Section: Fortifications
Variable: Fortified Camp (All coded records)
The absence or presence of fortified_camps as a military technology used in warfare. Camps made by armies on the move (e.g. on a campaign) that which could be constructed on a hill top or in the middle of a plain or desert, usually out of local materials.  
Fortified Camp
#  Polity  Coded Value Tags Year(s) Edit Desc
1 Cuzco - Early Intermediate I absent Inferred Expert 200 CE 399 CE
"Most sites are located in places that are better suited to farming than community defense, and the distribution of Qotakalli pottery to the level of hamlets suggests a high degree of interaction between settlements within the Cusco Basin." [1] For Covey, Qotakalli designates the period after c.400 CE. [2] AD: coded as inferred absent in the period 200-400 CE. Despite the lack of archaeological confirmation, the absence of fortified camps can be inferred from the continuity between 200-400 and 400-500CE, which are considered the same period by Bauer.

[1]: (Covey 2006, 60)

[2]: (Covey 2006, 59)


2 Cuzco - Early Intermediate I absent Confident Expert 400 CE 500 CE
"Most sites are located in places that are better suited to farming than community defense, and the distribution of Qotakalli pottery to the level of hamlets suggests a high degree of interaction between settlements within the Cusco Basin." [1] For Covey, Qotakalli designates the period after c.400 CE. [2] AD: coded as inferred absent in the period 200-400 CE. Despite the lack of archaeological confirmation, the absence of fortified camps can be inferred from the continuity between 200-400 and 400-500CE, which are considered the same period by Bauer.

[1]: (Covey 2006, 60)

[2]: (Covey 2006, 59)


3 Ashanti Empire absent Confident Expert 1701 CE 1820 CE
’The Kumasi Fort was built in 1820 by the Asantehene (the King of the Asante Kingdom), Osei Tutu Kwamina, to resemble the coastal forts which were built by European merchants. Kumasi Fort had to be rebuilt in 1897, after it was destroyed by British forces in 1874. The fort was built from granite and brown soil that was brought from Cape Coast to Kumasi by porters.’ [1] Kumasi Fort was constructed in imitation of colonial forts. Although the Asantehene claimed formal jurisdiction over colonial coastal forts such as Elmina, these were de facto controlled by the British during most of the time period in question. During campaigns rapidly built shelters were the norm, though: ’In the past these rapidly built shelters for farming and hunting were also used by the Asante army. British forces came across ‘little huts with low sloping roofs, thatched with green broad leaves of the plantain. Each hut or lean-to had a couple of bamboo bedsteads on posts… They had also taken the pains to make comfortable settees with backs’. Indeed. Sir Garnet Wolseley was so impressed with the camp-beds that he urged his troops to copy them.’ [2]

[1]: http://www.ghanamuseums.org/kumasi-fort-millitary-museum.php

[2]: McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 23


4 Ashanti Empire present Confident Expert 1821 CE 1874 CE
’The Kumasi Fort was built in 1820 by the Asantehene (the King of the Asante Kingdom), Osei Tutu Kwamina, to resemble the coastal forts which were built by European merchants. Kumasi Fort had to be rebuilt in 1897, after it was destroyed by British forces in 1874. The fort was built from granite and brown soil that was brought from Cape Coast to Kumasi by porters.’ [1] Kumasi Fort was constructed in imitation of colonial forts. Although the Asantehene claimed formal jurisdiction over colonial coastal forts such as Elmina, these were de facto controlled by the British during most of the time period in question. During campaigns rapidly built shelters were the norm, though: ’In the past these rapidly built shelters for farming and hunting were also used by the Asante army. British forces came across ‘little huts with low sloping roofs, thatched with green broad leaves of the plantain. Each hut or lean-to had a couple of bamboo bedsteads on posts… They had also taken the pains to make comfortable settees with backs’. Indeed. Sir Garnet Wolseley was so impressed with the camp-beds that he urged his troops to copy them.’ [2]

[1]: http://www.ghanamuseums.org/kumasi-fort-millitary-museum.php

[2]: McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 23


5 Ashanti Empire absent Confident Expert 1875 CE 1897 CE
’The Kumasi Fort was built in 1820 by the Asantehene (the King of the Asante Kingdom), Osei Tutu Kwamina, to resemble the coastal forts which were built by European merchants. Kumasi Fort had to be rebuilt in 1897, after it was destroyed by British forces in 1874. The fort was built from granite and brown soil that was brought from Cape Coast to Kumasi by porters.’ [1] Kumasi Fort was constructed in imitation of colonial forts. Although the Asantehene claimed formal jurisdiction over colonial coastal forts such as Elmina, these were de facto controlled by the British during most of the time period in question. During campaigns rapidly built shelters were the norm, though: ’In the past these rapidly built shelters for farming and hunting were also used by the Asante army. British forces came across ‘little huts with low sloping roofs, thatched with green broad leaves of the plantain. Each hut or lean-to had a couple of bamboo bedsteads on posts… They had also taken the pains to make comfortable settees with backs’. Indeed. Sir Garnet Wolseley was so impressed with the camp-beds that he urged his troops to copy them.’ [2]

[1]: http://www.ghanamuseums.org/kumasi-fort-millitary-museum.php

[2]: McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 23


6 Tocharians unknown Suspected Expert -
-
7 Eastern Han Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
-
8 Jin unknown Suspected Expert -
-
9 Jin Dynasty present Confident Expert -
-
10 Northern Song present Inferred Expert -
-
11 Peiligang unknown Suspected Expert -
-
12 Western Han Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
-
13 Badarian absent Confident Expert -
-
14 Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period present Confident Expert -
-
15 Egypt - Late Old Kingdom present Confident Expert -
-
16 Ptolemaic Kingdom I present Confident Expert -
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17 Ptolemaic Kingdom II present Confident Expert -
-
18 Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period unknown Suspected Expert -
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19 Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period unknown Suspected Expert -
-
20 Axum I unknown Suspected Expert -
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21 French Kingdom - Early Bourbon unknown Suspected Expert -
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22 French Kingdom - Late Bourbon unknown Suspected Expert -
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23 Proto-French Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
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24 French Kingdom - Late Capetian present Confident Expert -
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25 French Kingdom - Early Valois unknown Suspected Expert -
-
26 Akan - Pre-Ashanti unknown Suspected Expert -
-
27 Final Postpalatial Crete absent Confident Expert -
-
28 Monopalatial Crete absent Confident Expert -
-
29 Neolithic Crete absent Confident Expert -
-
30 Postpalatial Crete absent Confident Expert -
-
31 Iban - Pre-Brooke absent Confident Expert -
-
32 Kalingga Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
-
33 Erligang unknown Suspected Expert -
No data.
34 Erlitou unknown Suspected Expert -
No data.
35 Hmong - Early Chinese unknown Suspected Expert -
we need expert input in order to code this variable
36 Hmong - Late Qing unknown Suspected Expert -
we need expert input in order to code this variable
37 Great Ming present Confident Expert -
Zhu set up forts vs Chen in 1363 CE. [1]

[1]: (Lorge 2005, 103)


38 Late Qing present Confident Expert -
e.g. The Qing set up all of Xinjiang as a military camp during their expansion [1]

[1]: (Perdue 2009, 338)


39 Late Shang unknown Suspected Expert -
No data.
40 Tang Dynasty II present Confident Expert -
T’ang armies on campaign protected themselves whenever possible with elaborate fortified camps. [1]

[1]: (Peers 2002, 17)


41 Early Wei Dynasty present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: (Lewis 1999b, 629)


42 Great Yuan present Inferred Expert -
"In late 1267, the Mongol army began to ring Xiangyang and Fancheng with forts and contest the Song navy for control of the river." [1]

[1]: (Lorge 2005, 83)


43 Shuar - Colonial absent Confident Expert -
older reports describe make-shift palisades and watchtowers made from wood only
44 Egypt - Dynasty I present Confident Expert -
Fortified cities in north and south of Palestine. [1]

[1]: (Bard 2000, 73)


45 Egypt - Dynasty II present Confident Expert -
Fortified cities in north and south of Palestine. [1]

[1]: (Bard 2000, 73)


46 Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period present Inferred Expert -
Present in previous and subsequent periods.
47 Naqada I present Confident Expert -
Crenellated walls around dwellings common from Amratian Period (Naqada I) onwards [1]

[1]: (Midant-Reynes 2000, 52)


48 Achaemenid Empire present Inferred Expert -
Present in previous and subsequent polities.
49 Elam - Crisis Period unknown Suspected Expert -
No reference.
50 Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period present Confident Expert -
According to Gnirs, "fortification architecture and techniques of siege had become the basic means of warfare by the third millennium BCE." [1] Fortress of Sile was an "important stronghold on the landbridge connecting the Egyptian Delta with Syria-Palestine." [2]

[1]: (Gnirs 2001)

[2]: (Van Dijk 2000, 285-286)


51 Egypt - Period of the Regions present Inferred Expert -
The expansionist Theban state likely to have used garrisons? [1]

[1]: (Seidlmayer 2003, 121)


52 Chuuk - Early Truk absent Inferred Expert -
Stone walls surrounded settlements rather than military camps on the move (see above).
53 Chuuk - Late Truk absent Inferred Expert -
Stone walls surrounded settlements rather than military camps on the move (see above).
54 Atlantic Complex unknown Suspected Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
55 Carolingian Empire I present Confident Expert -
David Baker says present. [1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.


56 Hallstatt A-B1 absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
57 Hallstatt B2-3 absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
58 Hallstatt D absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
59 Early Merovingian unknown Suspected Expert -
Not discussed in consulted literature RA.
60 Middle Merovingian unknown Suspected Expert -
Not discussed in consulted literature RA.
61 La Tene C2-D present Confident Expert -
Some oppida are fortified camps. cf Bibracte, in central France.
62 Hawaii I absent Confident Expert -
Not clear whether this information applies to pre-contact polities. "The Hawaiians generally did not build fornications, but non-combatants could find sacred sanctuary in places of refuge known as pu’uhonua." Pg 4. [1]

[1]: Hommon, Robert, J. 2013. The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.


63 Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial absent Confident Expert -
No references in the literature. RA.
64 Medang Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
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65 Canaan unknown Confident Expert -
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66 Kingdom of Ayodhya unknown Suspected Expert -
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67 Chalukyas of Badami unknown Suspected Expert -
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68 Chalukyas of Kalyani unknown Suspected Expert -
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69 Deccan - Iron Age unknown Suspected Expert -
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70 Post-Mauryan Kingdoms unknown Suspected Expert -
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71 Deccan - Neolithic unknown Suspected Expert -
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72 Early A'chik absent Confident Expert -
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73 Late A'chik absent Confident Expert -
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74 Gupta Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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75 Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
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76 Hoysala Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
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77 Kadamba Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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78 Kampili Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
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79 Kannauj - Varman Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
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80 Magadha unknown Suspected Expert -
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81 Mahajanapada era unknown Suspected Expert -
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82 Rashtrakuta Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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83 Satavahana Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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84 Magadha - Sunga Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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85 Vakataka Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
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86 Vijayanagara Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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87 Abbasid Caliphate I unknown Suspected Expert -
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88 Abbasid Caliphate II unknown Suspected Expert -
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89 Amorite Babylonia unknown Suspected Expert -
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90 Kassite Babylonia unknown Suspected Expert -
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91 Bazi Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
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92 Dynasty of E unknown Suspected Expert -
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93 Early Dynastic unknown Suspected Expert -
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94 Second Dynasty of Isin unknown Suspected Expert -
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95 Isin-Larsa unknown Suspected Expert -
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96 Neo-Assyrian Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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97 Ur - Dynasty III unknown Suspected Expert -
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98 Uruk unknown Suspected Expert -
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99 Ak Koyunlu unknown Suspected Expert -
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100 Buyid Confederation unknown Suspected Expert -
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101 Elymais II unknown Suspected Expert -
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102 Qajar unknown Suspected Expert -
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103 Sasanid Empire I unknown Suspected Expert -
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104 Sasanid Empire II unknown Suspected Expert -
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105 Latium - Bronze Age absent Confident Expert -
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106 Latium - Iron Age unknown Confident Expert -
-
107 Rome - Republic of St Peter II present Inferred Expert -
-
108 Papal States - Early Modern Period I present Confident Expert -
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109 Papal States - Early Modern Period II present Confident Expert -
-
110 Exarchate of Ravenna present Confident Expert -
-
111 Late Roman Republic present Confident Expert -
-
112 Roman Empire - Principate present Confident Expert -
-
113 Mataram Sultanate present Confident Expert -
Made of wood. [1]

[1]: (Schrieke 1957, 135)


114 Yehuda present Inferred Expert -
Present in preceding polities.
115 Mughal Empire present Confident Expert -
Used on campaign. [1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 260-269.


116 Akkadian Empire present Confident Expert -
fortress at Tell Brak erected by Naram-Sin [1]

[1]: Crawford 2004, 190


117 Neo-Babylonian Empire present Inferred Expert -
Present in previous and subsequent polities.
118 Ubaid absent Inferred Expert -
Do we even have any evidence for Ubaid armies going on long marches?
119 Susiana B unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


120 Elam - Kidinuid Period unknown Suspected Expert -
No reference.
121 Elam - Igihalkid Period unknown Suspected Expert -
No reference.
122 Elam - Shutrukid Period unknown Suspected Expert -
No reference.
123 Elam I unknown Suspected Expert -
No reference.
124 Elam II unknown Suspected Expert -
No reference.
125 Elam III unknown Suspected Expert -
No reference.
126 Safavid Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
Were any fortified camps necessary on Shah Abbas’s campaign to retake Iraq from the Ottomans?
127 Elam - Shimashki Period unknown Suspected Expert -
No reference.
128 Elam - Early Sukkalmah unknown Suspected Expert -
No reference.
129 Elam - Late Sukkalmah unknown Suspected Expert -
No reference.
130 Susa II unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


131 Latium - Copper Age absent Confident Expert -
No army to build temporary fortified camps.
132 Ostrogothic Kingdom present Confident Expert -
During siege of Ravenna 490-493 CE: "Theodoric, from his entrenched camp in the great pine-wood of Ravenna" [1]

[1]: (Hodgkin 1897)


133 Early Roman Republic present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 79-80)


134 Middle Roman Republic present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 79-80)


135 Roman Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
-
136 Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity present Confident Expert -
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137 Republic of St Peter I present Confident Expert -
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138 Republic of Venice III unknown Suspected Expert -
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139 Republic of Venice IV unknown Suspected Expert -
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140 Ashikaga Shogunate unknown Suspected Expert -
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141 Asuka unknown Suspected Expert -
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142 Heian unknown Suspected Expert -
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143 Kansai - Kofun Period unknown Suspected Expert -
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144 Nara Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
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145 Kansai - Yayoi Period unknown Suspected Expert -
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146 Kara-Khanids unknown Suspected Expert -
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147 Bronze Age Cambodia unknown Suspected Expert -
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148 Bronze Age Cambodia unknown Suspected Expert -
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149 Andronovo unknown Suspected Expert -
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150 Phoenician Empire unknown Confident Expert -
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151 Mali Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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152 Mongol Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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153 Late Mongols unknown Suspected Expert -
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154 Rouran Khaganate unknown Suspected Expert -
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155 Shiwei unknown Suspected Expert -
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156 Uigur Khaganate unknown Suspected Expert -
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157 Xianbei Confederation unknown Suspected Expert -
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158 Zungharian Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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159 Later Wagadu Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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160 Middle Wagadu Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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161 Early Monte Alban I unknown Suspected Expert -
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162 Monte Alban Late I unknown Suspected Expert -
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163 Monte Alban II unknown Suspected Expert -
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164 Monte Alban III unknown Suspected Expert -
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165 Monte Alban IIIB and IV unknown Suspected Expert -
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166 Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial absent Confident Expert -
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167 Orokaiva - Colonial absent Confident Expert -
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168 Sind - Samma Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
-
169 Japan - Early Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
170 Japan - Final Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
171 Tokugawa Shogunate present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Hall, John Whitney (ed.). 1991.The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. P.55


172 Early Angkor present Confident Expert -
’By the 11th century royally-sanctioned temples, garrisons, and officials were in place well beyond the Angkorian plain.’ [1]

[1]: (Lieberman 2003, p. 230)


173 Khmer Kingdom present Confident Expert -
’The initial move seems to have been to Srei Santhor, about 30 km (19 miles) northeast of Phnom Penh, at some time in the fourteenth century; then, briefly, to Phnom Penh itself. By about 1528, the Cambodian court under its first great Post-Angkorian king, Ang Chan I, had moved once and for all to the all to the Quatre Bras region, establishing a new capital at Lovek (Longvek), on the right bank of the Tonle Sap River, 50 km (30 miles) north of Phnom Penh. Love, like Udong and Phnom Penh- the town s that succeeded it as the capital- was thoroughly international, with foreign quarters for Malay, Japanese, and Chinese traders (there were as many as 3,000 of the last in the 1540s). There Ang Chan (who really did exist) built a golden palace and at least four major wats, erecting a huge, four-faced Buddha of wood, the stone foundation of which survive in one of the town’s vicars. The capital was fortified by earthen ramparts topped with palisades; these ramparts, which form a huge rectangle, are still visible.’ [1] ’Military campaings were probably conducted in the Post-Classic period as they had been during the Classic Era, but on a lesser scale: it is doubtful if any king of Lovek or Udong could muster the armies that were fielded by rulers like Suryavarman II. There was no standing army - in times of war, the patron was expected to muster a force of his clients, and place himself or an officer designated by the king at the head. The arms that they bore were substantially like those wielded by Classic warriors, with the addition of firearms and canon (after 1600). Again the principle of five ruled, as there were five corps: the vanguard, the rear guard, the right flank, the left flank, and the central corps or main body of the army, where the king kept himself with his war elephants. These animals were strengthened magically from time to time by bring sprayed with water mixed with human bile (or so say our sources); magical ideas also led the warriors to cover themselves with protective amulets. The king would be surrounded by Brahmins who conducted ritual ablutions, and by soothsayers who were consulted on the placement of military camps and for auspicious days for military operations.’ [2]

[1]: (Coe 2003, pp. 208-209)

[2]: (Coe 2003, p. 219)


174 Chenla present Inferred Expert -
Preceding polity had fortified camps.
175 Saadi Sultanate present Confident Expert -
Permanent garrisons near key river port.s [1] .

[1]: M. Abitbol, The end of the Songhay empire, in in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 300-326


176 Jenne-jeno I absent Inferred Expert -
no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [1]

[1]: (Reader 1998, 230)


177 Jenne-jeno III absent Inferred Expert -
no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [1]

[1]: (Reader 1998, 230)


178 Eastern Turk Khaganate absent Confident Expert -
According to personal communication with N. Kradin. [1]

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


179 Early Mongols present Confident Expert -
Kuren: Carts arranged in a circle defending the camp. [1]

[1]: (Timothy May 2007)


180 Second Turk Khaganate absent Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


181 Xiongnu Imperial Confederation present Inferred Expert -
Based on preceding and succeeding polities.
182 Late Formative Basin of Mexico absent Inferred Expert -
Probably unnecessary given probable scale and distances of military action.
183 Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico absent Inferred Expert -
Probably unnecessary given probable scale and distances of military action.
184 Oaxaca - Rosario unknown Suspected Expert -
Sources [1] do not mention any archaeological evidence for fortification for this period.

[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.


185 Kingdom of Norway II absent Confident Expert -
[According to the codebook this refers to fortified camps of armies on the move. It is highly unlikely that the small warbands of late medieval Iceland would make fortified camps when moving around. In most cases they would overnight at farmsteads.]
186 Cuzco - Early Intermediate II absent Confident Expert -
"Most sites are located in places that are better suited to farming than community defense, and the distribution of Qotakalli pottery to the level of hamlets suggests a high degree of interaction between settlements within the Cusco Basin." [1]

[1]: (Covey 2006, 60)


187 Cuzco - Late Formative absent Confident Expert -
Although there is no information on the warfare of this period, it is highly unlikely the resources were available for this technology.
188 Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [1] .

[1]: (Gregory L. Possehl. ’Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization’, Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)


189 Indo-Greek Kingdom present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Sidky, H., The Greek Kingdom of Bactria, from Alexander to Eucratides the Great, Oxford, 2000, pp. 168-169


190 Kachi Plain - Urban Period I absent Confident Expert -
As yet no evidence for fortified camps has been found in the Kachi Plain from this time period.
191 Sabaean Commonwealth unknown Suspected Expert -
Urban fortification in Yemen at time is relatively well studies and sources do not mention the existence of long walls. [1]

[1]: (De Maigret 2002: 267-273) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X3MRZCH5.


192 Umayyad Caliphate unknown Suspected Expert -
-
193 Sarazm unknown Suspected Expert -
-
194 East Roman Empire present Confident Expert -
-
195 Hatti - Old Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
-
196 Phrygian Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
-
197 Roman Empire - Dominate present Confident Expert -
-
198 Rum Sultanate unknown Suspected Expert -
-
199 Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late absent Confident Expert -
-
200 Proto-Haudenosaunee Confederacy unknown Suspected Expert -
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201 Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period absent Confident Expert -
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202 Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II absent Confident Expert -
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203 Cahokia - Sand Prairie absent Confident Expert -
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204 Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I absent Confident Expert -
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205 Oneota unknown Suspected Expert -
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206 Chagatai Khanate unknown Suspected Expert -
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207 Khanate of Bukhara unknown Suspected Expert -
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208 Ancient Khwarazm unknown Suspected Expert -
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209 Koktepe I unknown Suspected Expert -
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210 Koktepe II unknown Suspected Expert -
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211 Samanid Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
-
212 Sogdiana - City-States Period unknown Suspected Expert -
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213 Himyar I unknown Suspected Expert -
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214 Himyar II unknown Suspected Expert -
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215 Yemen - Late Bronze Age absent Inferred Expert -
-
216 Neolithic Yemen unknown Suspected Expert -
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217 Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
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218 Qatabanian Commonwealth unknown Suspected Expert -
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219 Rasulid Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
-
220 Kingdom of Saba and Dhu Raydan unknown Suspected Expert -
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221 Yemen - Tahirid Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
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222 Yemen - Era of Warlords unknown Suspected Expert -
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223 Yemen Ziyad Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
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224 Durrani Empire present Confident Expert -
Armies did fortify their camps in this period. [1]

[1]: Roy, Kaushik. War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740-1849. Taylor & Francis, 2011. pp. 30-35


225 Western Jin present Confident Expert -
"field defences such as wagon laagers, earth ramparts or felled trees became very widespread, and many battles to the form of assaults on fortified lines or camps." [1]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 20)


226 Longshan absent Inferred Expert -
No military organization [1] so there was no army to make a fortified camp.

[1]: (Otterbein 2004, 160) Otterbein, Keith. 2004. How War Began. University of Texas A&M Press.


227 Northern Wei present Inferred Expert -
Present for the previous polity.
228 Early Qing present Confident Expert -
"Furdan, the commander of the northern army, built a fort at Khobdo, deep in Mongolia." [1]

[1]: (Lorge 2005, 163)


229 Sui Dynasty present Inferred Expert -
Present for previous polities.
230 Tang Dynasty I present Confident Expert -
T’ang armies on campaign protected themselves whenever possible with elaborate fortified camps. [1]

[1]: (Benn 2002, 45) Benn, Charles. 2002. China’s Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press.


231 Western Zhou unknown Suspected Expert -
camps built on campaigns unlikely to be preserved. are there any references to them in textual sources?
232 Jenne-jeno IV absent Confident Expert -
no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [1]

[1]: (Reader 1998, 230)


233 Yangshao absent Inferred Expert -
No military organization [1] so there was no army to make a fortified camp.

[1]: (Otterbein 2004, 160) Otterbein, Keith. 2004. How War Began. University of Texas A&M Press.


234 Neguanje absent Inferred Expert -
No evidence for fortifications in the Neguanje period has been found yet. [1]

[1]: (Giraldo 2015, personal communication)


235 Egypt - Kushite Period present Inferred Expert -
needs expert verification
236 Ayutthaya present Inferred Expert -
Previous polity had this form of fortification.
237 Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
238 Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
239 Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
240 Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
241 Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
242 Hatti - New Kingdom absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
243 Kingdom of Lydia unknown Suspected Expert -
not mentioned in literature
244 Konya Plain - Ceramic Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
245 Konya Plain - Early Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
246 Konya Plain - Late Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
247 Neo-Hittite Kingdoms absent Confident Expert -
Technology not yet available
248 Tabal Kingdoms unknown Suspected Expert -
Not mentioned in sources
249 Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling absent Confident Expert -
There were "fortified enclaves of Cahokians to the north, for example, at Aztalan in southeastern Wisconsin." [1] However, they were not camps, probably large villages of 500-1000 people. [2]

[1]: (Peregrine/Emerson 2014, 13)

[2]: (Peregrine 2014, personal communication)


250 Timurid Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
Had camps. Troops were required to bring tents on campaigns. [1]

[1]: (Marozzi 2004, 100) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London.


251 Tairona absent Confident Expert -
"There are no doors or doorways, restricted passageways, labyrinthine corridors or walls physically restricting access to any structure within the towns. As a matter of fact, there are no town walls or enclosures for defense either." [1] Pueblito: "It is also important to note that, in contradistinction to other pre-Hispanic groups of the Northern Andes contemporaneous with the Tairona, such as the better known Muisca of the Eastern Highlands (Boada 1998, Henderson and Ostler 2005, Villate 2001) or even the Calima and Malagana societies of the Cauca Valley (Cardale de Schrimpff and Bray 2005), the town itself, its plazas and their attendant structures were not enclosed at any time through palisades, fortifications, narrow corridors or other physical means used to restrict access and circulation." [2]

[1]: (Giraldo 2010, 28)

[2]: (Giraldo 2010, 207)


252 Shuar - Ecuadorian absent Confident Expert -
[NB: The following has been classed as a settlement in a defensive position for the time being, as it is uncertain whether this satisfies the description of a fortified camp: "When the menaced Jívaro is the chief of the tribe or a person of prestige, he constructs a very remarkable kind of a fort on the top of a hill where he can see a long way. Four enormous strong posts, 25 m. high, chosen from among the strongest in the forest, support a little room 3 m. square with a floor of strong wood, a roof like those in the houses, surrounded by a wall of chonta and caña one meter high. A big ladder is the only way of getting in. In this fort are placed an enormous tunduli, rocks to be thrown against the assailants, lances, machetes, implements of every sort, and occasionally a good Winchester rifle completes the armament. It is unnecessary to add that all the approaches are protected by numerous traps." [1] ]

[1]: Rivet, Paul. 1907. “Jivaro Indians: Geographic, Historical And Ethnographic Research.”, 617-618


253 Ayyubid Sultanate present Inferred Expert -
"Saladin had small fortified khans built along some vital or exposed trade routes, this being the Khan al’Arus just north of Damacus." [1]

[1]: (Nicolle 2011) Nicolle, D. 2011. Saladin. Osprey Publishing.


254 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I present Confident Expert -
Ditch. Camp was a circle of tents with a ditch and an advance guard. [1] "A concern for morale and a tradition of efficient administration lay behind the cleanliness and good order of mamluk military camps, especially during sieges such as that of Acre in 1291. Such encampments had baths with warm water and professional attendants, along with latrines for the officers and probably for ordinary mamluks." [2]

[1]: (Nicolle 1996, 135-181)

[2]: (Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd.


255 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III present Confident Expert -
Ditch. Camp was a circle of tents with a ditch and an advance guard. [1] "A concern for morale and a tradition of efficient administration lay behind the cleanliness and good order of mamluk military camps, especially during sieges such as that of Acre in 1291. Such encampments had baths with warm water and professional attendants, along with latrines for the officers and probably for ordinary mamluks." [2] 1517 CE the troops of Ottoman sultan Selim "stormed the fortified camp of al-Raydaniyya, outside Cairo." [3]

[1]: (Nicolle 1996, 135-181)

[2]: (Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

[3]: (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 25) Oliver R and Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.


256 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II present Confident Expert -
Ditch. Camp was a circle of tents with a ditch and an advance guard. [1] "A concern for morale and a tradition of efficient administration lay behind the cleanliness and good order of mamluk military camps, especially during sieges such as that of Acre in 1291. Such encampments had baths with warm water and professional attendants, along with latrines for the officers and probably for ordinary mamluks." [2]

[1]: (Nicolle 1996, 135-181)

[2]: (Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd.


257 Egypt - Middle Kingdom present Confident Expert -
Senusret I (1971-1928 BCE) controlled Nubia with fortresses, among them Buhen. [1] Set up a series of massive fortresses. [2] Fortified towns designed to control river traffic and trade. [3] Fortifications at the Isthmus of Suez and the southern frontier at the First Cataract of the Nile. [4]

[1]: (http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/history12-17.htm#amenemheti)

[2]: (Quirke 2001)

[3]: (Manning 2012, 75-76)

[4]: (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 5)


258 Naqada II present Confident Expert -
Crenellated walls around dwellings common from Amratian Period (Naqada I) onwards [1] "In the northern part of South Town Petrie found the remains of a thick mudbrick wall, which appeared to be "a fortification with divisions within it" (Petrie and Quibell 1896: 54)." [2]

[1]: (Midant-Reynes 2000, 52)

[2]: (Bard 1994, 272)


259 Egypt - Dynasty 0 present Confident Expert -
Crenellated walls around dwellings common from Amratian Period (Naqada I) onwards [1] "In the northern part of South Town Petrie found the remains of a thick mudbrick wall, which appeared to be "a fortification with divisions within it" (Petrie and Quibell 1896: 54)." [2]

[1]: (Midant-Reynes 2000, 52)

[2]: (Bard 1994, 272)


260 Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom present Confident Expert -
Pepi I (2289-2255 BCE) set up garrisons in Nubia. [1]

[1]: ([3])


261 Egypt - Saite Period present Confident Expert -
"Herodotus informs us that stratopeda (’camps’) were established between Bubastis and the sea on the branch of the Nile. He claims that these camps were occupied without a break for over a century until the mercenaries were moved to Memphis at the beginning of the reign of Ahmose II (570-526 BC), but the archaeological evidence presents a rather more complex picture." [1] e.g. Tell Defenna and another south of Pelusium. [1]

[1]: (Lloyd 2000, 366)


262 Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period present Confident Expert -
"civilian settlements also appeared to have acquired the character of military strongholds in the Third Intermediate Period." Memphis and Hermopolis were fortified and were "sufficiently strong to withstand a siege." [1]

[1]: (Taylor 2000, 34)


263 Ilkhanate present Confident Expert -
The summer palace built by Hülegü’s son Abaqa near Lake Urmia had "massive oval walls protected by towers and accessed by a new gate". [1]

[1]: Sheila S. Blair, ’IL-KHANIDS ii. Architecture’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-ii-architecture


264 Susiana A unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


265 Spanish Empire I present Confident Expert -
Garrisons [1] "Since the great wars of the fourteenth century, when Barcelona and Valencia built the magnificent fortifications which survived down to the nineteenth century, the walls of Spanish towns had generally been allowed to fall into decline. Travellers from the war-torn Europe of the 1500s and 1600s were surprised at how Spain managed to get along with medieval ramparts, and how little was spent on the bastions and counter-scarps of contemporary defence. But the walls were still used as a control on movement in and out, and particularly for the collection of the sisas or excise tax, which was the basis of municipal budgets." [2] Fortress towns. [3]

[1]: (Bradley 2009, 195) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR

[2]: (Casey 2002, 113) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT

[3]: (Casey 2002, 3 Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT


266 Beaker Culture present Confident Expert -
"Evidence for warfare varies in the different areas of Europe during the Late Neolithic. In France, numerous fortified sites are found (Cassen and Boujot 1990); for example, in the Charentes and adjoining regions approximately 60 fortified sites are known (Giot 1994). Some of them such as Champ-Durand in Vendee, have a triple row of interrupted ditches with dry-stone walls and towers to protect entrances." [1]

[1]: (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 259)


267 Carolingian Empire II present Confident Expert -
David Baker says present. [1]

[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.


268 Hallstatt C absent Inferred Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
269 Proto-Carolingian unknown Suspected Expert -
Not discussed in consulted literature RA.
270 La Tene A-B1 absent Confident Expert -
Not mentioned in the literature.
271 La Tene B2-C1 present Confident Expert -
"Small fortified cities became common in the fourth and third centuries BC." [1]

[1]: (Brun 1995, 16)


272 French Kingdom - Late Valois present Confident Expert -
Fortified camps particularly significant in 16th Century. Popular example 1536 CE fortified camp built under Montmorency near Avignon. [1]

[1]: (Potter 2008, 203)


273 Delhi Sultanate present Confident Expert -
Fortified camp outside of a city mentioned in the context of a war against Vijayanagaran king. [1] Don’t have access to previous page but I presume it is the Delhi Sultanate at war since the book is about the Delhi Sultanate.

[1]: Abraham Eraly. 2015. The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin Random House.


274 Oaxaca - Tierras Largas unknown Suspected Expert -
The fact that sources mention evidence for defensive palisades [1] but not evidence for any other kind of fortification suggests that there is only evidence for the former. Evidence for large or complex fortifications has not been found for this period.

[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p102


275 Susiana - Late Ubaid unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


276 Susiana - Early Ubaid unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


277 Hawaii II absent Confident Expert -
Not clear whether this information applies to pre-contact polities. "The Hawaiians generally did not build fornications, but non-combatants could find sacred sanctuary in places of refuge known as pu’uhonua." Pg 4. [1]

[1]: Hommon, Robert, J. 2013. The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.


278 Hawaii III absent Confident Expert -
"The Hawaiians generally did not build fortifications, but non-combatants could find sacred sanctuary in places of refuge known as pu’uhonua." Pg 4. [1]

[1]: Hommon, Robert, J. 2013. The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.


279 Kediri Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [1]

[1]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.


280 Majapahit Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter. [1] This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification. Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2]

[1]: (Miksic 2000, 115)

[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.


281 Yisrael present Inferred Expert -
"One of Saul’s important innovations was the introduction of the fortified camp for prolonged campaigns. These were well-organized, semipermanent base camps broken into special zones for training, ordinance [sic] manufacture, and quartermaster." [1] This source is fairly speculative and based on textual reading of the Bible. Later, in I Samuel 23:14, David is described as living in מצדות in the desert, variously translated as "strongholds" or "fortified camps." I favor the latter translation, as a permanent stronghold would have been easy for Saul to find.

[1]: Gabriel (2003:32)


282 Gahadavala Dynasty absent Inferred Expert -
Under chapter 9 "The Rajput Administration": "Very often the army had to remain for months in camps with either the ruler or some royal prince in command. So the camp could be a very elaborate affair." [1] Subsequent description does not mention fortification. In a camp of the type described by Suri "an army could live on for months, expecting the besieged either to get tired or run short of essential supplies of commodities like food and water (Kathakosaprakarana, pp. 164-65)." [2]

[1]: (Bakshi, Gajrani and Singh eds 2005, 393) S R Bakshi. S Gajrani. Hari Singh. eds. 2005. Early Aryans to Swaraj. Volume 3: Indian Education and Rajputs. Sarup & Sons. New Delhi.

[2]: (Bakshi, Gajrani and Singh eds 2005, 394) S R Bakshi. S Gajrani. Hari Singh. eds. 2005. Early Aryans to Swaraj. Volume 3: Indian Education and Rajputs. Sarup & Sons. New Delhi.


283 Magadha - Maurya Empire present Confident Expert -
Kautilya’s Arthashastra mentions fortified camps (Book X, Relating to War). Royal camps were constructed on the model of a fort. [1] [2] Site chosen by team of commander, astrologer and engineer. King’s quarters "surrounded by trenches, parapets, and a wall with gates." [3]

[1]: Schlingloff, Dieter. Fortified Cities of Ancient India: A Comparative Study. Anthem Press, 2013. p. 39

[2]: Allchin, F. Raymond. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995., p.230.

[3]: (Bradford and Bradford 2001, 126) Bradford, Alfred S. Bradford, Pamela, M. 2001. With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World. Greenwood Publishing Group.


284 Southern Mesopotamia Neolithic absent Inferred Expert -
"As with the rest of the Near East, there is little evidence for warfare in Neolithic Mesopotamia." [1]

[1]: (Hamblin 2006: 33) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4WM3RBTD.


285 Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


286 Elam - Awan Dynasty I unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


287 Formative Period unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


288 Parthian Empire I absent Inferred Expert -
No mention in sources so far consulted. Parthian army was small and cavalry based. After takeover of Persia and Mesopotamia Parthians did not campaign and mostly fought defensive wars. Due to mobile nature of warfare and lack of campaigns unlikely to have developed and/or required fortified camps.
289 Parthian Empire II absent Inferred Expert -
No mention in sources so far consulted. Parthian army was small and cavalry based. After takeover of Persia and Mesopotamia Parthians did not campaign and mostly fought defensive wars. Due to mobile nature of warfare and lack of campaigns unlikely to have developed and/or required fortified camps.
290 Pre-Ceramic Period unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


291 Seleucids present Confident Expert -
Garrisons were widely used throughout the empire, including in cities to, ‘…guard against possible uprisings, to provide security for the local population, so that it could go about its daily activites, and to ensure that tribute was collected by financial officials of the administration.’ [1]

[1]: Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p199


292 Seljuk Sultanate present Inferred Expert -
"The Seljuks tended to use fortresses and citadels more as temporary bases in terms of emergency than as permanent bases, and were more likely to base their camps outside rather than at the heart of cities." [1]

[1]: (Peacock 2015, 240) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.


293 Susa I unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


294 Susa III unknown Suspected Expert -
‘early Neolithic settlements have proven difficult to document even in intensively surveyed regions.’ There is only evidence for mudbrick architecture [1]

[1]: Lloyd R. Weeks, ‘The Development and Expansion of a Neolithic Way of Life’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 56


295 Icelandic Commonwealth absent Confident Expert -
[According to the codebook this refers to fortified camps of armies on the move. It is highly unlikely that the small warbands of late medieval Iceland would make fortified camps when moving around. In most cases they would overnight at farmsteads.]
296 Bamana kingdom present Inferred Expert -
Reference for pre-colonial African warfare: "The formation of a fortified camp, distinct from the parent town or towns, was usually the first step taken by a West African army when it advanced into the field. ... the leaders were sheltered by tents or by walls of matting while the soldiers slept under such shelter as they could find... But on arrival at the point chosen by the commander as the base of operations, the practice was to throw up an earthern wall surrounded by a ditch (the excavation from which the wall had been built)." [1] Present. [2]

[1]: (Smith 1989, 100) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.

[2]: S.A. Djata, The Bamana kingdom by the Niger (1997), p. 17


297 Jenne-jeno II absent Confident Expert -
no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [1]

[1]: (Reader 1998, 230)


298 Papal States - High Medieval Period present Inferred Expert -
General reference for the time period in Europe: tents were the form of accommodation for wealthier traveling soldiers. At least from the 13th century the tents of nobles were huge, showy constructions. [1] "The old Roman practice of preparing a fortified camp at the end of each day’s march did not survive the empire’s fall, though the practice was revived in one form or another in some fifteenth-century armies, often using specially made wagons to make temporary ramparts." [2] Crusades historian Guibert of Nogent (d. 1124 CE) said the Roman-type camp did not exist. [2] General reference for the time period in Europe: palisade and ditch were sometimes used for long stays or when night attack feared. Watchmen and guard patrols were commonly used. [3]

[1]: (Rogers 2007, 34) Clifford J Rogers. 2007. Soldiers’ Lives Through History: The Middle Ages. Greenwood Press. Westport.

[2]: (Rogers 2007, 81) Clifford J Rogers. 2007. Soldiers’ Lives Through History: The Middle Ages. Greenwood Press. Westport.

[3]: (Rogers 2007, 82) Clifford J Rogers. 2007. Soldiers’ Lives Through History: The Middle Ages. Greenwood Press. Westport.


299 Papal States - Renaissance Period unknown Suspected Expert -
General reference for the time period in Europe: tents were the form of accommodation for wealthier traveling soldiers. At least from the 13th century the tents of nobles were huge, showy constructions. [1] "The old Roman practice of preparing a fortified camp at the end of each day’s march did not survive the empire’s fall, though the practice was revived in one form or another in some fifteenth-century armies, often using specially made wagons to make temporary ramparts." [2] Crusades historian Guibert of Nogent (d. 1124 CE) said the Roman-type camp did not exist. [2] General reference for the time period in Europe: palisade and ditch were sometimes used for long stays or when night attack feared. Watchmen and guard patrols were commonly used. [3]

[1]: (Rogers 2007, 34) Clifford J Rogers. 2007. Soldiers’ Lives Through History: The Middle Ages. Greenwood Press. Westport.

[2]: (Rogers 2007, 81) Clifford J Rogers. 2007. Soldiers’ Lives Through History: The Middle Ages. Greenwood Press. Westport.

[3]: (Rogers 2007, 82) Clifford J Rogers. 2007. Soldiers’ Lives Through History: The Middle Ages. Greenwood Press. Westport.


300 Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama absent Inferred Expert -
field fortifications "did not suit the fluid nature of most samurai warfare and make only rare appearances such as at Okita Nawate in 1584" [1]

[1]: (Turnbull 2002)


301 Japan - Incipient Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
302 Japan - Initial Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
303 Japan - Middle Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
304 Japan - Late Jomon absent Confident Expert -
No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful.
305 Kamakura Shogunate present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press. p.173.


306 Warring States Japan absent Confident Expert -
field fortifications "did not suit the fluid nature of most samurai warfare and make only rare appearances such as at Okita Nawate in 1584" [1]

[1]: (Turnbull 2002)


307 Western Turk Khaganate absent Confident Expert -
[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


308 Classical Angkor present Confident Expert -
’The wall [of Angkor Thom] is entirely made of superimposed blocks of stone; it is about two [sic] fathoms high. The bonding of the stones is very compact and solid, and no weeds are found there. There is no crenellation.’ On the ramparts, in certain places gangling [kuang-lang, kouang-lang] trees have been planted. At regular distances are found empty casemates. The inner side of the wall is like a ramp wider than ten fathoms. On top of each ramp are huge doors, closed at night, and open in the morning. There are also guards at the gates.’ [1]

[1]: (Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 19)


309 Late Angkor present Confident Expert -
’The wall [of Angkor Thom] is entirely made of superimposed blocks of stone; it is about two [sic] fathoms high. The bonding of the stones is very compact and solid, and no weeds are found there. There is no crenellation.’ On the ramparts, in certain places gangling [kuang-lang, kouang-lang] trees have been planted. At regular distances are found empty casemates. The inner side of the wall is like a ramp wider than ten fathoms. On top of each ramp are huge doors, closed at night, and open in the morning. There are also guards at the gates.’ [1]

[1]: (Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 19)


310 Funan I present Confident Expert -
’The picture [of the Funan] is one of small town-states, moated, fortified and frequently in conflict with each other.’ [1] ’There is considerable evidence for conflict and the imposition of hegemony by one group over another in Southeast Asia from earliest times. From the Angkor period (after 800CE), there is ample evidence of conflict, both from inscriptions (Finot 1925; Jacques 1986) and bas-reliefs (Chetwin 2001; Clark 2007; Coedés 1932; Jacq-Hergoualc’h 2007; Le Bonheur & Poncar 1993). Accounts from Chinese histories provide indirect evidence for conflict in the earlier period too. One indicates that settlements in the polity of Funan, located in the Mekong Delta, were fortified. Another reveals that missions were sent to China by a number of polities conquered by Chenla, the power that superseded Funan in Cambodia, after CE 650-6 (Tuan-Lin 1876).’ [2]

[1]: (Freeman and Jacques 1999, p. 8)

[2]: (Dommet et al 2011, p.441)


311 Funan II present Confident Expert -
’The picture [of the Funan] is one of small town-states, moated, fortified and frequently in conflict with each other.’ [1] ’There is considerable evidence for conflict and the imposition of hegemony by one group over another in Southeast Asia from earliest times. From the Angkor period (after 800CE), there is ample evidence of conflict, both from inscriptions (Finot 1925; Jacques 1986) and bas-reliefs (Chetwin 2001; Clark 2007; Coedés 1932; Jacq-Hergoualc’h 2007; Le Bonheur & Poncar 1993). Accounts from Chinese histories provide indirect evidence for conflict in the earlier period too. One indicates that settlements in the polity of Funan, located in the Mekong Delta, were fortified. Another reveals that missions were sent to China by a number of polities conquered by Chenla, the power that superseded Funan in Cambodia, after CE 650-6 (Tuan-Lin 1876).’ [2]

[1]: (Freeman and Jacques 1999, p. 8)

[2]: (Dommet et al 2011, p.441)


312 Segou Kingdom present Inferred Expert -
Reference for pre-colonial African warfare: "The formation of a fortified camp, distinct from the parent town or towns, was usually the first step taken by a West African army when it advanced into the field. ... the leaders were sheltered by tents or by walls of matting while the soldiers slept under such shelter as they could find... But on arrival at the point chosen by the commander as the base of operations, the practice was to throw up an earthern wall surrounded by a ditch (the excavation from which the wall had been built)." [1]

[1]: (Smith 1989, 100) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.


313 Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty present Inferred Expert -
About Timbuktu: The first city wall seems to date from the time of Malian hegemony. It was probably fortified by Sonni Ali and Askia Mohammed to protect the city from surprise attacks. [...] The new city wall was a c.5km ring, with a diameter of 1000m. "La première enceinte de la ville semble dater du temps de l’hégémonie malienne. Elle fut fortifiée sans doute par Sonni Ali et Askia Mohammed pour mettre la ville à l’abri des attaques surprises. [...] La nouvelle enceinte décrivait un périmètre à peu près circulaire, long d’environ 5 kilomètres avec un diamètre de 1000 mètres." [1]

[1]: (Niane 1975, 70)


314 Khitan I present Confident Expert -
"There are several sites in central and western Mongolia that probably served as border outposts inhabited by relocated Jurchen and Chinese (Ou-yang Hsu ̈an 1937a). One of these is the site of Khar Bukhyn Balgas. Like several other sites, it consists of a large square defensive wall constructed of rammed earth enclosing an area of nearly 1 km2 (Rogers et al. 2005, p. 807). Additional sites in Mongolia that have large defensive walls are the Kherlen Bars 1, Kherlen Bars 3, Sumt, East Wall, and West Wall sites (Dashnyam et al. 1999)." [1]

[1]: (Rogers 2012, 228)


315 Early Xiongnu present Confident Expert -
Inferred from the Shajing people, nearby Mongolia:"people were sedentary and lived in fortified settlements surrounded by earthen walls." [1]

[1]: Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 46


316 Late Xiongnu present Confident Expert -
"Botanical analyses were conducted at the Ivolga site complex, an important example of a fortified settlement of 2,500-3,000 people specializing in agriculture and metal production in the Transbaikal region (Davydova 1995; Kradin 2005a). " [1]

[1]: (Rogers 2012, 221)


317 Monte Alban V absent Confident Expert -
Evidence for fortified camps has not been found for this period. [1]

[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.


318 Archaic Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic." [1]

[1]: (Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7.


319 Aztec Empire absent Inferred Expert -
"For fortifications, Aztec sites show a broad range with some totally exposed on valley floors and others being walled or at elevations. Tenochtitlan only had walls around the sacred precinct but of course had natural fortification by being an island in a lake that could be entered only through a few causeways. At the high end of fortification was the Tlaxcalan stronghold of Tepeticpac, up on a high hill and encircled by walls. That was their strategy of resistance against the Aztec empire. Huexotla is a site in the domain of Texcoco with a large wall and their were fortified garrisons on the frontier between the Aztec and Tarascan empires, in west Mexico. But probably more sites were not fortified than were. There was nothing comparable to the medieval European pattern or earlier fortified city states of Mesopotamia or elsewhere in Eurasia." [1]

[1]: (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro)


320 Classic Basin of Mexico absent Inferred Expert -
"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic." [1]

[1]: (Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7.


321 Epiclassic Basin of Mexico present Confident Expert -
"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic." [1]

[1]: (Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7.


322 Initial Formative Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic." [1]

[1]: (Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7.


323 Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
"For urban centres in the rest of Mesoamerica, the lack of perimeter walls and defensive settings is striking. The undefended nature of Aztec towns, for example, contrasts sharply with the ethnohistoric record of Aztec warfare". [1]

[1]: (Smith 2003: 38) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEIQNSNP


324 Oaxaca - San Jose unknown Suspected Expert -
The fact that sources mention evidence for defensive palisades [1] but not evidence for any other kind of fortification suggests that there is only evidence for the former. Evidence for large or complex fortifications has not been found for this period.

[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p102


325 Toltecs present Confident Expert -
"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic." [1]

[1]: (Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7.


326 Cuzco - Late Intermediate I present Confident Expert -
Tipón "This Late Intermediate Period settlement and its agricultural lands and water sources were surrounded by an enormous defensive wall, constructed of rough field stones and mud mortar, approximately five meters in height. In other sections, areas of sheer cliff blocked access to the site. These defensive features of the site run for several kilometers." [1] Many forts and fortifications developed when the Inca state annexed new territory outside the Cuzco Basin during the Inca state period. [2] Within this period ? walls were constructed at Muyuch’urqu, and there were defenses at Raqchi. [3] However it is not clear from text whether construction is before 1250 CE and whether they were built by the Incas. Early Inca architecture at Markasunay in the Sacred Valley [3] but if the Incas did not expand into the Sacred Valley until 1250-1310 CE period by "early" author must mean not as early as 1000-1200, the date in the title of the chapter. According to D’Altroy, Cuzco valley settlements (initially?) were unfortified, open positions in contrast to those of the neighbouring highland settlements. [4]

[1]: (Bauer and Covey 2002, 858)

[2]: (Covey 2006, 127)

[3]: (Covey 2006, 91)

[4]: (D’Altroy 2014, 79)


327 Cuzco - Late Intermediate II present Confident Expert -
"As the Inca state annexed new territory outside the Cusco Basin, it appears to have developed a number of forts and fortifications". There was an early Inca fort at Raqchi (village since 1000 CE): walls protected interior architecture and a dry moat, which augmented natural fortifications, surrounded the village. Other early Inca forts at Warq’ana (walls and ditch) and Pumamarca. [1] Wat’a (Huata) had surrounding walls. [2]

[1]: (Covey 2006a, 127)

[2]: (D’Altroy 2014, 82)


328 Inca Empire present Confident Expert -
Fortress. [1] Cancha walled enclosures.

[1]: (Bauer 2004, 100-101)


329 Wari Empire present Confident Expert -
Two heavily fortified hilltop complexes Cerro Echenique and Cerro Trapiche. [1]

[1]: (Moseley M E, Feldman R A, Goldstein P S, Watanabe L in Isbell and McEwan ed. 1991, 135)


330 Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [1] .

[1]: (Gregory L. Possehl. ’Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization’, Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)


331 Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic absent Confident Expert -
Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [1]

[1]: (Gregory L. Possehl. ’Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization’, Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)


332 Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period absent Confident Expert -
No evidence of fortifications have been found at Pirak. [1]

[1]: Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard.


333 Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period absent Confident Expert -
Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [1]

[1]: (Gregory L. Possehl. ’Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization’, Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)


334 Kachi Plain - Urban Period II absent Confident Expert -
As yet no evidence for fortified camps has been found in the Kachi Plain from this time period.
335 Sakha - Early absent Confident Expert -
The description seems to suggest that Sakha fortification were permanent structures rather than being constructed on the move: "When speaking of structures, we should also mention the fact that in the old days the Yakuts knew how to make fortifications or ostrozhki, as they were called in the Russian texts of the 17th century. For example, in 1636-1637, during the campaign against the Kangalastsy, the Russian Cossacks found that “they had built strong forts with two walls covered with gravel, and surrounded by snow and water;” it was only after a two-day assault that the Cossacks managed to take one of these forts. In 1642 the Russians also took a Yakut fortress after great difficulty: “. . . the fort was made with two walls, the space between the walls was filled with earth, and there were log towers.” At a later stage these fortifications disappeared, and no one has described them since in detail. But even in the 19th century it was possible to find special tower-like barns here and there, which belonged to the Toyons." [1]

[1]: Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts.” Peoples Of Siberia, 265


336 Sakha - Late absent Confident Expert -
The description seems to suggest that Sakha fortification were permanent structures rather than being constructed on the move: "When speaking of structures, we should also mention the fact that in the old days the Yakuts knew how to make fortifications or ostrozhki, as they were called in the Russian texts of the 17th century. For example, in 1636-1637, during the campaign against the Kangalastsy, the Russian Cossacks found that “they had built strong forts with two walls covered with gravel, and surrounded by snow and water;” it was only after a two-day assault that the Cossacks managed to take one of these forts. In 1642 the Russians also took a Yakut fortress after great difficulty: “. . . the fort was made with two walls, the space between the walls was filled with earth, and there were log towers.” At a later stage these fortifications disappeared, and no one has described them since in detail. But even in the 19th century it was possible to find special tower-like barns here and there, which belonged to the Toyons." [1]

[1]: Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts.” Peoples Of Siberia, 265


337 Rattanakosin unknown Suspected Expert -
No references in the literature.
338 Fatimid Caliphate present Confident Expert -
Cairo settlement began as an "encampment" built by a general. The walls were built before the mosque and the palace "which seems to have been something of an afterthought." "Cairo was founded to be a temporary way-station for the Fatimids’ conquest of the Muslim lands in their entirety." [1] Mahdiyya in Tunisia had an 8.3 meters thick wall and 110 towers on its ramparts. [2]

[1]: (Bloom 2007, 103, 110) Bennison A K, Gascoigne A L eds. 2007. Cities in the Pre-Modern Islamic World: The Urban Impact of Religion, State and Society. Routledge.

[2]: (Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles.


339 Byzantine Empire I present Confident Expert -
Preiser-Kapeller says present. [1] "Like their ancestors the antique Romans, the Byzantines dug camp every night, surrounding it with a ditch and palisade." [2]

[1]: (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)

[2]: (O’Rourke 2010, 8) O’Rourke, M. 2010. The Land Forces of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire in the 10th Century. Canberra.


340 Byzantine Empire II present Confident Expert -
Preiser-Kapeller says present. [1] "Like their ancestors the antique Romans, the Byzantines dug camp every night, surrounding it with a ditch and palisade." [2]

[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)

[2]: (O’Rourke 2010, 8) O’Rourke, M. 2010. The Land Forces of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire in the 10th Century. Canberra.


341 Byzantine Empire III present Confident Expert -
Preiser-Kapeller says present. [1] "Like their ancestors the antique Romans, the Byzantines dug camp every night, surrounding it with a ditch and palisade." [2]

[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)

[2]: (O’Rourke 2010, 8) O’Rourke, M. 2010. The Land Forces of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire in the 10th Century. Canberra.


342 Late Cappadocia present Inferred Expert -
“Assuming that hypaithrou and Tyana also designate intended users, the coins attest to a disposition of troops both in Tyana’s famous fortress and outside the city in a strategic encampment.” [1]

[1]: Iossif, P. P and Lorber, C. C. (2010) Hypaithros: A Numismatic Contribution to the Military History of Cappadocia. Historia, Band 59/4, Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart. p445


343 Lysimachus Kingdom present Confident Expert -
The preceding Macedonians under Alexander the Great built fortified camps. [1] Lysimachus built a fortified camp near the Phyrgian city of Abassium on a campaign against Antigonus. [2]

[1]: (Buckley 1996, 383) Terry Buckley.1996. Aspects of Greek History, 750-323 BC: A Source-based Approach. London. Routledge.

[2]: (Champion 2014, 155) Jeff Champion. 2014. Antigonus the One-Eyed: Greatest of the Successors. Pen & Sword. Barnsley.


344 Ottoman Emirate present Confident Expert -
"Ottoman strategy relied on mobility and offensive tactics during their era of expansion, but from the second half of the 17th century, as they lost the tactical initiative, the Turks were increasingly obliged to rely on elaborate field fortifications." [1] Present, see description of Battle of Nikopolis 1396 CE. [2]

[1]: (Nicolle 1983, 6)

[2]: Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.


345 Ottoman Empire I present Confident Expert -
"Ottoman strategy relied on mobility and offensive tactics during their era of expansion, but from the second half of the 17th century, as they lost the tactical initiative, the Turks were increasingly obliged to rely on elaborate field fortifications." [1]

[1]: (Nicolle 1983, 6)


346 Ottoman Empire II present Confident Expert -
In the field the tabur fortification system was used, waggons would be chained together to protect artillery and manned by Janissaries. [1] "Ottoman strategy relied on mobility and offensive tactics during their era of expansion, but from the second half of the 17th century, as they lost the tactical initiative, the Turks were increasingly obliged to rely on elaborate field fortifications." [2]

[1]: (Nicolle 1983, 7)

[2]: (Nicolle 1983, 6)


347 Ottoman Empire III present Confident Expert -
In the field the tabur fortification system was used, waggons would be chained together to protect artillery and manned by Janissaries. [1] "Ottoman strategy relied on mobility and offensive tactics during their era of expansion, but from the second half of the 17th century, as they lost the tactical initiative, the Turks were increasingly obliged to rely on elaborate field fortifications." [2]

[1]: (Nicolle 1983, 7)

[2]: (Nicolle 1983, 6)


348 Cahokia - Moorehead absent Confident Expert -
There were "fortified enclaves of Cahokians to the north, for example, at Aztalan in southeastern Wisconsin." [1] However, they were not camps, probably large villages of 500-1000 people. [2]

[1]: (Peregrine/Emerson 2014, 13)

[2]: (Peregrine 2014, personal communication)


349 Early Illinois Confederation absent Inferred Expert -
In terms of settlement organisation, the main defensive strategy seems to have been to construct larger villages [1] .

[1]: Illinois State Museum, Illinois Economy: Settlements (2000), http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/ec_settle.html


350 Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early present Confident Expert -
"Not only could the Northeastern Indians build strongly fortified sites, but they were also well versed in the rapid construction of breastwork defenses. Much Iroquois information is available on this subject. Champlain, traveling with the Iroquois, observed the camps they prepared while moving in contested terrain: ’Proceeding about three leagues farther on, we made a halt, in order to rest the coming night. They all at once set to work, some cut wood, and others to obtain the bark of trees for covering their cabins, for the sake of sheltering themselves, others to fell large trees for constructing a barricade on the river-bank around their cabins, which they do so quickly that in less than two hours so much is accomplished that five hundred of their enemies would find it very difficult to dislodge them without killing large numbers. They make no barricade on the river-bank where their canoes are drawn up, in order that they may be able to embark, if occasion requires.’ (Grant 1907, 157- 158)" [1]

[1]: (Jones 2004, 56) Jones, David. 2004. Native North American Armor, Shields, and Fortifications. Austin: University of Texas Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/943RGM7A/itemKey/HABDQG2T


351 Cahokia - Early Woodland absent Inferred Expert -
Inferred from the following. "About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups." [1]

[1]: (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” Evolutionary Anthropology 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6


352 Cahokia - Late Woodland II absent Inferred Expert -
Inferred from the following. "About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups." The situation only changed "[l]ate in the first millennium AD". [1]

[1]: (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” Evolutionary Anthropology 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6


353 Cahokia - Middle Woodland absent Inferred Expert -
Inferred from the following. "About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups." [1]

[1]: (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” Evolutionary Anthropology 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6


354 Cahokia - Late Woodland III absent Inferred Expert -
Inferred from the following. "About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups." The situation only changed "[l]ate in the first millennium AD". [1]

[1]: (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” Evolutionary Anthropology 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6


355 Ghur Principality unknown Suspected Expert -
-
356 Cahokia - Late Woodland I absent Inferred Expert -
Inferred from the following. "About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups." The situation only changed "[l]ate in the first millennium AD". [1]

[1]: (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” Evolutionary Anthropology 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6


357 British Empire IIIIIIIIII present Confident Expert -
"Engineers not only cut paths through forests, built fortified stations, and erected bridges, but they also provided telegraphic communications, aerial reconnaissance from balloons, and rail transportation in some operations." [1] 1856-1881 CE: Trenches used in warfare at this time. [2] Were more successful fighting Zulus standing behind barricades. [3]

[1]: (Spiers 1996, 197) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Barthorp 1988, 8) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

[3]: (Barthorp 1988, 14) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.


358 Greco-Bactrian Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
-
359 Hephthalites unknown Suspected Expert -
-
360 Kushan Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
-