) [2]: (Chandler 2008, p. 19) [3]: (Hall 2010, p. 49) [4]: (Vickery 1998, p. 307) |
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"The middle section of the Niger, linking Timbuktu to Djenne (about 400 km upstream), and to Gao (about the same distance downstream), was the busiest inland waterway in West Africa... With its development, water transport transformed the middle Niger into one of the great centres of indigenous trade in Africa. It encouraged the growth of specialized occupations, such as the building and operation of canoes; it lead to the development of specialized ports on the water-ways; and it contributed to the political and economic homogeneity of the region."
[1]
[1]: (Reader 1998, 271) |
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"The middle section of the Niger, linking Timbuktu to Djenne (about 400 km upstream), and to Gao (about the same distance downstream), was the busiest inland waterway in West Africa... With its development, water transport transformed the middle Niger into one of the great centres of indigenous trade in Africa. It encouraged the growth of specialized occupations, such as the building and operation of canoes; it lead to the development of specialized ports on the water-ways; and it contributed to the political and economic homogeneity of the region."
[1]
[1]: (Reader 1998, 271) |
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"Kabara is Timbuktu’s port on the Niger River." There was a "chief of the port"
[1]
The Guimi-koi or Gumei-koi was a "port director".
[2]
Guimi-koi or Gumei-koi was a "port director".
[2]
[1]: (Conrad 2010, 69) [2]: (Diop 1987, 112) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago. |
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"The middle section of the Niger, linking Timbuktu to Djenne (about 400 km upstream), and to Gao (about the same distance downstream), was the busiest inland waterway in West Africa... With its development, water transport transformed the middle Niger into one of the great centres of indigenous trade in Africa. It encouraged the growth of specialized occupations, such as the building and operation of canoes; it lead to the development of specialized ports on the water-ways; and it contributed to the political and economic homogeneity of the region."
[1]
"Kabara was the true military and commercial port through which all goods were exported from Timbuktu, to Djenne, Mali, and the Upper Niger in general, or Tirekka, Gao, and Tademekka, Kukia and the Dendi country, that is, present-day Upper Dahomey (Benin)."
[2]
[1]: (Reader 1998, 271) [2]: (Diop 1987, 132) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago. |
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Lothal may have been a port town: "Of particular importance was the ’port’ town of Lothal in Gujarat, excavated by S. R. Rao, which had a concentration of craft workshops, producing many typical Indus objects such as beads and metalwork, and substantial storehouses. An enigmatic large brick basin on the east side of the town was initially interpreted as a dock and is still not understood."
[1]
[1]: (McIntosh 2008, 231-232) Jane McIntosh. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. |
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Lothal may have been a port town: "Of particular importance was the ’port’ town of Lothal in Gujarat, excavated by S. R. Rao, which had a concentration of craft workshops, producing many typical Indus objects such as beads and metalwork, and substantial storehouses. An enigmatic large brick basin on the east side of the town was initially interpreted as a dock and is still not understood."
[1]
[1]: (McIntosh 2008, 231-232) Jane McIntosh. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. |
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Port of Asqalan. Qulzum. The acquisition of a rare tree for al-Mu’izz’s coffin via Mecca, Aden and Qulzum "is proof that there existed an efficient trade network between the Indian Ocean and Egypt."
[1]
"Fustat was the main center of a nexus of trade extending the length and breadth of the Mediterranean and beyond - Fustat and not Alexandria, which was entirely dependent on the former in economic matters. When a load of cargo was shipped overseas, the customs duties had first to be paid in Fustat. To buy Mediterranean products imported through Alexandria, one had to go to Fustat."
[2]
Mahdiyya, in Tunisia had "a sophisticated harbor" for the Fatimid navy and Mediterranean merchants.
[3]
[1]: (Raymond 2000, 41) [2]: (Raymond 2000, 60) [3]: (Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles. |
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See for instance recent excavations of the huge Theodosius-Harbour of Constantinople, in use from the 5th-11th cent.
[1]
"Commerce in the city was dependent on the four major harbours: the Prosphorion and the Neorion (naval dockyard) on the Golden Horn, and two artificial harbours on the Marmara Coast, built by Julian and Theodosius I (Magdalino 2000). Both state-supplied food (annona) (bread, wine, and oil, distributed until the seventh century) and privately marketed food were distributed from the harbours to warehouses (horrea) and then to bakeries, shops, and markets (macella), which were normally located by the fora and the Strategion (M. Mango 2000)."
[2]
[1]: (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) [2]: (Hennessey 2008, 213) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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Preiser-Kapeller says present.
[1]
"Commerce in the city was dependent on the four major harbours: the Prosphorion and the Neorion (naval dockyard) on the Golden Horn, and two artificial harbours on the Marmara Coast, built by Julian and Theodosius I (Magdalino 2000). Both state-supplied food (annona) (bread, wine, and oil, distributed until the seventh century) and privately marketed food were distributed from the harbours to warehouses (horrea) and then to bakeries, shops, and markets (macella), which were normally located by the fora and the Strategion (M. Mango 2000)."
[2]
"Bari, the capital of Byzantine Italy, and Chandax, the capital of Crete, were both sizeable ports."
[3]
[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) [2]: (Hennessey 2008, 213) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. [3]: (Treadgold 1997, 573) Treadgold, Warren. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. |
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Preiser-Kapeller says present.
[1]
"Commerce in the city was dependent on the four major harbours: the Prosphorion and the Neorion (naval dockyard) on the Golden Horn, and two artificial harbours on the Marmara Coast, built by Julian and Theodosius I (Magdalino 2000). Both state-supplied food (annona) (bread, wine, and oil, distributed until the seventh century) and privately marketed food were distributed from the harbours to warehouses (horrea) and then to bakeries, shops, and markets (macella), which were normally located by the fora and the Strategion (M. Mango 2000)."
[2]
[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) [2]: (Hennessey 2008, 213) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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"Much of what tied this world together remained commercial transactions. Except in Levantine waters, the later 7th and 6th centuries saw a further burgeoning of trade, and the final realization of a Mediterranean-wide market, already partly interdependent and governed by the regime of cheap martime transport costs, specialist production and extensive importation"
[1]
"Lydia’s martime outlet of Ephesus".
[2]
[1]: (Broodbank 2015, 546) Broodbank, Cyprian. 2015. The Making of the Middle Sea. Thames & Hudson. London. [2]: (Broodbank 2015, 555-556) Broodbank, Cyprian. 2015. The Making of the Middle Sea. Thames & Hudson. London. |
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Ports present from earlier periods and maintained during Roman Dominate.
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"Trade was carried on for the most part along heavily travelled land routes, but also along waterways, especially the Amu Darya. For instance, ‘from the Kelif quayside at Termez, where the corn grows well and ripens early’, boats left laden with corn for Khwarazm. As the Bukhara khanate split up into semi- independent principalities, trade was hindered by numerous toll stations on roads, bridges and ferries."
[1]
[1]: (Mukminova 2003, 53) |
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"The ports of Uruvela, Kalpiya and Colombo, which later acquired great importance for foreign trade, were also within the territory of Mayarattha." THESIS 229
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"Amsterdam was probably the harbour with the most transatlantic trade, and the percentage of ships from the West Indies, South America and Africa rose from 3 per cent in 1742 to 3.7 per cent in 1778, only to drop again to 2.7 per cent in 1782. As a comparison, the percentage of ships coming from the North Sea harbours of Bremen, Hamburg and Altona rose in these same years from 37.6 to 56.1."
[1]
[1]: (Emmer and Gommans 2020: 29-30) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/AI9PPN7Q/collection. |
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"Ibn Battuta visited the Jaffna kingdom in 1344. He landed at a port at which the king, possibly Varōtaya’s successor Mārttānta Cinkaiyāriyan, was residing temporarily, perhaps Puttalam. The king had a large merchant fleet and was heavily involved in the export of cinnamon".
[1]
[1]: (Peebles 2006: 32) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/HJG4VBC5/collection. |
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“It was founded by Sa’duddin in the early days of Islam, around the late 9th or early 10th century, based at Zayla or Zeila, an ancient port and trade center on the Gulf of Aden.”
[1]
[1]: (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Adal Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library |
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During the nineteenth century Mogadishu was the port city controlled by the Sultanate of Geledi. “Mogadishu, on the other hand, was really controlled by the Sultan of the Geledi, and minor ports were in the hands of members of other clans.”
[1]
[1]: (Rubenson 2008, 88) Rubenson, Sven. 2008. ‘Ethiopian and the Horn’ Ed John H. Flint The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1790 - c. 1870. Vol 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 51-98. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/VRU64Q8P/collection |
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“The port of Zeila, the trading outlet from central Ethiopia, benefited enormously from this co-operation in a spirit of tolerance, it seems that, before seizing power, Yekuno-Amlak had made firm alliances with both the Muslim and Christian communities in Shoa.”
[1]
[1]: (Ki-Zerbo 1998, 172) Ki-Zerbo, Joseph. 1998. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Oakland: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JMJS523J/library |
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“Nevertheless, Ifat’s pre-eminence in the long-distance trade of the Ethiopian interior, in which Zeila throve, certainly tended to give the rulers of Ifat a special influence in the whole Muslim region, including the ports of the Gulf of Aden.”
[1]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 143) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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“For example, in 1875 a Majerteen Somali was killed by local residents in Mukalla, triggering blood-reprisals against Mukalla merchants in Majerteen ports.”
[1]
[1]: (Smith 2021, 45) Smith, Nicholas W.S. 2021. Colonial Chaos in the Southern Red Sea: A History of Violence from 1830 to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/K6HVJ7X4/collection |
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“By the beginning of the sixteenth century the army of the first Islamic Kingdom, the Funj sultanate, which originated in central Sudan, had invaded Sawakin. During the sultanate’s reign, the town grew from a small trading center to a leading port.”
[1]
[1]: (Fadlalla 2007, 58) Fadlalla, Amal. 2007. Embodying Honor: Fertility, Foreignness, and Regeneration in Eastern Sudan. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/W9UGNTBX/collection |
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Zeila. “Zeila’s governor was now a Somali, Haji Shirmarke ‘Ali Salih (of the Habar Yunis clan), who had begun his remarkable career as the captain of a training dhow.”
[1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 33) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection |
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Zeila was the main port for Harar. “Inhabited by Arab, Somali, Dankali and Harari merchants, Zeila served as the main outlet for the trade of the Harar.”
[1]
[1]: (Abir 2008, 553) Abir, Mordecai. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c. 1790. Edited by Richard Gray. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 537-577. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Abir/titleCreatorYear/items/JHH9VH96/item-list |
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“Five hundred years later, when visited by Richard Burton, Zeila was much smaller, containing only a dozen stone houses and approximately 200 thatched ones, alongside six mosques and a saint’s tomb, the whole surrounded by a coral and rubble wall with five gates. It was still a centre of caravan trade to the interior as well as functioning as the port for the sultanate of Aussa, Harar and the whole of southern Ethiopia.”
[1]
[1]: (Insoll 2003, 59-61) Insoll, Timothy. 2003. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/KXWC265V/collection |
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Mait was the port town of the Isaaq. “It was followed perhaps some two centuries later by the arrival from Arabia or Sheikh Isaq, founder of the Isaq Somali, who settled to the west of the Darod at Mait where his domed tomb stands today, and who like his predecessor Darod, married with the local Dir Somali.”
[1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 22-23) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection |
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“The Gbe-speaking peoples of the western Slave Coast also worshipped the sea, here called Hu (hu = "sea"), or Agbe. Hu was the national deity of the Pla (or Hula) people, who according to tradition originated in Grand-Popo, but migrated eastward to settle other towns along the coastal lagoon, including Ouidah and Jakin (modern Godomey, originally the main coastal port of Allada).”
[1]
“He also heard of a report of "a great quantity" of offerings to the sea made earlier by the neighboring King of Allada, presumably at its coastal port of Jakin; although these "availed nothing," which made the King "very angry." Sacrifices to the sea (including sometimes human sacrifices) were continued under the rule of Dahomey, which conquered both Hueda and Allada in the 1720s.”
[1]
“The importance of Whydah, once a vassal of the larger Allada kingdom, as a commercial hub waned in comparison to Allada’s main port in nearby Offra up to the mid-17th century. Following a revolt against Allada, Whydah became a primary supplier of slaves starting in the 1670s. While it maintained diplomatic relations with Allada, Wydah nonetheless displaced its former imperial ruler as the dominant middleman in what had become a booming transatlantic trade.”
[2]
[1]: Law, Robin. “West Africa’s Discovery of the Atlantic.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 44, no. 1, 2011, pp. 1–25: 17. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WA6SG9KW/collection [2]: Aderinto, Saheed. African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. ABC- CLIO, 2017: 278. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EB5TWDG7/collection |
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The near-absence of archaeologically identified settlements makes it particularly challenging to infer most building types. "While the historical sources provide a vague picture of the events of the first 500 years of the Kanem-Borno empire, archaeologically almost nothing is known. [...] Summing up, very little is known about the capitals or towns of the early Kanem- Borno empire. The locations of the earliest sites have been obscured under the southwardly protruding sands of the Sahara, and none of the later locations can be identified with certainty."
[1]
[1]: (Gronenborn 2002: 104-110) |
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Due the fact of long distance trade practices as well as sea sailing, the presence of harbours cannot be excluded. However the change of water level in Persian Gulf and the modification of littoral zones might have caused that the potential remains of ancient ports have not been discovered yet.
[1]
[1]: Carter 2006, 52-63 |
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"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977)."
[1]
Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: "Of the earliestperiod of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known."
[2]
Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable.
[1]: (Ogundiran 2005: 151-152) [2]: (Law 1977: 33) |
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“All three capitals: Kahone, Diakhao, and Lambaye, were established in the mid-sixteenth century when the fertile coastal provinces of the Empire of Jolof- an inland empire established in the thirteenth century-gained independence … They prospered as independent kingdoms during the mercantilist era and, together, constituted the ‘Peanut Basin’ that developed during the colonial era. They maintained trade relations with the European and Eura-african merchants who frequented their port cities, and diplomatic relations with the Dutch, French and English/British chartered companies that claimed to monopolize trade along their coasts.”
[1]
[1]: (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection |
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Regarding the trade between the French and the Waalo on the Senegal River in 1686 CE. “The trading was generally conducted in Biert, in Maca, which La Courbe calls: ‘The stopover of the little junket, is a stopover or port on the river at eight leagues from our settlement.’ Trading also occurred at Bouscar, situated at twelved locations in Saint-Louis, forming a cluster of several villages in a great plain on the edge of the water. This commerce took place primarily at the crossroads of the desert which was the major market of Waalo and of which the European voyagers provided numerous descriptions.”
[1]
[1]: (Barry 2012, 64) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection |
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“All three capitals: Kahone, Diakhao, and Lambaye, were established in the mid-sixteenth century when the fertile coastal provinces of the Empire of Jolof- an inland empire established in the thirteenth century-gained independence […] They prospered as independent kingdoms during the mercantilist era and, together, constituted the ‘Peanut Basin’ that developed during the colonial era. They maintained trade relations with the European and Eura-african merchants who frequented their port cities, and diplomatic relations with the Dutch, French and English/British chartered companies that claimed to monopolize trade along their coasts.”
[1]
[1]: (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection |
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Unknown. Did Eastern part of the Zhou realm trade with Korea or Japan, or by sea with other parts of China?
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