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During the early Qing, the development of Hangzhou involved the digging and dredging of rivers in the city as well as the river outside Zhangyang Gate, the river from Mija Bridge to Guojun Bridge, the river from Jionglong Bridge to Zhongguan Bridge, the river from Houchou Watergate to Guojun Bridge, and up to the river from Pocang Bridge to Gonguandong Bridge. This project led to an expansion of the rivers which had become clean and clear, flowing smoothly, allowing an increase in boat traffic.
[1]
[1]: (Fu and Cao 2019, p.329) |
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regional and long-distance trade (crossing rivers) was common,
[1]
[2]
but no evidence of bridges exists in the limited archaeological record of the Early Formative
[1]: Grove, David C. (2000) "The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica." In Richard Adams and Murdo MacLeod (eds.), The Cambridge History of The Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg.122-151. [2]: Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. Journal of Archaeological Research, 20(1), 1-51. |
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regional and long-distance trade (crossing rivers) was common,
[1]
[2]
but no evidence of bridges exists in the limited archaeological record of the Early Formative
[1]: Grove, David C. (2000) "The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica." In Richard Adams and Murdo MacLeod (eds.), The Cambridge History of The Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg.122-151. [2]: Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. Journal of Archaeological Research, 20(1), 1-51. |
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Regional and long-distance trade (crossing rivers) was common,
[1]
[2]
but no evidence of bridges exists in the limited archaeological record of the Formative
[1]: Grove, David C. (2000) "The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica." In Richard Adams and Murdo MacLeod (eds.), The Cambridge History of The Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg.122-151. [2]: Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. Journal of Archaeological Research, 20(1), 1-51. |
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Regional and long-distance trade (crossing rivers) was common,
[1]
[2]
but no evidence of bridges exists in the limited archaeological record of the Early Formative
[1]: Grove, David C. (2000) "The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica." In Richard Adams and Murdo MacLeod (eds.), The Cambridge History of The Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg.122-151. [2]: Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. Journal of Archaeological Research, 20(1), 1-51. |
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“Road making as practiced in Hawaii in the middle of the nineteenth century was a very superficial operation, in most places consisting of little more than clearing a right of way, doing a little rough grading, and supplying bridges of a sort where they could not be dispensed with.”
[1]
[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 26) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB |
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There were no bridges in prehistoric North America.
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There were no bridges in prehistoric North America.
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There were no bridges in prehistoric North America.
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There were no bridges in prehistoric North America.
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There were no bridges in prehistoric North America.
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There were no bridges in prehistoric North America.
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There were no bridges in prehistoric North America.
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Inference approved by Peter Peregrine.
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There were no bridges in prehistoric North America.
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There were no bridges in prehistoric North America.
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There were no bridges in prehistoric North America.
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Stone bridges date to classical Angkor, but it is likely that bridges were made using wood. As Hendrickson points out: The Phnom Sres (1022 CE) inscription found in the Battambang region makes reference to the construction of reservoirs along roads and a wooden bridge across a river (Jacques 1968:616-617).
[1]
[1]: (Hendrickson 2007, p. 123) |
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Stone bridges date to classical Angkor, but it is likely that bridges were made using wood. As Hendrickson points out: The Phnom Sres (1022 CE) inscription found in the Battambang region makes reference to the construction of reservoirs along roads and a wooden bridge across a river (Jacques 1968:616-617).
[1]
[1]: (Hendrickson 2007, p. 123) |
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‘Arched remains of the Angkor period bridge, Spean Thma, which went over the Siem Reap River at the main approach to Angkor Thom, the last capital of the Khmer Empire. The original bridge consisted of a total of 14 arches.’
[1]
’[Jayavarman VII] saw to the construction of many other buildings across his empire, including roads with guesthouses every 9.3 miles (15 km) that linked Angkor with viceregal centers such as Phimai. He built bridges, hospitals, and mausolea for his parents and son.’
[2]
’The main entrance is on the west. The entire complex is surrounded by a wall on the inner side of the moat. To reach the shrine, one crosses the western moat via a bridge of laterite surfaced with sandstone, leading to a sandstone gate with main entrances for pedestrians and side entrances that would have been accessible by carts and other wheeled vehicles. Since no other major temples were constructed during this period, it seems likely that most of the kingdom’s man- power and other resources were devoted to this single project.’
[3]
’The principal shrine is located at the eastern end of the square en- closure. To reach the main temple, visitors have to follow an axial pathway in the form of a stone bridge half a kilometer (1,600 feet) in length, reminiscent of the layout of Beijing’s Forbidden City. This pathway is fringed with balustrades in the form of a giant serpent and is flanked by rectangular baray. Branches off the main walkway lead to pools, stone structures called libraries, and other now-vanished structures.’
[3]
[1]: (Engelhardt 1995, p.23) [2]: (Hingham 2012, p. 186) [3]: (Miksic 2007, p. 23) |
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“Dumarçay (1992: 133-4) argues, using the model of Spean Thma to the east of Angkor Thom (which is constructed from parts of a thirteenth-century temple), that bridges would have been made of wood on a latérite skirt and then replaced with stone during the thirteenth century."
[1]
[1]: (Hendrickson 2010, 491) |
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‘Arched remains of the Angkor period bridge, Spean Thma, which went over the Siem Reap River at the main approach to Angkor Thom, the last capital of the Khmer Empire. The original bridge consisted of a total of 14 arches.’
[1]
’[Jayavarman VII] saw to the construction of many other buildings across his empire, including roads with guesthouses every 9.3 miles (15 km) that linked Angkor with viceregal centers such as Phimai. He built bridges, hospitals, and mausolea for his parents and son.’
[2]
Furthermore, a Dutch account from 1644 informs of the construction of two wooden bridges in just a few days to trap the Dutch ships in the Mekong during hostilities between the two countries. The bridges were made 220 m long and 7.5 m wide.
[3]
[1]: (Engelhardt 1995, p.23) [2]: (Hingham 2012, p. 186) [3]: (Van der Kraan 2009 :52) |
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Inferred from the fact that bridges existed in Ayutthaya
[1]
and it does not seem like a type of technology that can be easily forgotten.
[1]: http://www.ayutthaya-history.com/Geo_Street_BridgesKhaoPluak.html |
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ ’2’ or ’improved trails, for porters or animal carriers’ were present. We are unsure whether this applies to the late 18th and early 19th centuries as well. Writing in the colonial period, Bollig mentions bridges: ’The Truk natives have the reputation of being the laziest and dirtiest people of the South Seas. /220/ Actually they do not hurt themselves with work. Most of them work only as much as they have to. Eating and sleeping, and eating again, fill up their time. And their uncleanliness is indescribable. It is almost as if they had no feeling at all for any order and cleanliness. Around the house filth, rags, food remains; in it, the same. To be sure, they have a word for broom ( böbö), but rarely use it. They also bathe, even several times a day, and yet are never clean. If a tree falls across the path, it remains there. Everybody who takes the path has to climb over it. If a bridge collapses, it remains for months and years, until it is replaced. [Page 243] Training the islanders in orderly activity, punctuality, and cleanliness will take much time and effort.’
[1]
We have assumed that tree or liana bridges were present in some form in the pre-colonial period as well. This is open to re-consideration.
[1]: Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 242 |
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ ’2’ or ’improved trails, for porters or animal carriers’ were present. Bollig mentions bridges: ’The Truk natives have the reputation of being the laziest and dirtiest people of the South Seas. /220/ Actually they do not hurt themselves with work. Most of them work only as much as they have to. Eating and sleeping, and eating again, fill up their time. And their uncleanliness is indescribable. It is almost as if they had no feeling at all for any order and cleanliness. Around the house filth, rags, food remains; in it, the same. To be sure, they have a word for broom ( böbö), but rarely use it. They also bathe, even several times a day, and yet are never clean. If a tree falls across the path, it remains there. Everybody who takes the path has to climb over it. If a bridge collapses, it remains for months and years, until it is replaced. [Page 243] Training the islanders in orderly activity, punctuality, and cleanliness will take much time and effort.’
[1]
[1]: Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 242 |
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"Legionaries’ engineering and construction skills were put to use for obviously military purposes (fortifications), but also sometimes for improving infrastructure by building canals or bridges, or in mining and quarrying."
[1]
Via Flaminia crossed Nera River with Ponte d’Augusto, spans from 52-105 feet. Pont-Saint-Martin, east of Aosta, span of 35.6 meters. 104 CE Alcantara bridge, span 28.8 meters, height 62 meters. Puente Romano, Merida, total length 721 meters (not built in one go, sections added over time)
[2]
Major repair of roads, bridges and harbours under Trajan (98-117 CE).
[3]
.
[1]: (Pollard and Berry 2012, 48) [2]: (Gagarin and Fantham 2009, 25) [3]: (Canciello 2005) |
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Bridges present from earlier periods and maintained during Roman Dominate.
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Preiser-Kapeller says present.
[1]
Bridges.
[2]
[1]: (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) [2]: (Belke 2008, 295-308) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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Preiser-Kapeller says present.
[1]
Bridges.
[2]
[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) [2]: (Belke 2008, 295-308) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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Preiser-Kapeller says present.
[1]
Bridges.
[2]
[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) [2]: (Belke 2008, 295-308) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
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"In the case of the Wari Empire, a major administrative structure was needed, but there was no local political organization to use as a foundation for this structure. As a result, it had to build from the ground up: a large center, small satellite centers, terraces to increase agricultural production, new villages nearer the terraced zone, a road system, a bridge, etc."
[1]
. Example from the Carahuarazo valley.
[1]: (Schreiber 1987, 281) |
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Officials responsible for bridges
[1]
Rope suspension bridges on thick grass cables which had to be remade every year.
[2]
Example at the Apurimac river: Keshwa Cacha.
[3]
[1]: (Bauer 2004, 22) [2]: (Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012) [3]: http://www.slate.com/articles/life/world_of_wonders/2011/02/the_last_incan_grass_bridge.html |
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"Churches, town halls, bridges, and public works of all sorts were created in the image of Escorial well into the second quarter of the seventeenth century."
[1]
"A majority of deputies to the Cortes of 1586-8 criticised the government for authorising too many schemes for bridges, without offering any funds of its own to help along the work."
[2]
[1]: (Escobar 2016, 260) Escobar, Jesús. 2016. "Architecture in the Age of the Spanish Habsburgs." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 75(3): 258-261. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F2BFHI82 [2]: (Casey 2002, 11) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT |
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The Royal road must have crossed some streams or rivers and required bridge-building.
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Likely had the ability to construct bridges.
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Isambard Kingdom Brunel engineered many bridges.
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Morgan describes the system of trails used by the Iroquois, but fails to mention bridges and other more permanent structures: ’The principal villages of the Iroquois, in the days of aboriginal dominion, were connected by well-beaten trails. These villages were so situated that the central trail, which started from the Hudson at the site of Albany, passed through those of the Mohawks and Oneidas; and, crossing the Onondaga valley and the Cayuga country, a few miles north of the chief settlements of these nations, it passed through the most prominent villages of the Senecas, in its route to the valley of the Genesee. After crossing this celebrated valley, it proceeded westward to lake Erie, coming out upon it at the mouth of Buffalo creek, on the present site of Buffalo.’
[1]
’We have thus followed the great Indian trail, Wä-a-gwen[unknown] -ne-yu, through the State, from the Hudson to lake Erie; noticing, as far as ascertained, the principal stopping-places on the route. To convey an adequate impression of the forest scenery, which then overspread the land, is beyond the power of description. This trail was traced through the over-hanging forest for almost its entire length. In the trail itself, there was nothing particularly remarkable. It was usually from twelve to eighteen inches wide, and deeply worn in the ground; varying in this respect from three to six, and even twelve inches, depending upon the firmness of the soil. The large trees on each side were frequently marked with the hatchet. This well-beaten footpath, which no runner, nor band of warriors could mistake, had doubtless been trodden by successive generations from century to century. It had, without question, been handed down from race to race, as the natural line of travel, geographically considered, between the Hudson and lake Erie. While it is scarcely possible to ascertain a more direct route than the one pursued by this trail, the accuracy with which it was traced from point to point, to save distance, is extremely surprising. It proved, on the survey of the country, to have been so judiciously selected that the turnpike was laid out mainly on the line of this trail, from one extremity of the State to the other. In addition to this, all the larger cities and villages west of the Hudson, with one or two exceptions, have been located upon it. As an independent cause, this forest highway of the Iroquois doubtless determined the establishment of a number of settlements, which have since grown up into cities and villages.’
[2]
[1]: Morgan, Lewis Henry, and Herbert M. Lloyd 1901. “League Of The Ho-De’-No-Sau-Nee Or Iroquois. Vol. Ii”, 80 [2]: Morgan, Lewis Henry, and Herbert M. Lloyd 1901. “League Of The Ho-De’-No-Sau-Nee Or Iroquois. Vol. Ii”, 94 |
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Morgan describes the system of trails used by the Iroquois, but fails to mention bridges and other more permanent structures: ’The principal villages of the Iroquois, in the days of aboriginal dominion, were connected by well-beaten trails. These villages were so situated that the central trail, which started from the Hudson at the site of Albany, passed through those of the Mohawks and Oneidas; and, crossing the Onondaga valley and the Cayuga country, a few miles north of the chief settlements of these nations, it passed through the most prominent villages of the Senecas, in its route to the valley of the Genesee. After crossing this celebrated valley, it proceeded westward to lake Erie, coming out upon it at the mouth of Buffalo creek, on the present site of Buffalo.’
[1]
’We have thus followed the great Indian trail, Wä-a-gwen[unknown] -ne-yu, through the State, from the Hudson to lake Erie; noticing, as far as ascertained, the principal stopping-places on the route. To convey an adequate impression of the forest scenery, which then overspread the land, is beyond the power of description. This trail was traced through the over-hanging forest for almost its entire length. In the trail itself, there was nothing particularly remarkable. It was usually from twelve to eighteen inches wide, and deeply worn in the ground; varying in this respect from three to six, and even twelve inches, depending upon the firmness of the soil. The large trees on each side were frequently marked with the hatchet. This well-beaten footpath, which no runner, nor band of warriors could mistake, had doubtless been trodden by successive generations from century to century. It had, without question, been handed down from race to race, as the natural line of travel, geographically considered, between the Hudson and lake Erie. While it is scarcely possible to ascertain a more direct route than the one pursued by this trail, the accuracy with which it was traced from point to point, to save distance, is extremely surprising. It proved, on the survey of the country, to have been so judiciously selected that the turnpike was laid out mainly on the line of this trail, from one extremity of the State to the other. In addition to this, all the larger cities and villages west of the Hudson, with one or two exceptions, have been located upon it. As an independent cause, this forest highway of the Iroquois doubtless determined the establishment of a number of settlements, which have since grown up into cities and villages.’
[2]
We are unsure about the infrastructural changes brought about by white settlers in the area.
[1]: Morgan, Lewis Henry, and Herbert M. Lloyd 1901. “League Of The Ho-De’-No-Sau-Nee Or Iroquois. Vol. Ii”, 80 [2]: Morgan, Lewis Henry, and Herbert M. Lloyd 1901. “League Of The Ho-De’-No-Sau-Nee Or Iroquois. Vol. Ii”, 94 |
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"Mandorcles, another engineer of the Darius period, constructed a bridge over Begas Bosporus to allow the army to pass over. Bolts and nuts were used to fix the boards in its construction."
[1]
"Darius crossed into Europe (in about 513) over a pontoon bridge built by his Samian engineer, Mandrocles (a feat not rivaled until 1973), which continued the royal road into Europe."
[2]
[1]: (Angelakis, Mays and Koutsoyiannis 2012, 94) Angelakis A N, Mays L W, Koutsoyiannis, D. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing. [2]: (Shahbazi 2012, 127) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. |
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A large bridge spanned the Tyropoeon Valley, connecting the palace and the Temple Mount to the Upper City of Jerusalem, which is believed to have been built by the early Hasmoneans. This was destroyed during the siege of Pompey in 65 BCE by the city’s defenders.
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The A’chik initially used trails only. Sinha reports temporary bridges, but only for the second half of the 20th century: ‘There is but one cart road running from Bagmara to Damra via Tura, the headquarters of the district. It is a fair-weather road for vehicular traffic. In the rains, however, most of the temporary bridges become unsuitable for traffic. The other short roads run from Tura on to Phulbari and the other to Mankachar, the border region on the north and west of the district. There is a camel track running very close to the central ridge connecting Damra with Tura being linked with Siju. The Assam Trunk Road runs on the north of the district. The inhabitants of the place usually have to walk over the hills following the foot tracks to go from one place to another. Where the rivers or rivulets are sufficiently deep, people use dugout boats to cover the distance when necessary. Towards the centre of the district, boats as a means of conveyance are very risky. The slopes are too steep, and the boulders under the surface of the water are too big for safe plying of boats.’
[1]
[1]: Sinha, Tarunchandra 1966. “Psyche Of The Garos”, 1 |
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ only ’unimproved trails’ were used for land transport, not roads. The A’chik initially used trails only. Sinha reports temporary bridges, but at a later field date than the time period covered here: ‘There is but one cart road running from Bagmara to Damra via Tura, the headquarters of the district. It is a fair-weather road for vehicular traffic. In the rains, however, most of the temporary bridges become unsuitable for traffic. The other short roads run from Tura on to Phulbari and the other to Mankachar, the border region on the north and west of the district. There is a camel track running very close to the central ridge connecting Damra with Tura being linked with Siju. The Assam Trunk Road runs on the north of the district. The inhabitants of the place usually have to walk over the hills following the foot tracks to go from one place to another. Where the rivers or rivulets are sufficiently deep, people use dugout boats to cover the distance when necessary. Towards the centre of the district, boats as a means of conveyance are very risky. The slopes are too steep, and the boulders under the surface of the water are too big for safe plying of boats.’
[1]
[There was precious little such infrastructure in the mid 50’s, so I suppose there was not much earlier. There was a one lane gravel/dirt road up to Tura when I was there.]
[1]: Sinha, Tarunchandra 1966. “Psyche Of The Garos”, 1 |
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According to ancient authors the Parthians built caravanserei and constructed bridges to encourage trade.
[1]
[1]: (Raschke 1976, 820) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter. |
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Stone bridge 500 meters in extent.
[1]
"A number of bridges built during Shapur I’s reign had dual utility, meaning that the bridges foundations were constructed in such a manner as to enable collection of water, while the main structure joined the two banks of the river."
[2]
[1]: (Nikitin 1996, 65) Nikitin, A. V. Customs, Arts and Crafts. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.59-80. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [2]: (Mahmoudian and Mahmoudian 2012, 95) Angelakis A N, Mays L W, Koutsoyiannis, D. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing. |
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[1]
"A number of bridges built during Shapur I’s reign had dual utility, meaning that the bridges foundations were constructed in such a manner as to enable collection of water, while the main structure joined the two banks of the river."
[2]
[1]: (Daryaee 2009, Plate 17) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. [2]: (Mahmoudian and Mahmoudian 2012, 95) Angelakis A N, Mays L W, Koutsoyiannis, D. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing. |
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Boat bridge over river Nile.
[1]
"Bridge building and renovation was an essential part of imperial building programs in the Islamic lands ... Many early bridges were decorated with stone plaques that commerated their patron."
[2]
[1]: (Raymond 2000, 21) [2]: ’Bridge’ in Bloom and Blair, eds. 2009, p.304. |
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The bridges of Samarra are an example of Bridge making during the Abassid Caliphate. Its inscriptions and brickwork stand out.
[1]
[2]
[1]: Osman S. A. Ismail (1968). The founding of a new capital: Sāmarrā’. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 31, pp 1-13. provides further evidence of bridge building. [2]: Bloom, Jonathan M., and Sheila Blair, eds. The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture p. 334 |
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Baked-brick bridge.
[1]
[1]: Thomas, David. Firuzkuh: the summer capital of the Ghurids http://www.academia.edu/188837/Firuzkuh_the_summer_capital_of_the_Ghurids |
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During the reign of Sultan Firuz Shah (1351-1388 CE), "contemporary writers have noted with pride and joy that beautiful edifices were put up, including bridges, aqueducts, lakes, cisterns and irrigation channels."
[1]
[1]: Siddiqui, I. H. (1986). Water works and irrigation system in India during pre-Mughal times. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient/Journal de l’histoire economique et sociale de l’Orient, 52-77, p58. |
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’Like their provincial counterparts, the offices were responsible for the entire range of government in their jurisdictions, including the compilation and maintenance of household registers; the collection of taxes; police and judicial matters; the repair and maintenance of canals, ditches, bridges, and quarter walls’
[1]
[1]: Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.170 |
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’In the 1430’s, a Korean envoy was surprised to discover the prevalent use of money in Muromachi Japan. Even those traveling from one end of the country to the other, he noted, did not carry provisions because coins were accepted everywhere at inns and post stations and even by toll collectors at bridges
[1]
[1]: Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.383-384 |
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They existed in previous period, but sources do not say whether they still did at this time. Frequent warfare likely caused major disruptions, so continuity with preceding periods is more difficult to infer.
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[1]
In a bid to maintain control and limit potential uprisings ‘the government deliberately refrained from building bridges and otherwise facilitating communications on the main lines of approach to Yedo [Edo;Tokyo]’ enabling them to monitor all access routes to and from the city.
[2]
[1]: Henshall, Kenneth (2012) A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. [Third Edition]. p.57. [2]: Sansom, George Bailey. 1976. Japan: A Short Cultural History. Barrie & Jenkins [Revised 2nd ed].p.448. |
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The Citadel Büyükkale at Hattusa was connected to a system of stone viaducts and bridge with the Büyükkaya
[1]
Which period does this refer to?
[1]: Makowski M. (2009) Świat późnej epoki brązu. pp.157 [In:] A. Smogorzewska (ed.) Archeologia starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Warszawa: Instytut Archeologii UW, pp. 151-187) |
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The Citadel Büyükkale at Hattusa was connected to a system of stone viaducts and bridge with the Büyükkaya
[1]
Which period does this refer to?
[1]: Makowski M. (2009) Świat późnej epoki brązu. pp.157 [In:] A. Smogorzewska (ed.) Archeologia starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Warszawa: Instytut Archeologii UW, pp. 151-187) |
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inherited and still maintained?
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Pompeius organisation: “The ineffectual Ariobarzanes was restored yet again to the throne of Cappadocia. He retained the Tomisa bridgehead between Melitene and Sophene on the far bank of the Euphrates, given to him by Lucullus, which controlled the route across the Taurus to southern Armenia…”
[1]
[1]: Sherwin-White, A. N. (1984) Roman Foreign Policy in the Near East, 168 BC to AD 1. London: Duckworth. p226 |
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Bridges "are best regarded as public works" and initially financed by the State.
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It is not stated in the sources that the Ilkhans destroyed all the bridges in Persia and this would be unlikely due to the importance of bridges to trade. Ghazan tried to improve security on the roads
[1]
and may have built or maintained bridges.
[1]: (Morgan 2015, 75) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. |
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The first bridge thought to be the Pons Sublicius possibly in built 642 BCE under Ancus Marcius.
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The first bridge thought to be the Pons Sublicius possibly in built 642 BCE under Ancus Marcius.
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The first bridge thought to be the Pons Sublicius possibly in built 642 BCE under Ancus Marcius.
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The first bridge thought to be the Pons Sublicius possibly in built 642 BCE under Ancus Marcius.
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The first bridge thought to be the Pons Sublicius possibly in built 642 BCE under Ancus Marcius.
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The first bridge thought to be the Pons Sublicius possibly in built 642 BCE under Ancus Marcius. In 179 BCE the first stone bridge was constructed.
[1]
Ponte San Lorenzo at Bulicame, Ponte di Nona in Rome, both 174 BCE. Pons Aemilius 142 BCE. Ponte dell’Abadia near Vulci 90 BCE. "The maximum span of Roman bridges increased from 80 feet (24 meters) in 142 BCE to 115 feet (35 meters) by Augustus’ reign (27 BC - 14 CE) and was not exceeded until about 605 CE, by the span of 120 feet (37 meters) of the bridge at Zhao-Zhou in China."
[2]
[1]: (Stearns 2001) [2]: (Gagarin and Fantham 2009, 25) |
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The popes maintained bridges across the Tiber; in other cities, such as Ravenna, the local bishops or secular officials did the same.
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The popes maintained bridges across the Tiber; in other cities, such as Ravenna, the local bishops or secular officials did the same.
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The papacy was responsible, through the Roman city government, for maintaining the bridges over the Tiber.
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Built-up transport infrastructure was introduced in the early Russian period (see next sheet).
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The Sakha relied on recently introduced boats and rafts rather than bridges: ’Besides these above mentioned indirect proofs, direct traditions have been preserved among the Yakut which testify to the fact that the Yakut became acquainted with boats, nets, and fishing in general only comparatively recently.’
[1]
’Last of all, the Yakut do not have a single name of their own for fishing boats and vessels. Rafts are given the Russian name puluot, or bulot; in general they call boats by the Tungus name ogongcho. Karbas sewn out of boards are called, as in Russian, karbas. They fr ankly ackn owledge that the birch-bark boat is of Tungus origin, calling it tongus or omuk ogongcho. The round-bottomed Russian barge, the dug-out, is called ustrus, while the flat-bottomed vetka is given the most varied names, depending on the locality; in the neighborhood of Olekminsk, in the Yakutsk Okrug, and on the Aldan the Yakut have the same name for it as the Buryat - bat, or they give it the Russian name - betky; on the Boganida it is called toy, on the Vilyuy, Kolyma, and Yana, it is sometimes called tyy, sometimes ty. The Yenisey Ostyak use just this same word ti (ti) with a drawn out i on the end for a boat of medium size, which has the same relation as the Yakut ty on the one side to the birch-bark boat, and on the other side to the karbas (see fig. 34).’
[2]
[1]: Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 528 [2]: Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 525 |
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ only ‘1’ or ’unimproved trails’ were used for land transport, not roads. Rivers were negotiated by canoe or raft: ’The most important means of transportation along the upper Marañón and its tributaries is the canoe (Fig. 8). One could even say that this dug-out is the only means of transportation since there are only a few isolated overland paths.’
[1]
’The canoe appears in several sizes. Some accomodate only one to two people, others up to twenty men. All of them are made of cedar wood. Whether small or large, they all have the same shape. The part that touches the water is round in cross-section just as the original tree. At both ends flat seats for the oarsman were provided when the canoe was dug out. The canoe is directed by means of paddles, but on upstream voyages long bamboo poles (tanganas) are required, and with their help the boat is pushed forward. Should the river bank be flat, some Indians may jump into the water to pull the canoe with the help of lianas.’
[1]
’Another means of transportation in the river area is the raft (balsa). It can be used for downstream voyages only and is therefore not so frequent. It is made by uniting several balsa trunks. The rafts are kept within the current by means of paddles.’
[1]
The Shuar crossed even broad rivers swimming: ’“The Jibaros, when they are about to cross a broad river swimming, are in the habit of swallowing a fish-sound before they enter the water. In this way, they believe, they will be able to float on the water and swim as easily as a fish.’
[2]
Reiss also reports liana bridges: ’The six or seven houses which make up the village of Paira (1,617 meters) lie two short days of travel farther down in the valley. The foot of the steep mountains has been reached here; only elongated hills continue to the east. The rivers, still rapid, to be sure, become broad and even navigable for short stretches; an immense forest area stretches out before one’s eyes. Up to here we found the brooks, which were difficult to cross, bridged over, although the liana bridges, serving as a model for our suspension bridges, sometimes offered crossings which appeared dangerous. Farther down, however, the rivers had to be waded, for the Jesuits, in order to make access to their mission more difficult, had pulled down the bridges formerly present and had taken the canoes used for ferrying into Mácas into their own custody.’
[3]
[1]: Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 74 [2]: Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 453p [3]: Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians", 6 |
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ only ‘1’ or ’unimproved trails’ were used for land transport, not roads. Rivers were negotiated by canoe or raft: ’The most important means of transportation along the upper Marañón and its tributaries is the canoe (Fig. 8). One could even say that this dug-out is the only means of transportation since there are only a few isolated overland paths.’
[1]
’The canoe appears in several sizes. Some accomodate only one to two people, others up to twenty men. All of them are made of cedar wood. Whether small or large, they all have the same shape. The part that touches the water is round in cross-section just as the original tree. At both ends flat seats for the oarsman were provided when the canoe was dug out. The canoe is directed by means of paddles, but on upstream voyages long bamboo poles (tanganas) are required, and with their help the boat is pushed forward. Should the river bank be flat, some Indians may jump into the water to pull the canoe with the help of lianas.’
[1]
’Another means of transportation in the river area is the raft (balsa). It can be used for downstream voyages only and is therefore not so frequent. It is made by uniting several balsa trunks. The rafts are kept within the current by means of paddles.’
[1]
The Shuar crossed even broad rivers swimming: ’“The Jibaros, when they are about to cross a broad river swimming, are in the habit of swallowing a fish-sound before they enter the water. In this way, they believe, they will be able to float on the water and swim as easily as a fish.’
[2]
Reiss also reports liana bridges: ’The six or seven houses which make up the village of Paira (1,617 meters) lie two short days of travel farther down in the valley. The foot of the steep mountains has been reached here; only elongated hills continue to the east. The rivers, still rapid, to be sure, become broad and even navigable for short stretches; an immense forest area stretches out before one’s eyes. Up to here we found the brooks, which were difficult to cross, bridged over, although the liana bridges, serving as a model for our suspension bridges, sometimes offered crossings which appeared dangerous. Farther down, however, the rivers had to be waded, for the Jesuits, in order to make access to their mission more difficult, had pulled down the bridges formerly present and had taken the canoes used for ferrying into Mácas into their own custody.’
[3]
[1]: Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 74 [2]: Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 453p [3]: Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians", 6 |
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Present in Ramesside period.
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small bridges known in ancient times. likely had small wooden bridges if no large or stone bridges.
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Bridge over Abu’l Managga irrigation canal.
[1]
"In a traditional society that lacked the concept of public or municipal agencies, as individuals, the members of this ruling class assumed responsibility for what we would consider public concerns. The mamluks were patrons of art, schools, and mosques; builders of roads, bridges, and markets; and overseers of "public works," morality, and charity."
[2]
Seven bridges constructed over al-Nasiri canal between 1325 and 1376 CE.
[3]
[1]: (Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd. [2]: (Dols 1977, 152) [3]: (Raymond 2000, 125) |
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Seven bridges constructed over al-Nasiri canal between 1325 and 1376 CE.
[1]
"In a traditional society that lacked the concept of public or municipal agencies, as individuals, the members of this ruling class assumed responsibility for what we would consider public concerns. The mamluks were patrons of art, schools, and mosques; builders of roads, bridges, and markets; and overseers of "public works," morality, and charity."
[2]
[1]: (Raymond 2000, 125) [2]: (Dols 1977, 152) |
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Bridges "maintained right up until the end of Mamluk rule".
[1]
Bridge over Abu’l Managga irrigation canal.
[2]
"In a traditional society that lacked the concept of public or municipal agencies, as individuals, the members of this ruling class assumed responsibility for what we would consider public concerns. The mamluks were patrons of art, schools, and mosques; builders of roads, bridges, and markets; and overseers of "public works," morality, and charity."
[3]
[1]: (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 21) Oliver R and Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [2]: (Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd. [3]: (Dols 1977, 152) |
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"As early as the Shang period, roads were controlled by a special official, and in the Zhou period, traffic had reached such proportions that regulations were introduced for particularly crowded crossroads and reckless driving was prohibited."
[1]
Must have been stone or wooden bridges over rivers and streams.
[1]: (Lindqvist 2009) Lindqvist, Cecilia. 2009. China: Empire of Living Symbols. Da Capo Press. |
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"As early as the Shang period, roads were controlled by a special official, and in the Zhou period, traffic had reached such proportions that regulations were introduced for particularly crowded crossroads and reckless driving was prohibited."
[1]
Must have been stone or wooden bridges over rivers and streams.
[1]: (Lindqvist 2009) Lindqvist, Cecilia. 2009. China: Empire of Living Symbols. Da Capo Press. |
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e.g. Marco Polo Bridge
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"To prepare for his arrival, Mas’fid-beg, Arqan-aqa, and other Mongol officials situated along Hule’u’s line of march were instructed to prepare. They repaired roads, bridged rivers, and established ferries where there were no bridges. They also had to find and reserve pasturage of the flocks following Hule’u’s army."
[1]
[1]: (Buell 2003, 51) |
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c500 CE and after: "It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished."
[1]
[1]: (Kyzlasov 1996, 317) |
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Across the waterways in Bactria.
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"In Sheng-tsung’s early years (984-9) serious attention was given to building roads and bridges to provide easier passage for carts and to improving the courier system, which was essential to the rapid transmission of orders and information. In 1027 a strip of land thirty double paces wide on either side of official highways was ordered to be kept cleared for security purposes."
[1]
[1]: (Twitchett, D.C. and K. Tietze. 1994. The Liao. In Franke, H. and D.C. Twitchett (eds) The Cambridge History of China Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368 pp. 43-153. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P. 95) |
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"In the course of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, baked brick came to be used more widely, especially in major construction projects such as palaces, mosques, madrasas, mausoleums and bridges."
[1]
[1]: (Davidovich 1997, 149) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. |
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Present in Mongolian Empire.
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Bridges were vital form of routes around the polity. Cities especially, such as London, York and Newcastle would have multiple bridges across their rivers.
[1]
“This made London an intersection between traffic north–south and east–west. London Bridge (see plate 11) had linked the north and south banks of the Thames since the twelfth century. In fact, London mostly developed on its northern bank; to the south was the suburb of Southwark. Here, on the fringe of the city’s jurisdiction, flourished theaters such as the Rose and the Globe, bear-gardens (for bear- and bull-baiting), brothels, and taverns. In short, if you wanted an exciting – or a dangerous – time in London, you headed across the bridge.”
[2]
[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 362) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U [2]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 196) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U |
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"Routes were often dictated by the location of oases, mountain passes, and river crossings, by bridge, ford, or ferry."EXTERNAL_INLINE_REFERENCE: ;(McIntosh 2005: 139) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD .;
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Abud al-Daula restored the bridge over the Hinduwān at Ahvaz.
[1]
The Amir Barrier in Fars had three purposes: join river banks (bridge), water supply for irrigation, and energy (to turn water wheels for a millstone).
[2]
[1]: Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq’s. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.284 [2]: (Mahmoudian and Mahmoudian 2012, 95) Angelakis A N, Mays L W, Koutsoyiannis, D. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing. |
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Malan bridge near Herat.
[1]
Pul-e Malan, near Herat, is a 22-arched bridge constructed by Seljuks 12th CE.
[2]
"Nizam al-Mulk was particularly concerned with the construction and maintenance of trade routes, caravanserais, and bridges".
[3]
[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. [2]: https://www.lonelyplanet.com/afghanistan/herat/attractions/pul-e-malan/a/poi-sig/451141/355747 [3]: (Lindsay 2005, 20) Lindsay, James E. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis. |
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Communications with al-Maqs were improved by the building of roads in 1177 and the Muski Bridge over the Khalij prior to 1188 CE.
[1]
A bridge was built between the Rawdah Island and Fustat around 1240 CE.
[2]
"Saladin put a great deal of investment into roads, bridges and fortified khans."
[3]
[1]: (Raymond 2001, 97) [2]: (Raymond 2001, 101) [3]: (Nicolle 2011) Nicolle, D. 2011. Saladin. Osprey Publishing. |
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This is based on the codes for the Rasulids as ’Sultan ’Amir also appears to have been emulating the high period of Rasulid power a hundred years earlier’
[1]
. There was a Rasulid bridge at Damt.
[2]
[1]: Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 4 Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/ [2]: (Lamprakos 2016) Michele Lamprakos. 2016. Building a World Heritage City: Sanaa, Yemen. Routledge. |
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e.g. Khaju Bridge built by Shah ʿAbbās II over the Zayanderud at Isfahan
[1]
[1]: Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids |
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Unknown. Wooden bridges?
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Not enough data, though it seems to reasonable infer absence.
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ only ‘1’ or ’unimproved trails’ were used for land transport, not roads. The Orokaiva constructed wooden bridges or gangways: ’Bridges. Formerly, I am told, stretches of swamp were spanned by single logs supported on cross-trestles. The modern type of this bridge has an adzed surface to make walking safer, and is certainly preferable to the other style (viz. a raised gangway with clumsily laid cross-pieces) until, as is so often the case, the log is found to be slippery and aslant. Small creeks are crossed by single tree-trunks, over which the native, a fearless balancer, walks without misgiving, despite the queer and disconcerting vibrations set up by his footsteps on a long log.’
[1]
[1]: Williams, F. E. (Francis Edgar), and Hubert Murray 1930. “Orokaiva Society”, 72 |
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According to SCCS variable 14 ’Routes of Land Transport’ only ‘1’ or ’unimproved trails’ were used for land transport, not roads. The Orokaiva constructed wooden bridges or gangways: ’Bridges. Formerly, I am told, stretches of swamp were spanned by single logs supported on cross-trestles. The modern type of this bridge has an adzed surface to make walking safer, and is certainly preferable to the other style (viz. a raised gangway with clumsily laid cross-pieces) until, as is so often the case, the log is found to be slippery and aslant. Small creeks are crossed by single tree-trunks, over which the native, a fearless balancer, walks without misgiving, despite the queer and disconcerting vibrations set up by his footsteps on a long log.’
[1]
By the time of the Mt. Lamington eruption, the colonial authorities had built bridges for its own infrastructural needs: ’When the volcano erupted on 21 January 1951, Koropatans noticed the dark smoke and cloud and saw ash and stones carried through the air. The survivors including the sick moved to Wairope on the Kumusi bridge. A married couple from Koropata, Stephenson Kareka and Flora Amaupa, evoked the scene: ‘There was no water and no food as both had been spoiled by the lava and ash. The government supplied food. They flew in rice and fish. The people stayed at Wairope for three months. After that time, Bishop David Hand sent the people back to the villages as the volcano had finished …’’
[2]
[Even in colonial settlements, services were of a makeshift character.]
[1]: Williams, F. E. (Francis Edgar), and Hubert Murray 1930. “Orokaiva Society”, 72 [2]: Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 59 |
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No information found in sources so far.
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Possibly bridges over the Zarastran but unsure.
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"Trade was carried on for the most part along heavily travelled land routes, but also along waterways, especially the Amu Darya. For instance, ‘from the Kelif quayside at Termez, where the corn grows well and ripens early’, boats left laden with corn for Khwarazm. As the Bukhara khanate split up into semi- independent principalities, trade was hindered by numerous toll stations on roads, bridges and ferries."
[1]
[1]: (Mukminova 2003, 53) |
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Chinese anthropologists report a variety of bridges in the area: ’Bridges. - The bridge in the Miao area involve considerable construction work. On important communication roads, they generally built three or five-arch bridges (Illus. 11) on which were built houses for hotels and restaurants for the convenience of travelers. Places where a river is wide and shallow are spanned by long bridges (Illus. 22, 23). Places where a river is wide and deep are crossed by rope bridges (Illus. 24). In small streams which are narrow and have sandbanks they sat up stone steps, customarily called ho shui ch’iao /“bridge enclosing the water”/ (Illus. 25), or they build small bridges (Illus. 26) over them.’
[1]
Some mission stations devised bridge construction schemes: ’The mountain community of Shimenkan (Stone Gateway) in northwestern Guizhou served as the headquarters of church activity. In addition to its own large primary school, it offered secondary schooling and teacher training. At least thirty Hua Miao continued on and graduated from university in the decades before 1949. Some of these became ordained Methodist ministers or doctors and one became a well-regarded anthropologist (Yang Hanxian). Generally the local chapels were served by lay preachers who were trained at Shimenkan. Other young people received training as nurses and agricultural extension workers. At various points in time, agricultural and industrial extension programs were held at Shimenkan. New strains of potatoes were introduced, fruit orchards were planted on the hillsides of many villages, vegetable gardens were encouraged, and a number of Miao learned the techniques of carpentry, brickmaking, and masonry. More efficient looms were designed for home production of cloth. During the prerevolutionary decades, some villages benefited from collective endeavors to build bridges and roads, and pipe systems that brought water into the community. Teams of medical workers, from Shimenkan or from the churchaffiliated hospitals in nearby Zhaotong City, traveled around the area periodically. Even those who were not interested in becoming church members participated in the economic innovations, accepted treatment from the medical workers, and sent their children to the schools.’
[2]
[1]: Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 71 [2]: Diamond, Norma 1993. “Ethnicity And The State: The Hua Miao Of Southwest China”, 68 |
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"Routes were often dictated by the location of oases, mountain passes, and river crossings, by bridge, ford, or ferry."EXTERNAL_INLINE_REFERENCE: ;(McIntosh 2005: 139) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD .;
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"Routes were often dictated by the location of oases, mountain passes, and river crossings, by bridge, ford, or ferry."EXTERNAL_INLINE_REFERENCE: ;(McIntosh 2005: 139) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD .;
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"Routes were often dictated by the location of oases, mountain passes, and river crossings, by bridge, ford, or ferry."EXTERNAL_INLINE_REFERENCE: ;(McIntosh 2005: 139) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD .;
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"Routes were often dictated by the location of oases, mountain passes, and river crossings, by bridge, ford, or ferry."EXTERNAL_INLINE_REFERENCE: ;(McIntosh 2005: 139) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD .;
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According to ancient authors the Parthians built caravanserei and constructed bridges to encourage trade.
[1]
[1]: (Raschke 1976, 820) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter. |
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"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the construction and maintenance of numerous public works and enterprises, such as roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic and commercial centers..."
[1]
-- which period?
[1]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
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[1]
"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the construction and maintenance of numerous public works and enterprises, such as roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic and commercial centers"
[2]
[1]: Hinz 1971, 262 [2]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
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[1]
"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the construction and maintenance of numerous public works and enterprises, such as roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic and commercial centers"
[2]
[1]: Hinz 1971, 262 [2]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
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"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the construction and maintenance of numerous public works and enterprises, such as roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic and commercial centers"
[1]
[1]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
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"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the construction and maintenance of numerous public works and enterprises, such as roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic and commercial centers"
[1]
[1]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
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"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the construction and maintenance of numerous public works and enterprises, such as roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic and commercial centers"
[1]
[1]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
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"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the construction and maintenance of numerous public works and enterprises, such as roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic and commercial centers"
[1]
[1]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
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"Elymais coined its own money, conducted its own public works programs"
[1]
"Elymais’ emergence as an independent state was paralelled by the rise of Characene (also called Mesene), and Arab state at the head of the Persian Gulf and centered at the city of Spasinu Charaz. Both Elymais and Characene controlled important trade routes connecting the Iranian plateau and Mesopotamia with sea and land routes from India and China."
[1]
[1]: (Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592 |
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"There are abundant material remains and other nonwritten sources for the Aq-quyunlu period. Metin Sozen has catalogued nearly one hundred Aqquyunlu architectural structures in almost thirty locales in Anatolia alone. These buildings include mosques, madrasas, tombs, hospices, markets, caravanserais, baths, bridges, fountains, palaces, and fortifications. Unfortunately, no similar work exists for these monuments constructed in Iran during the imperial period, many of which have now disappeared."
[1]
[1]: (Woods 1998, 218) |
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Sources do not suggest there is evidence for bridges in this period.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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Sources do not suggest there is evidence for bridges in this period.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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Sources do not suggest there is evidence for the construction of bridges during this period.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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Sources do not suggest there is evidence for the construction of bridges during this period.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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Sources do not suggest there is evidence for the construction of bridges during this period.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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Sources do not suggest there is evidence for the construction of bridges during this period.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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Sources do not suggest there is evidence for the construction of bridges during this period.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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Sources do not suggest there is evidence for bridges in prehispanic Valley of Oaxaca.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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There is no evidence for bridges in prehispanic Valley of Oaxaca.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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"Each town possessed its own special code, called the Statuto, which the Rectors swore to observe. The Statuto dealt with octroi dues, roads and bridges, wells, lighting, doctors, nurses, fires, guilds, santitary matters, - in short with all the multifarous details of municipal and even of private life."
[1]
[1]: (? 1902, 263) ?. Chapter VIII. Venice. A W Ward. G W Prothero. Stanley Leathes. eds. 1902. The Cambridge Modern History. Volume I. The Renaissance. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. |
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"Each town possessed its own special code, called the Statuto, which the Rectors swore to observe. The Statuto dealt with octroi dues, roads and bridges, wells, lighting, doctors, nurses, fires, guilds, santitary matters, - in short with all the multifarous details of municipal and even of private life."
[1]
[1]: (? 1902, 263) ?. Chapter VIII. Venice. A W Ward. G W Prothero. Stanley Leathes. eds. 1902. The Cambridge Modern History. Volume I. The Renaissance. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. |
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“Though some division of labor took place during the eighteenth century, nobles as a class remained responsible for oversight of taxation for military purposes; upkeep of bridges, roads, and hospitals; village government; regulation of building projects, commerce and trade policy; property registration and surveying; and police and fire protection.”
[1]
[1]: (Fichtner 2003: 77) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K |
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“By the end of the twelfth century stone houses surrounded the marketplace in Prague’s Old Town, and in 1172 a stone bridge, the oldest in Central Europe after Regensburg’s, was built with the support of Vladislav II’s wife, Judita.”
[1]
“The Judita bridge in Prague has already been mentioned; not until the second half of the thirteenth century would the stone bridge at Pisek rival this achievement.”
[2]
“Bohemia’s well-being was central to Charles’s concerns, and in spite of dynastic and imperial involvements, he devoted himself to it. His choice of Prague for his residence stimulated a building boom that brought foreign-born masters such as Matthias of Arras and Peter Parler of Gmiind to Prague. These artists worked on the reconstruction of the castle, including St. Vitus’s cathedral, in Gothic style. Parler’s workshop contributed the church of the Virgin Mary before Tyn in Prague’s Old Town, and other Gothic churches in Kolin and Kutna Hora. A new stone bridge replaced the Judita bridge, joining Prague’s Old Town with the Lesser Quarter beneath the castle.”
[3]
[1]: (Agnew 2004: 18) Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. 2004. The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. California: Hoover Institution Press. http://archive.org/details/czechslandsofboh0000agne. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6LBQ5ARI [2]: (Agnew 2004: 24) Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. 2004. The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. California: Hoover Institution Press. http://archive.org/details/czechslandsofboh0000agne. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6LBQ5ARI [3]: (Agnew 2004: 33-35) Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. 2004. The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. California: Hoover Institution Press. http://archive.org/details/czechslandsofboh0000agne. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6LBQ5ARI |
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“Although the pomp and circumstance of Santa Anna was and is easy to caricature and malign, his rule was not all tinsel, smoke, and mirrors; it was good for business. During the 1850s, his policies renewed educational and cultural institutions while improving transportation, subsidizing telegraphs, and repairing roads and bridges .”
[1]
“In southern Mexico, along the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, railroads facilitated the conquest of the harsh terrain by providing a safe path for poor Mexicans to travel, either in economy cars or on foot. In some areas, for instance, railroad bridges were the only safe routes across gorges and rivers.”
[1]: (Bunker and Macias-Gonzalez 2011: 54) Bunker, Steven B. and Macías-González, Víctor M. 2011. “Consumption and Material Culture from Pre-Contact through the Porfiriato,” in A Companion to Mexican History and Culture, ed. William H. Beezley. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp54–82. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SDIQ5VE7 |
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“Yet, as this achievement became a reality, the definition of the ‘godly commonwealth’ itself was beginning to change, as more emphasis was put on good citizenship rather than on storming the heavens with prayer. ‘Building bridges, making roads’ is a ‘pious work’ as good as any other, commented Ponz at the end of the Old Regime, as he gave reference after reference to bishops setting up workshops, distributing spindles, wool and flax to the poor. He cited with approval the letter of the archbishop of Toledo to the priests of his diocese in 1779, urging them to take an interest in the material welfare of their parishioners.”(Casey 2002: 248) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
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Great Stone Bridge in Moscow: Also known as the Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge, it was originally a wooden bridge built in the 17th century over the Moskva River. In the early 18th century, during the reign of Peter the Great, it was reconstructed in stone, reflecting the era’s advancements in bridge construction.
[1]
[1]: S. O. Shmidt, M. I. Andreev, and V. M. Karev, eds., Moskva: Ėnt︠s︡iklopedii︠a︡, Biblioteka Istorii︠a︡ Moskvy s drevneĭshikh vremen do nashikh dneĭ (Moskva: Nauchnoe izd-vo “Bolʹshai︠a︡ rossiĭskai︠a︡ ėnt︠s︡iklopedii︠a︡,” 1997). Zotero link: 28L5IKZJ |
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Bridges were built during the Roman occupation of the region and maintained by soldiers.
[1]
“One important innovation was the burh or fortress which could be used both as a local refuge and as a base for a militia to intercept Viking forces and hamper their manoeuvrability. When Offa ruled Kent he had introduced the public services of fortress-work and bridge-work to help counter the first Viking attacks on the province so when the West Saxons conquered Kent they inherited the Mercian burhs there.
[2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 125) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN [2]: (Yorke 1990: 152) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN |
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“Mawlây Rashïd built the biggest madrasa (college) in Fez… Among his monumental works he was responsible for the construction of the bridge over the Wâdï Sebû, fifteen kilometres east of Fez.”
[1]
[1]: (Ogot 1992: 219) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP |
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Bridges were present across the territory and were a vital for of maintaining communication across the country.
[1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 24) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI |
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Great Stone Bridge in Moscow: Also known as the Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge, it was originally a wooden bridge built in the 17th century over the Moskva River. In the early 18th century, during the reign of Peter the Great, it was reconstructed in stone, reflecting the era’s advancements in bridge construction.
[1]
[1]: S. O. Shmidt, M. I. Andreev, and V. M. Karev, eds., Moskva: Ėnt︠s︡iklopedii︠a︡, Biblioteka Istorii︠a︡ Moskvy s drevneĭshikh vremen do nashikh dneĭ (Moskva: Nauchnoe izd-vo “Bolʹshai︠a︡ rossiĭskai︠a︡ ėnt︠s︡iklopedii︠a︡,” 1997). Zotero link: 28L5IKZJ |
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The Soviet Union invested heavily in its road infrastructure, especially during the post-World War II era, to facilitate industrial growth, military movement, and improve connectivity across its vast territory.
The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to massive and rapid infrastructure development. [1] [2] Examples: Merefa-Kherson bridge, Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge, Saratov Bridge [1]: R. W. Davies, Mark Harrison, and S. G. Wheatcroft, eds., The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913-1945 (Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). Zotero link: SQIKYBTN [2]: Шафиркин, Б. И. Единая Транспортная Система СССР и Взаимодействие Различных Видов Транспорта. Москва Высшая школа, 1983. Zotero link: 6MTCGJDC |
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Bridges were built during the Roman occupation of the region and maintained by soldiers.
[1]
“One important innovation was the burh or fortress which could be used both as a local refuge and as a base for a militia to intercept Viking forces and hamper their manoeuvrability. When Offa ruled Kent he had introduced the public services of fortress-work and bridge-work to help counter the first Viking attacks on the province so when the West Saxons conquered Kent they inherited the Mercian burhs there.
[2]
[1]: (Yorke 1990: 125) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN [2]: (Yorke 1990: 152) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN |
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"There are [...] no signs of communal construction activities, and no preserved facilities to store agricultural surplus. [...] It has to be considered that the preservation of features in Nok sites is generally poor and that the amount of data is not too large and regionally restricted to a rather small key study area."
[1]
[1]: (Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 253) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R. |
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The near-absence of archaeologically identified settlements makes it particularly challenging to infer most building types. "While the historical sources provide a vague picture of the events of the first 500 years of the Kanem-Borno empire, archaeologically almost nothing is known. [...] Summing up, very little is known about the capitals or towns of the early Kanem- Borno empire. The locations of the earliest sites have been obscured under the southwardly protruding sands of the Sahara, and none of the later locations can be identified with certainty."
[1]
[1]: (Gronenborn 2002: 104-110) |
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"There are [...] no signs of communal construction activities, and no preserved facilities to store agricultural surplus. [...] It has to be considered that the preservation of features in Nok sites is generally poor and that the amount of data is not too large and regionally restricted to a rather small key study area."
[1]
[1]: (Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 253) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R. |
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"Parakramabahu II had devoted attention to this region when his minister Devapatiraga founded Viharas and improved the lines of communications by the construction of bridges across the streams, on behalf of the pilgrims to Samantakuta." THESIS
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"Apart from provincial revenue, cities had their own revenue from excise (particularly beer and wine) and from duties levied on their markets, ferries, bridges, roads, and streets."
[1]
[1]: (t’Hart 1989: 672) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/B9DVQGBS/collection. |
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Imām Ahmad led many military campaigns along the Awash River in present-day Ethiopia. “In 1531 he returned to the Shoan plateau by way of Dawaro, where he crushed the isolated resistance movements, and marched on to the upper waters of the Awash in pursuit of the emperor.”
[1]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 173) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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“Barawa has many two-story houses with bridges constructed over the streets, built so that women or the elderly could visit other houses without going down into the street.”
[1]
[1]: (Mukhtar 2003, 51) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection |
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“The main road runs along its western side and I later heard that on this road were bridges constructed in ancient times by the Arabs, which I should much like to have inspected.”
[1]
[1]: (Thesiger 1935, 16) Thesiger, Wifred. 1935. ‘The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanate.’ The Geographical Journal. Vol. 85:1. Pp 1-19 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APBB7BBK/library |
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"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977)."
[1]
Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: "Of the earliestperiod of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known."
[2]
Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable.
[1]: (Ogundiran 2005: 151-152) [2]: (Law 1977: 33) |
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“[A] passage was cut through the wood at Apoy; the gullies were filled up, and the hurdle bridges, over the swamps, were widened.”
[1]
[1]: Alpern, S. B. (1999). Dahomey’s Royal Road. History in Africa, 26, 11–24: 13. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J4ZASAV6/collection |
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“Since the thirteenth century, as Egharevba explains, “every Oba has to cross a bridge at Isekherhe quarter on his coronation day, and on the seventh day, fight with Ogiamien in memory of the victory of that day.””
[1]
[1]: Osadolor, O. B. (2001). The Military System of Benin Kingdom, c.1440–1897. University of Hamburg, Germany: 62. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/N4RZF5H5/collection |
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"By the nineteenth century, state labour was locally-organised. In much the same way that ’labour armies’20 were drafted to build enclosures for the kabaka, the ssaza chiefs and their subordinates commanded local labour on behalf o f the state. The primary function of this labour was the construction of roads and bridges, and occasionally public buildings, while the clearing of forest and bush were also common operations."
[1]
[1]: (Reid 2010: 259) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2H64W34U/collection. |
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The existing transport infrastructure in the UK was developed throughout the Empire at great expense.
[1]
[1]: ( Porter 1999: 129, 254-56, 351, 529, 660, 685, 702) Porter, Andrew, ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GTF9V4CG |
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