Section: Fortifications
Variable: Modern Fortification (All coded records)
The absence or presence of modern_fortifications as a military technology used in warfare. used after the introduction of gunpowder, e.g., trace italienne/starfort.  
Modern Fortification
#  Polity  Coded Value Tags Year(s) Edit Desc
1 Yemen - Era of Warlords absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder artillery not in use until the 14th century. [1]

[1]: (Baily 2001) Jonathan B A Bailey. Canon. Richard Holmes. Hew Strachan. Chris Bellamy. Hugh Bicheno. eds. 2001. The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford University Press.


2 Ghur Principality absent Confident Expert -
-
3 Eastern Han Empire absent Confident Expert -
-
4 Western Jin absent Confident Expert -
-
5 Seljuk Sultanate absent Confident Expert -
Not developed until later in history.
6 Susa II absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
7 Early Roman Republic absent Confident Expert -
for the largest armies 20-25 miles per day. Theodore Dodge’s Caesar: A History of The Art of War (1900). EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://seshat.info/File:DodgeHow.jpg
8 Middle Roman Republic absent Confident Expert -
for the largest armies 20-25 miles per day. Theodore Dodge’s Caesar: A History of The Art of War (1900). EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://seshat.info/File:DodgeHow.jpg
9 Japan - Initial Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
10 Japan - Middle Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
11 Japan - Late Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
12 Kamakura Shogunate absent Confident Expert -
no evidence of these type of fortifications, but no source explicitly saying they were absent
13 Kansai - Yayoi Period absent Confident Expert -
not possible at this time
14 Classical Angkor absent Confident Expert -
The walls of Angkor Thom, one of the Khmer Empire’s most advanced fortifications formed ’a very regular square, and on each side is a stone tower.’ [1]

[1]: (Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 19)


15 Early Angkor absent Confident Expert -
The walls of Angkor Thom, one of the Khmer Empire’s most advanced fortifications formed ’a very regular square, and on each side is a stone tower.’ [1]

[1]: (Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 19)


16 Late Angkor absent Confident Expert -
The walls of Angkor Thom, one of the Khmer Empire’s most advanced fortifications formed ’a very regular square, and on each side is a stone tower.’ [1]

[1]: (Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 19)


17 Khmer Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
’The initial move seems to have been to Srei Santhor, about 30 km (19 miles) northeast of Phnom Penh, at some time in the fourteenth century; then, briefly, to Phnom Penh itself. By about 1528, the Cambodian court under its first great Post-Angkorian king, Ang Chan I, had moved once and for all to the all to the Quatre Bras region, establishing a new capital at Lovek (Longvek), on the right bank of the Tonle Sap River, 50 km (30 miles) north of Phnom Penh. Love, like Udong and Phnom Penh- the town s that succeeded it as the capital- was thoroughly international, with foreign quarters for Malay, Japanese, and Chinese traders (there were as many as 3,000 of the last in the 1540s). There Ang Chan (who really did exist) built a golden palace and at least four major wats, erecting a huge, four-faced Buddha of wood, the stone foundation of which survive in one of the town’s vicars. The capital was fortified by earthen ramparts topped with palisades; these ramparts, which form a huge rectangle, are still visible.’ [1]

[1]: (Coe 2003, pp. 208-209)


18 Chenla absent Inferred Expert -
’The 7th century appears in the inscriptions as a time of relative prosperity, and the near absence of fortifications may indicate that warfare was rare, and not very destructive when it occurred. Even when impressive city walls were built, at Angkor Borei, increasingly viewed as a possible site for the capital of the Funan, there is archaeological opinion that they were for water control in the city, not for protection from attack.’ [1]

[1]: (Vickery 1998, 317)


19 Funan II absent Confident Expert -
There are no indications that the wall surrounding Angkor Borei was used as a defensive mechanism, there are no guardhouses, gateways, or bastions which may indicate that the wall was not made for military purposes. [1]

[1]: (O’Reilly 2007, p. 107)


20 Rouran Khaganate absent Confident Expert -
Not in use until much later.
21 Second Turk Khaganate absent Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


22 Late Xiongnu absent Confident Expert -
The Xiongnu could not have had modern, canon fitted forts at this time
23 Monte Alban Late I absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not yet invented.
24 Monte Alban III absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not yet invented.
Other technologies
25 Monte Alban IIIB and IV absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not yet invented or introduced.
Other technologies
26 Monte Alban V absent Confident Expert -
Modern fortifications were not present in prehispanic times. [1]

[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.


27 Oaxaca - San Jose absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not yet invented.
28 Cuzco - Early Intermediate I absent Confident Expert -
Although there is no information on the warfare of this period, it is highly unlikely the resources were available for this technology.
29 Cuzco - Early Intermediate II absent Confident Expert -
Although there is no information on the warfare of this period, it is highly unlikely the resources were available for this technology.
30 Cuzco - Late Intermediate II absent Confident Expert -
This technology is not known to have been developed anywhere in the Americas before European colonization.
31 Inca Empire absent Confident Expert -
"The Incas could expect attacks with projectiles of limited range and power, such as arrows, spears, and sling stones, but did not have to cope with explosives, mounted attacks, or siege machinery, such as battering rams or catapults." [1]

[1]: (D’Altroy 2014, 331)


32 Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [1] .

[1]: (Gregory L. Possehl. ’Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization’, Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)


33 Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [1] .

[1]: (Gregory L. Possehl. ’Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization’, Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)


34 Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic absent Confident Expert -
Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [1]

[1]: (Gregory L. Possehl. ’Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization’, Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)


35 Kachi Plain - Urban Period I absent Confident Expert -
Nausharo was occupied in pre-modern times.
36 Sakha - Late absent Confident Expert -
not mentioned in any of the sources that deal with warfare
37 Byzantine Empire II absent Confident Expert -
Preiser-Kapeller says absent. [1]

[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)


38 Byzantine Empire III absent Confident Expert -
Preiser-Kapeller says absent. [1]

[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)


39 Kingdom of Lydia absent Confident Expert -
Cannon equipped reinforced star forts are not yet in use
40 Konya Plain - Late Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
41 Ottoman Empire I absent Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.


42 Tabal Kingdoms absent Confident Expert -
Cannon equipped reinforced star forts are not yet in use
43 Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period absent Confident Expert -
[1] General: Hawaiians do not appear to have adopted any new *defensive* technologies as a result of early European contact [1]

[1]: Kuykendall, Ralph S. 1968[1938]. The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 1: 1778-1854, Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.


44 Timurid Empire absent Confident Expert -
too early for this polity
45 Yemen - Tahirid Dynasty absent Confident Expert -
Although cannons were present, it does not appear to be a star fort, which is too late for this period anyhow ‘Aden was heavily fortified. There was a string of fortresses along the top of the mountain ^ ... He also mentions that there were two towers on Huqqat bay equiped with artillery and a catapult.^’ [1]

[1]: Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 180, Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/


46 Geometric Crete absent Confident Expert -
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47 Hellenistic Crete absent Confident Expert -
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48 Sasanid Empire II absent Confident Expert -
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49 Seleucids absent Confident Expert -
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50 Aztec Empire absent Confident Expert -
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51 Classic Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
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52 Egypt - Dynasty II absent Confident Expert -
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53 Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period absent Confident Expert -
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54 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I absent Confident Expert -
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55 Northern Wei absent Confident Expert -
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56 Peiligang absent Confident Expert -
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57 Early Qing absent Confident Expert -
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58 Sui Dynasty absent Confident Expert -
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59 Tang Dynasty I absent Confident Expert -
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60 Tang Dynasty II absent Confident Expert -
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61 Early Wei Dynasty absent Confident Expert -
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62 Western Han Empire absent Confident Expert -
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63 Great Yuan absent Confident Expert -
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64 Ayyubid Sultanate absent Confident Expert -
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65 Badarian absent Confident Expert -
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66 Egypt - Dynasty I absent Confident Expert -
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67 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III absent Confident Expert -
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68 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II absent Confident Expert -
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69 Naqada I absent Inferred Expert -
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70 Naqada II absent Confident Expert -
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71 Egypt - Dynasty 0 absent Confident Expert -
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72 Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period absent Confident Expert -
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73 Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period absent Confident Expert -
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74 Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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75 Egypt - Late Old Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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76 Ptolemaic Kingdom I absent Confident Expert -
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77 Ptolemaic Kingdom II absent Confident Expert -
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78 Egypt - Period of the Regions absent Confident Expert -
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79 Egypt - Saite Period absent Confident Expert -
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80 Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period absent Inferred Expert -
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81 Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period absent Confident Expert -
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82 Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period absent Confident Expert -
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83 Axum I absent Confident Expert -
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84 Chuuk - Early Truk absent Confident Expert -
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85 Chuuk - Late Truk absent Confident Expert -
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86 Proto-French Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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87 French Kingdom - Late Capetian absent Confident Expert -
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88 Akan - Pre-Ashanti absent Confident Expert -
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89 Ashanti Empire absent Confident Expert -
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90 Archaic Crete absent Confident Expert -
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91 Classical Crete absent Confident Expert -
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92 Final Postpalatial Crete absent Confident Expert -
-
93 Greco-Bactrian Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
absent before the gunpowder era
94 Hephthalites absent Confident Expert -
absent before the gunpowder era
95 Kushan Empire absent Confident Expert -
absent before the gunpowder era
96 Tocharians absent Confident Expert -
absent before the gunpowder era
97 Erlitou absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not present for another couple thousand years.
98 Longshan absent Confident Expert -
Defences against gunpowder weapons not necessary until the invention of gunpowder, a few thousand years after this period.
99 Western Zhou absent Confident Expert -
No gunpowder at this time.
100 Neguanje absent Confident Expert -
No evidence for fortifications in the Neguanje period has been found yet. [1]

[1]: (Giraldo 2015, personal communication)


101 Shuar - Colonial absent Confident Expert -
older reports describe make-shift palisades and watchtowers made from wood only
102 Atlantic Complex absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
103 Carolingian Empire I absent Confident Expert -
David Baker says absent. [1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.


104 Hallstatt A-B1 absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
105 Hallstatt B2-3 absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
106 Hallstatt D absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
107 Early Merovingian absent Confident Expert -
Not discussed in consulted literature RA.
108 Middle Merovingian absent Confident Expert -
Not discussed in consulted literature RA.
109 La Tene A-B1 absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
110 La Tene B2-C1 absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
111 Monopalatial Crete absent Confident Expert -
-
112 Neolithic Crete absent Confident Expert -
-
113 New Palace Crete absent Confident Expert -
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114 Old Palace Crete absent Confident Expert -
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115 Postpalatial Crete absent Confident Expert -
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116 Prepalatial Crete absent Confident Expert -
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117 Iban - Pre-Brooke absent Confident Expert -
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118 Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial absent Confident Expert -
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119 Java - Buni Culture absent Confident Expert -
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120 Kalingga Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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121 Kediri Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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122 Medang Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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123 Canaan absent Confident Expert -
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124 Yehuda absent Confident Expert -
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125 Yisrael absent Confident Expert -
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126 Kingdom of Ayodhya absent Confident Expert -
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127 Chalukyas of Badami absent Confident Expert -
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128 Chalukyas of Kalyani absent Confident Expert -
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129 Deccan - Iron Age absent Confident Expert -
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130 Post-Mauryan Kingdoms absent Confident Expert -
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131 Deccan - Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
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132 Early A'chik absent Confident Expert -
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133 Late A'chik absent Confident Expert -
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134 Gahadavala Dynasty absent Confident Expert -
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135 Gupta Empire absent Confident Expert -
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136 Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty absent Confident Expert -
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137 Hoysala Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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138 Kadamba Empire absent Confident Expert -
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139 Kampili Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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140 Kannauj - Varman Dynasty absent Confident Expert -
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141 Magadha absent Confident Expert -
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142 Mahajanapada era absent Confident Expert -
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143 Rashtrakuta Empire absent Confident Expert -
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144 Satavahana Empire absent Confident Expert -
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145 Magadha - Sunga Empire absent Confident Expert -
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146 Vakataka Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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147 Vijayanagara Empire absent Confident Expert -
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148 Abbasid Caliphate I absent Confident Expert -
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149 Abbasid Caliphate II absent Confident Expert -
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150 Amorite Babylonia absent Confident Expert -
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151 Kassite Babylonia absent Confident Expert -
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152 Bazi Dynasty absent Confident Expert -
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153 Dynasty of E absent Confident Expert -
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154 Second Dynasty of Isin absent Confident Expert -
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155 Isin-Larsa absent Confident Expert -
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156 Neo-Assyrian Empire absent Confident Expert -
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157 Neo-Babylonian Empire absent Confident Expert -
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158 Southern Mesopotamia Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
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159 Ur - Dynasty III absent Confident Expert -
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160 Uruk absent Confident Expert -
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161 Achaemenid Empire absent Confident Expert -
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162 Buyid Confederation absent Confident Expert -
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163 Elam - Crisis Period absent Confident Expert -
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164 Elymais II absent Confident Expert -
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165 Ilkhanate absent Confident Expert -
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166 Elam - Kidinuid Period absent Confident Expert -
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167 Elam - Igihalkid Period absent Confident Expert -
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168 Elam - Shutrukid Period absent Confident Expert -
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169 Elam I absent Confident Expert -
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170 Elam II absent Confident Expert -
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171 Elam III absent Confident Expert -
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172 Parthian Empire I absent Confident Expert -
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173 Parthian Empire II absent Confident Expert -
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174 Sasanid Empire I absent Confident Expert -
-
175 Delhi Sultanate absent Confident Expert -
Inferred from the period.
176 Magadha - Maurya Empire absent Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Schlingloff, Dieter. Fortified Cities of Ancient India: A Comparative Study. Anthem Press, 2013. p. 39


177 Akkadian Empire absent Confident Expert -
Based on the impossibility of star forts at this time.
178 Early Dynastic absent Confident Expert -
used after the introduction of gunpowder, e.g., trace italienne/starfort
179 Ubaid absent Confident Expert -


180 Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
181 Formative Period absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
182 Susiana A absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
183 Susiana - Late Ubaid absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
184 Susiana - Early Ubaid absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
185 Elam - Shimashki Period absent Confident Expert -
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186 Elam - Early Sukkalmah absent Confident Expert -
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187 Elam - Late Sukkalmah absent Confident Expert -
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188 Latium - Bronze Age absent Confident Expert -
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189 Latium - Copper Age absent Confident Expert -
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190 Latium - Iron Age absent Confident Expert -
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191 Ostrogothic Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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192 Rome - Republic of St Peter II absent Confident Expert -
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193 Papal States - High Medieval Period absent Confident Expert -
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194 Exarchate of Ravenna absent Confident Expert -
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195 Roman Empire - Principate absent Confident Expert -
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196 Roman Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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197 Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity absent Confident Expert -
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198 Republic of St Peter I absent Confident Expert -
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199 Warring States Japan absent Confident Expert -
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200 Tokugawa Shogunate absent Confident Expert 1603 CE 1854 CE
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201 Bronze Age Cambodia absent Confident Expert -
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202 Bronze Age Cambodia absent Confident Expert -
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203 Andronovo absent Confident Expert -
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204 Phoenician Empire absent Confident Expert -
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205 Jenne-jeno I absent Confident Expert -
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206 Jenne-jeno II absent Confident Expert -
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207 Jenne-jeno III absent Confident Expert -
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208 Jenne-jeno IV absent Confident Expert -
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209 Mali Empire absent Confident Expert -
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210 Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty absent Confident Expert -
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211 Early Mongols absent Confident Expert -
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212 Later Wagadu Empire absent Confident Expert -
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213 Middle Wagadu Empire absent Confident Expert -
-
214 Susa I absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
215 Susa III absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
216 Icelandic Commonwealth absent Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Axel Kristissen; Arni D Juliusson pers. comm. 2017


217 Late Roman Republic absent Confident Expert -
For the largest armies 20-25 miles per day. Theodore Dodge’s Caesar: A History of The Art of War (1900). EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://seshat.info/File:DodgeHow.jpg
218 Ashikaga Shogunate absent Confident Expert -
no evidence of these type of fortifications, but no source explicitly saying they were absent
219 Asuka absent Confident Expert -
not possible at this time
220 Heian absent Confident Expert -
no evidence of these type of fortifications, but no source explicitly saying they were absent
221 Japan - Incipient Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
222 Japan - Early Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
223 Japan - Final Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
224 Kansai - Kofun Period absent Confident Expert -
not possible at this time
225 Nara Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
no evidence of these type of fortifications, but no source explicitly saying they were absent
226 Kara-Khanids absent Confident Expert -
cannon forts were not available at this time
227 Western Turk Khaganate absent Confident Expert -
absent before the gunpowder era
228 Funan I absent Confident Expert -
There are no indications that the wall surrounding Angkor Borei was used as a defensive mechanism, there are no guardhouses, gateways, or bastions which may indicate that the wall was not made for military purposes. [1]

[1]: (O’Reilly 2007, p. 107)


229 Bamana kingdom absent Inferred Expert -
Siege cannon not established in this period.
230 Segou Kingdom absent Inferred Expert -
Siege cannon not established in this period.
231 Eastern Turk Khaganate absent Confident Expert -
According to personal communication with N. Kradin. [1]

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


232 Khitan I absent Confident Expert -
Before the time of modern cannon forts
233 Shiwei absent Confident Expert -
Before the modern era of cannonball warfare
234 Xianbei Confederation absent Inferred Expert -
Far too early for modern canon forts.
235 Early Xiongnu absent Confident Expert -
The Xiongnu could not have had modern, canon fitted forts at this time
236 Xiongnu Imperial Confederation absent Confident Expert -
The Xiongnu could not have had modern, canon fitted forts at this time
237 Early Monte Alban I absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not yet invented.
238 Monte Alban II absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not yet invented.
Other technologies
239 Epiclassic Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
-
240 Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
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241 Toltecs absent Confident Expert -
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242 Wari Empire absent Confident Expert -
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243 Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial absent Confident Expert -
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244 Indo-Greek Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
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245 Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period absent Confident Expert -
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246 Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period absent Confident Expert -
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247 Egypt - Kushite Period absent Confident Expert -
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248 Umayyad Caliphate absent Confident Expert -
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249 Sarazm absent Confident Expert -
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250 Fatimid Caliphate absent Confident Expert -
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251 Byzantine Empire I absent Confident Expert -
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252 East Roman Empire absent Confident Expert -
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253 Ottoman Emirate absent Confident Expert -
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254 Roman Empire - Dominate absent Confident Expert -
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255 Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling absent Confident Expert -
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256 Cahokia - Moorehead absent Confident Expert -
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257 Early Illinois Confederation absent Confident Expert -
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258 Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early absent Confident Expert -
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259 Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late absent Confident Expert -
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260 Proto-Haudenosaunee Confederacy absent Confident Expert -
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261 Cahokia - Early Woodland absent Confident Expert -
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262 Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II absent Confident Expert -
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263 Cahokia - Late Woodland II absent Confident Expert -
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264 Cahokia - Middle Woodland absent Confident Expert -
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265 Cahokia - Late Woodland III absent Confident Expert -
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266 Cahokia - Late Woodland I absent Confident Expert -
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267 Cahokia - Sand Prairie absent Confident Expert -
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268 Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I absent Confident Expert -
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269 Oneota absent Confident Expert -
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270 Chagatai Khanate absent Confident Expert -
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271 Ancient Khwarazm absent Confident Expert -
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272 Late Formative Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not yet invented or introduced.
273 Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not yet invented or introduced.
274 Oaxaca - Rosario absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not yet invented.
275 Oaxaca - Tierras Largas absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not yet introduced.
276 Kingdom of Norway II absent Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Júlíusson and Kristissen, pers. comm. 2017


277 Cuzco - Late Intermediate I absent Confident Expert -
This technology is not known to have been developed anywhere in the Americas before European colonization.
278 Cuzco - Late Formative absent Confident Expert -
Although there is no information on the warfare of this period, it is highly unlikely the resources were available for this technology.
279 Orokaiva - Colonial absent Confident Expert -
Whether colonial military forts were constructed remains in need of confirmation.
280 Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period absent Confident Expert -
Pirak is pre-modern warfare.
281 Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period absent Confident Expert -
Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [1]

[1]: (Gregory L. Possehl. ’Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization’, Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)


282 Kachi Plain - Urban Period II absent Confident Expert -
Nausharo was occupied in pre-modern times.
283 Sakha - Early absent Confident Expert -
not mentioned in any of the sources that deal with warfare
284 Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
285 Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
286 Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
287 Late Cappadocia absent Confident Expert -
gunpowder not used
288 Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
289 Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
290 Hatti - New Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
291 Hatti - Old Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
gunpowder not invented at this time
292 Lysimachus Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
Inferred as occurred later.
293 Konya Plain - Ceramic Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
294 Konya Plain - Early Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
295 Neo-Hittite Kingdoms absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
296 Phrygian Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
Cannon equipped reinforced star forts are not yet in use
297 Rum Sultanate absent Inferred Expert -
Not developed until later in history.
298 Samanid Empire absent Confident Expert -
-
299 Sogdiana - City-States Period absent Confident Expert -
-
300 Himyar I absent Confident Expert -
-
301 Himyar II absent Confident Expert -
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302 Yemen - Late Bronze Age absent Confident Expert -
-
303 Neolithic Yemen absent Confident Expert -
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304 Qatabanian Commonwealth absent Confident Expert -
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305 Rasulid Dynasty absent Confident Expert -
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306 Sabaean Commonwealth absent Confident Expert -
-
307 Kingdom of Saba and Dhu Raydan absent Confident Expert -
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308 Yemen Ziyad Dynasty absent Confident Expert -
-
309 Kidarite Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
absent before the gunpowder era
310 Erligang absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not present for another couple thousand years.
311 Jin absent Confident Expert -
No gunpowder at this time.
Other technologies
Canals used for military transport [1]

[1]: (Lorge, 2012, 84)


312 Late Shang absent Confident Expert -
Gunpowder not present so walls at this time were not designed to defend against gunpowder siege artillery.
313 Yangshao absent Confident Expert -
Defences against gunpowder weapons not necessary until the invention of gunpowder, a few thousand years after this period.
314 Tairona absent Confident Expert -
No discussion in literature of this. In this case it is evidence of absence since this is in line with logical expectations for this late-complexity society.
315 Shuar - Ecuadorian absent Confident Expert -
older reports describe make-shift palisades and watchtowers made from wood only.
316 Egypt - Middle Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
General fortifications reference: [1]

[1]: (Adam 1981, 232) Adam, S. 1981. “The Importance of Nubia: A Link between Central Africa and the Mediterranean.” In General History of Africa II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa, edited by G. Mokhtar, II:226-44. General History of Africa. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8APQDQV3.


317 Beaker Culture absent Inferred Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
318 Carolingian Empire II absent Confident Expert -
David Baker says absent. [1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.


319 Hallstatt C absent Inferred Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
320 Proto-Carolingian absent Confident Expert -
Not discussed in consulted literature RA.
321 La Tene C2-D absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature RA.
322 Hawaii I absent Confident Expert -
Inferred [1]

[1]: Kuykendall, Ralph S. 1968[1938]. The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 1: 1778-1854, Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.


323 Hawaii II absent Confident Expert -
Inferred [1]

[1]: Kuykendall, Ralph S. 1968[1938]. The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 1: 1778-1854, Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.


324 Hawaii III absent Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Kuykendall, Ralph S. 1968[1938]. The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 1: 1778-1854, Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.


325 Elam - Awan Dynasty I absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
326 Susiana B absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
327 Pre-Ceramic Period absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
328 Spanish Empire I present Confident Expert -
Royal Fortress of the Concepcion built in 1663 on the Portuguese-Spanish border area. It’s an example of a starfort.
329 Republic of Venice IV present Inferred Expert -
"Venice’s strategy of defense of its overseas territories was based on fortified cities and system of forts, provided with victuals and ammunition that were meant to enable resistance of long sieges (up to two years) until reinforcement arrived by sea. ... changes in military technology, especially the more effective use of artillery, necessitated a renewal of the systems of defense." [1]

[1]: (Arbel 2014, 206) Benjamin Arbel. Venice’s Maritime Empire in the Early Modern Period. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.


330 French Kingdom - Early Bourbon present Confident Expert -
Fortifications at Brouage. [1]

[1]: (Ladurie 1991, 80)


331 British Empire I present Confident Expert -
-
332 Ottoman Empire III present Confident Expert -
-
333 French Kingdom - Early Valois present Inferred Expert -
"Castle architecture became increasingly complex from the 12th to 13th centuries. ... All of these precautions became obsolete with the widespread use of gunpowder in the 14th and 15th centuries, and castles became simply country residences for the nobility." [1]

[1]: (Jesse 1995, 181) Scott Jesse. Castles. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.


334 Northern Song present Inferred Expert -
"When Jin forces attacked the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1126, they met stout resistance. The city’s defenses had been overhauled, and it boasted immense walls, a deep wide moat, and advanced fortifications structures including bastions and barbicans." [1]

[1]: (Andrade 2016, 34) Andrade, Tonio. 2016. The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History. Princeton: Princeton University Press.


335 French Kingdom - Late Bourbon present Confident Expert -
Vauban’s fortifications. [1] Very costly to maintain. [2]

[1]: (Briggs 1998, 141)

[2]: (Parrott 2012, 63) David Parrott. Armed Forces. William Doyle. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of the Ancien Régime. Oxford University Press. Oxford.


336 Tokugawa Shogunate present Confident Expert 1855 CE 1868 CE
-
337 Republic of Venice III present Inferred Expert -
"Venice’s strategy of defense of its overseas territories was based on fortified cities and system of forts, provided with victuals and ammunition that were meant to enable resistance of long sieges (up to two years) until reinforcement arrived by sea. ... changes in military technology, especially the more effective use of artillery, necessitated a renewal of the systems of defense." [1]

[1]: (Arbel 2014, 206) Benjamin Arbel. Venice’s Maritime Empire in the Early Modern Period. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.


338 Late Qing present Confident Expert -
e.g. coastal fortresses, paotai [1]
Other technologies

[1]: (Po 2018, 135)


339 Durrani Empire present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Roy, Kaushik. War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740-1849. Taylor & Francis, 2011. pp. 30-35


340 French Kingdom - Late Valois present Inferred Expert -
"Castle architecture became increasingly complex from the 12th to 13th centuries. ... All of these precautions became obsolete with the widespread use of gunpowder in the 14th and 15th centuries, and castles became simply country residences for the nobility." [1]

[1]: (Jesse 1995, 181) Scott Jesse. Castles. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.


341 Papal States - Early Modern Period II present Confident Expert -
-
342 Papal States - Early Modern Period I present Confident Expert -
I should note, however, that following the end of the War of Caraffa (1558), the papacy demolished many of its fortifications by agreement with the Spanish. [1]

[1]: Mallet & Shaw, 278


343 Qajar present Confident Expert -
"After arriving in Tabriz, the French began drilling Abbas Mirza’s battalions and erecting modern fortifications." [1]

[1]: (Ward 2014, 67) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


344 Papal States - Renaissance Period present Confident Expert -
An example is the fortress-basilica of Loreto, erected over the course of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. The basilica to the Holy House of Loreto was surrounded by a modern fortress with artillery embankments and watchtowers.
345 British Empire IIIIIIIIII present Confident Expert -
-
346 Sind - Samma Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
-
347 Mughal Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
-
348 Safavid Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
-
349 Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama unknown Suspected Expert -
‘Previously castles had been little more than temporary fortifications of hilltops, but Father Frois’ description of Nobunaga at work on his Nijo castle in 157 5 makes it clear that by the Momoyama period, they were built to last and to resist attacks by firearms.’ [1] ‘although the palatial castles of the Azuchi-Momoyama period were erected with defense against gunfire in mind, they were primarily a setting for daimyo displays of military and political power.’ [2]

[1]: Mason, Richard Henry Pitt. 1997. A History of Japan: Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing.p.185

[2]: Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.286.


350 Saadi Sultanate unknown Suspected Expert -
-
351 Khanate of Bukhara unknown Suspected Expert -
-
352 Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
-
353 Koktepe II unknown Suspected Expert -
-
354 Ottoman Empire II unknown Suspected Expert -
-
355 Mataram Sultanate unknown Suspected Expert -
-
356 Mongol Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
-
357 Majapahit Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter. [1] This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification. Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2]

[1]: (Miksic 2000, 115)

[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.


358 Late Mongols unknown Suspected Expert -
-
359 Uigur Khaganate unknown Suspected Expert -
-
360 Jin Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
-
361 Great Ming unknown Suspected Expert -
-
362 Zungharian Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
-
363 Rattanakosin unknown Suspected Expert -
No references in the literature.
364 Ak Koyunlu unknown Suspected Expert -
-
365 Hmong - Late Qing unknown Suspected Expert -
we need expert input in order to code this variable
366 Hmong - Early Chinese unknown Suspected Expert -
we need expert input in order to code this variable
367 Koktepe I unknown Suspected Expert -


368 Ayutthaya unknown Suspected Expert -
No references identified in the literature. RA.