Section: Religion
Variable: Polity Religion Family (All coded records)
Religion family of the Polity.  
Polity Religion Family
#  Polity  Coded Value Tags Year(s) Edit Desc
1 Ostrogothic Kingdom Arian Confident Expert -
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2 Neo-Assyrian Empire Assyrian Religions Confident Expert -
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3 Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period Atenism Confident Expert -
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4 Satavahana Empire Bhagavatist Traditions Confident Expert -
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5 Spanish Empire II Catholic Confident Expert 1716 CE 1814 CE
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6 East Roman Empire Catholic Confident Expert -
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7 Middle Merovingian Catholic Confident Expert -
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8 Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period Catholic Confident -
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9 Byzantine Empire II Catholic Confident Expert -
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10 Early Merovingian Catholic Confident Expert -
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11 Republic of St Peter I Catholic Confident Expert -
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12 Papal States - Renaissance Period Catholic Confident Expert -
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13 Papal States - Early Modern Period II Catholic Confident Expert -
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14 Papal States - Early Modern Period I Catholic Confident Expert -
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15 Papal States - High Medieval Period Catholic Confident Expert -
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16 Rome - Republic of St Peter II Catholic Confident Expert -
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17 Byzantine Empire I Catholic Confident Expert -
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18 Carolingian Empire I Catholic Confident Expert -
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19 Spanish Empire I Catholic Confident Expert -
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20 French Kingdom - Early Valois Catholic Confident Expert -
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21 Carolingian Empire II Catholic Confident Expert -
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22 State of the Teutonic Order Catholicism Confident -
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23 Holy Roman Empire - Hohenstaufen Faction Catholicism Confident -
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24 Hungary Kingdom - Anjou and Later Dynasties Catholicism Confident -
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25 Hungary Kingdom - Árpád Dynasty Catholicism Confident -
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26 Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Catholicism Confident -
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27 Holy Roman Empire - Fragmented Period Catholicism Confident -
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28 Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty Catholicism Confident -
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29 Kingdom of Bohemia - Přemyslid Dynasty Catholicism Confident -
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30 Electorate of Bavaria Catholicism Confident -
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31 Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II Catholicism Confident -
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32 East Francia Catholicism Confident -
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33 Holy Roman Empire - Hohenstaufen and Welf Dynasties Catholicism Confident -
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34 Electorate of Brandenburg Catholicism Confident 1415 CE 1539 CE
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35 Jin Chinese Folk Religion Confident Expert -
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36 Foys Dahomey royal ancestor cult Confident -
“Though not more than half of the people in Dahomey worship the great gods of earth, thunder, and creation, most of them belong to lesser cults. The cult-house is their spiritual home. It holds them relentlessly in its magical grip, for their nail- and hair-clippings, deposited there, may be used to bewitch them if they ever misbehave. Like the economic societies, these cults are strongly cooperative. Striking a member on the cheek will send him, and all the cult-brothers who rush to aid him, into a fit of spirit possession. Dahomean formalism makes these fits less spontaneous than in other parts of Africa. They may even be postponed for some purely practical reason. The human world is often reflected in the world of the gods. Dahomean gods form family groups, each with its divine genealogy. Their precedence depends on their relative age. A mortal takes care to invoke them in the order of their birth, and the youngest member of the pantheon plays a mischievous part in the myths, like a spoiled and unruly youngest child. Mawu the moon-goddess and her son Legba illustrate the family life of the gods and their more subtle functions. In the practical world, Mawu manifests herself as Destiny, Fa, whose cult the Dahomean kings borrowed from the Nago tribe to gain "a more efficient control over society . . . and to overcome the influence of those other divinatory systems which were less well organized and therefore less easily con- trollable." To reveal the will of fate, Fa’s priests cast sixteen palm kernels, record the way they fall by marks on a board covered with white powder, and interpret these marks by referring to a long series of myths. Destiny would seem to be inexorable, but Legba, the youngest son of Mawu, may influence her decrees. After every night he climbs to the top of her heavenly palm tree to open some of her sixteen eyes. Fearing to be overheard, she indicates those which she wants him to open by handing him the appropriate number of palm kernels. In the myths Legba is the trickster, always intriguing against the gods. In everyday life he personifies Accident, man’s only defense against a relentless Destiny. Da, the snake or the rainbow, personifies Fortune, an elusive substance that comes mysteriously and will slip away unless carefully guarded. All snakes are called Da, but all snakes are not respected. The vodu Da is more than a snake. It is a living quality expressed in all things that are flexible, sinuous and moist; all things that fold and refold and coil, and do not move on feet, though sometimes these things that are Da go through the air. The rainbow has these qualities, and smoke, and so has the umbilical cord, and some say the nerves, too.” [1] “In Dahomey, however, national cults were closely supervised by the king. The priests of these cults - which were of great importance and influence in the country - were his loyal subordinates. Royal agents supervised their activities constantly. The king was also high-priest in a state religion. With the political elaboration of the kingdom the cults associated with the royal dynasty quickly assumed primacy over others. Unlike the chiefs of some West African societies, the king was never enstooled by an indigenous ‘chief of the earth ’, a representative of the original inhabitants, but by the priest of the royal ancestor cult. Besides this, no religious ritual, however domestic or private in nature, could be performed before the annual celebration in honour of the royal ancestors.” [2]

[1]: Cline, W. (1940). Review of Dahomey: An Ancient West African Kingdom. The Journal of American Folklore, 53(208/209), 206–209: 207–208. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/3BEHI8UP/collection

[2]: Lombard, J. (1976). The Kingdom of Dahomey. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 70–92). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 79–80. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/T6WTVSHZ/collection


37 Northern Wei Imperial Confucian Traditions Confident Expert -
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38 Northern Song Imperial Confucian Traditions Confident Expert -
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39 Tang Dynasty I Imperial Confucian Traditions Confident Expert -
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40 Jin Dynasty Imperial Confucian Traditions Confident Expert -
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41 Sui Dynasty Imperial Confucian Traditions Confident Expert -
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42 Western Jin Imperial Confucian Traditions Confident Expert -
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43 Roman Empire - Dominate Imperial Cult Confident Expert -
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44 Roman Empire - Principate Imperial Cult Confident Expert -
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45 Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty Islam Confident Expert -
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46 Kamakura Shogunate Japanese State Shinto Confident Expert -
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47 Nara Kingdom Japanese State Shinto Confident Expert -
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48 Ashikaga Shogunate Japanese State Shinto Confident Expert -
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49 Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I Orthodox Confident -
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50 Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II Orthodox Confident -
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51 Byzantine Empire III Orthodox Confident Expert -
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52 Byzantine Empire II Orthodox Confident Expert -
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53 Dutch Empire Protestant Christianity Confident -
"To the extent that the Eighty Years War of Independence can be perceived as a religious war, the Catholics were identified with the losing side. Under the Republic they could not publicly practise their religion; they were barred from holding public office, and the two predominantly Catholic provinces, Brabant and Limburg, were ruled by the central government as conquered territory. Gradually the discriminatory legal provisions were abolished, but Catholics remained wary of a Protestant backlash and were slow to organize themselves openly." [1]

[1]: (Andeweg and Irwin 1993: 20) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/M8ENXX8G/collection.


54 Germany - Hohenzollern Dynasty Protestantism Confident -
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55 Electorate of Brandenburg Protestantism Confident 1539 CE 1618 CE
Joachim II introduced the Lutheran Reformation to Brandenburg in 1539. [1]

[1]: Johannes Schultze, Die Mark Brandenburg, 2e ed. (Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 1989). Zotero link: TBJ2MH6T


56 Ptolemaic Kingdom II Ptolemaic Religion Confident Expert -
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57 Ptolemaic Kingdom I Ptolemaic Religion Confident Expert -
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58 Early Roman Republic Republican Religions Confident Expert -
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59 Middle Roman Republic Republican Religions Confident Expert -
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60 Late Roman Republic Republican Religions Confident Expert -
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61 Chalukyas of Badami Saiva Traditions Confident Expert -
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62 Rashtrakuta Empire Saiva Traditions Confident Expert -
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63 Classical Angkor Saiva Traditions Confident Expert -
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64 Early Angkor Saiva Traditions Confident Expert -
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65 Late Angkor Saiva Traditions Confident Expert -
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66 Chalukyas of Kalyani Saiva Traditions Confident Expert -
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67 Chenla Saivist Confident Expert -
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68 Funan II Saivist Confident Expert -
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69 Funan I Saivist Confident Expert -
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70 Jaffna Saivist Hinduism Confident -
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71 Satavahana Empire Saivist Traditions Confident Expert -
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72 Vakataka Kingdom Saivist Traditions Confident Expert -
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73 Vijayanagara Empire Saivist Traditions Confident Expert -
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74 Pandya Empire Saivite Hinduism Confident -
“The crowning achievement of the Śaivite saint Tiruñānasambandar, for example, is said to have been his conversion of a Pāṇḍya king from Jainism to Śaivism.” [1]

[1]: (Spencer 1969, 48) Spencer, George W. 1969. ‘Religious Networks and Royal Influence in Eleventh Century South India’. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Vol 12: 1. Pp. 42-56. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5XDG98BE/collection


75 Polonnaruwa Saivite Hinduism Confident -
“Vijayabāhu’s role in the prolonged resistance to Cōḷa rule which culminated eventually in their expulsion from the island would by itself have ensured his position as one of the greatest figures in the island’s history, but his achievements in the more humdrum fields of administration and economic regeneration were no less substantial. Infusing fresh energy into the machinery of administration, he established firm control over the whole island, and presided over both a rehabilitation of the island’s irrigation network and the resuscitation of Buddhism. The established religion had suffered a severe setback during the rule of the Cōḷas who, naturally enough, had given precedence to Saivite Hinduism.” [1] “The resuscitatory zeal of these two monarchs in particular demonstrated afresh the remarkable resilience of Sri Lankan Buddhism. Sinhalese bhikkhus maintained contacts with distant centres of Buddhism like Nepal and Tibet; they also made vigorous but unsuccessful attempts to spread their teachings in Bengal, apart from engaging in spirited disputes with their Theravādin colleagues in South India on questions relating to the interpretation of the canon. It was South-East Asia, however, that was most receptive to their teachings, and the expansion of Sinhalese Theravāda Buddhism in that region was an important trend in this cultural history during this period.” [2]

[1]: (De Silva 1981, 61) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection

[2]: (De Silva 1981, 73-74) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection


76 Seleucids Seleucid Religion Confident Expert -
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77 Dynasty of E Semitic Confident Expert -
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78 Nayaks of Madurai Shaivism Confident -
“The place-history (Sanskrit sthalapurana, Tamil, talapuranam) is an important genre of Tamil literature as David Shulaman’s study of the Saiva material has demonstrated. Though related to pan-Indian Sanskrit purana literature, Tamil sthalapuranas are distinguished by their emphasis on a particular location, its sacred qualities and the unique character of the deity worshipped there. The strong belief in the concentrated presence of the sacred in particular places is a notable feature of Tamil culture.” [1]

[1]: (Branfoot 2001, 203) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection


79 Early Pandyas Shaivism Confident -
“The Sangam religion was originally ancient Shaivism, which remained predominant, especially the cults of Shiva and Murugan (or Skanda), Shiva’s son.” [1]

[1]: (Danielou, 2003) Danielou, Alain. 2003. A Brief History of India. New York: Simon and Schuster. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/WFMTGQJ8/collection


80 Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom Shaivism Confident -
“The Marathas of Thanjavur were Saivities in their faith, and in addition they are noted for their catholicity.” [1]

[1]: (Srinivasan 1984, 44) Srinivasan, C.R. 1984. ‘Some Interesting Aspects of the Maratha Rule as Gleaned from the Tamil Copper-Plates of the Thanjavur Marathas’. Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. Vol. 11. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PXQ87WQH/collection


81 Pandya Dynasty Shaivist Confident -
“The Pandya kings followed the tenets and traditions of Vedic Dharma; they were worshippers of Shiva and Vishnu. They respected all Devas. Many inscriptions begin with prayers and invocations to Shiva and Vishnu. Many rulers of Pandya dynasty performed Vedic Yajnas such as Rajasuya and Asavamedha. [1]

[1]: (Kamlesh 2010, 600) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection


82 Late Pallava Empire Shaivite Hinduism Confident -
“The Nayanmars, who were Shaivites composed songs in praise of Shiva; they were sixty-three in number and they lived from 6th century AD to 12th century AD. Shaivites in Tamil Nadu consider Tirumurai as their most sacred text. Marai in Tamil is equivalent to Veda in Sanskrit.” [1] “Theravada Buddhism seems indeed to have flourished in south India from the earliest times till as late as the seventeenth century. Even in Ceylon there were evidently Tamil monks and Tamil patrons of Buddhism.” [2]

[1]: (Ramachandran 2018, 204) Ramachandran, R. 2018. A History of Hinduism: The Past, Present and Future. New Delhi: Sage. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/XBIURS7C/collection

[2]: (Gombrich 2006, 104) Gombrich, Richard. 2006. Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/S2XSCQ46/collection


83 Late Shang Shang Religion Confident Expert -
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84 Fatimid Caliphate Shia Confident Expert -
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85 Yemen - Era of Warlords Shia Confident Expert -
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86 Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period Shia Confident Expert -
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87 Safavid Empire Shia Confident Expert -
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88 Sind - Samma Dynasty Shia Confident Expert -
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89 Ajuran Sultanate Shia Islam Confident -
“At the top of the Ajuran hierarchy was the imam, a title used only by Shi’ite Islamic administrations.” [1]

[1]: (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Ajuran Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie. Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5U3NQRMR/library


90 Ilkhanate Shii Confident Expert -
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91 Ottoman Empire I Sufi Confident Expert -
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92 Ottoman Emirate Sufi Confident Expert -
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93 Carnatic Sultanate Sufi Islam Confident -
“The Navaiyat dynasty came to power when Saadutullah Khan was appointed subadhar, or chief of military and revenue officer of the newly established Mughal subah of Arcot in 1710. The Navaiyats, wanting to take advantage of the relative weakness of the links to the Mughal centre, and wanting to carve out an independent dynastic rule for themselves, quickly fell into the traditional pattern of empire-building. They extended existing citadels like Vellore and Gingee by ‘importing’ North Indian traders, artisans and soldiers; they established a number of new market centres; they founded and endowed mosques; and they invited poets, artists and scholars and Sufi holy men to the new capital of Arcot.” [1] “The most significant aspect of South Indian Islam, however, is that it was predominantly influenced by Sufi mysticism. The Sufis were not as bound by doctrinal formalism as the Sunnis or the Shi’ites but were concerned with an individual, mystic devotionalism which made it easy to adapt to the existing religious environment of South India. Sufi mysticism was characterized on the one hand by centres of learning, poetry, science, and on the other hand by the centrality of the pir or saint. The saint’s devotees assembled at his shrine to partake in the sacred power which abounded in the area, thus falling into the existing tradition of sacred places and the importance of pilgrimage.” [1]

[1]: (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection


94 Ottoman Empire III Sunni Confident Expert -
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95 Abbasid Caliphate I Sunni Confident Expert -
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96 Abbasid Caliphate II Sunni Confident Expert -
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97 Ak Koyunlu Sunni Confident Expert -
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98 Ilkhanate Sunni Confident Expert -
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99 Ghur Principality Sunni Confident Expert -
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100 Ayyubid Sultanate Sunni Confident Expert -
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101 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I Sunni Confident Expert -
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102 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III Sunni Confident Expert -
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103 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II Sunni Confident Expert -
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104 Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period Sunni Confident Expert -
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105 Delhi Sultanate Sunni Confident Expert -
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106 Ilkhanate Sunni Confident Expert -
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107 Seljuk Sultanate Sunni Confident Expert -
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108 Kara-Khanids Sunni Confident Expert -
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109 Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty Sunni Confident Expert -
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110 Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period Sunni Confident Expert -
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111 Umayyad Caliphate Sunni Confident Expert -
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112 Ottoman Empire II Sunni Confident Expert -
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113 Rum Sultanate Sunni Confident Expert -
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114 Timurid Empire Sunni Confident Expert -
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115 Rasulid Dynasty Sunni Confident Expert -
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116 Yemen Ziyad Dynasty Sunni Confident Expert -
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117 Ifat Sultanate Sunni Islam Confident -
“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date[...].” [1]

[1]: (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan, M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list


118 Emirate of Harar Sunni Islam Confident -
“Nearly all Hareri are Sunni Muslim.” [1]

[1]: (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 208) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection


119 Isaaq Sultanate Sunni Islam Confident -
“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date[...].” [1]

[1]: (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list


120 Sultanate of Geledi Sunni Islam Confident -
“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date and remain staunch Muslims (Sunnis, of the Sha’afi School of Law).” [1]

[1]: (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan, M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7J425GTZ/library


121 Habr Yunis Sunni Islam Confident -
“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date and remain staunch Muslims (Sunnis, of the Sha afi School of Law).” [1]

[1]: (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list


122 Majeerteen Sultanate Sunni Islam Confident -
“The Majerteen Sultan professed Sunni Islam and adherence to the Shafi’i branch of Sunni Islamic law. They sponsored madrasas, built mosques, encouraged prayer and pilgrimage, and undertook many of the other obligations of Muslim rulers.” [1]

[1]: (Smith 2021, 43) Smith, Nicholas W.S. 2021. Colonial Chaos in the Southern Red Sea: A History of Violence from 1830 to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/K6HVJ7X4/collection


123 Adal Sultanate Sunni Islam Confident -
“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date[...].” [1]

[1]: (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan, M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7J425GTZ/library


124 Sokoto Caliphate Sunni Islam Confident -
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125 Late Angkor Theravada Confident Expert -
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126 Kalabhra Dynasty Theravada Buddhism Confident -
“The name commonly used by Theravadins and other Buddhists for their canon is tipitaka (Skt. tripitaka) ‘three baskets’. The origin of and the idea behind this designation are not known. It is however certain that this is not the oldest name used for a collection of Buddhist texts. In the canon itself the buddhavacana ‘Buddha word’ is usually divided into dhamma ‘teaching’ and vinaya ‘discipline’, to which matika ‘the Patimokkhasutta (§ 14)’ is added.” [1]

[1]: (von Hinüber 1996, 7) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection


127 Anurādhapura II Theravada Buddhism Confident -
“Though it was never able to displace Theravāda Buddhism from its position of primary, Mahāyānism had a profound influence on Sri Lankan Buddhism. This it achieved by the response it evoked among the people, in the shift of emphasis from the ethical to the devotional aspect of religion. To the lay Buddhist Mahāyānist ritual and ceremonies had a compelling attraction, and they became a vital part of worship. The anniversary of the birth of Buddha became a festive occasion celebrated under state auspices. Relics of the Buddha and of the early disciples became the basis of a powerful cult of relic worship.” [1]

[1]: (De Silva 1981, 49) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection


128 Jaffna Theravada Buddhism Confident -
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129 Anurādhapura I Theravada Buddhism Confident -
“Though it was never able to displace Theravāda Buddhism from its position of primary, Mahāyānism had a profound influence on Sri Lankan Buddhism. This it achieved by the response it evoked among the people, in the shift of emphasis from the ethical to the devotional aspect of religion. To the lay Buddhist Mahāyānist ritual and ceremonies had a compelling attraction, and they became a vital part of worship. The anniversary of the birth of Buddha became a festive occasion celebrated under state auspices. Relics of the Buddha and of the early disciples became the basis of a powerful cult of relic worship.” [1]

[1]: (De Silva 1981, 49) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection


130 Anurādhapura III Theravada Buddhism Confident -
“Though it was never able to displace Theravāda Buddhism from its position of primary, Mahāyānism had a profound influence on Sri Lankan Buddhism. This it achieved by the response it evoked among the people, in the shift of emphasis from the ethical to the devotional aspect of religion. To the lay Buddhist Mahāyānist ritual and ceremonies had a compelling attraction, and they became a vital part of worship. The anniversary of the birth of Buddha became a festive occasion celebrated under state auspices. Relics of the Buddha and of the early disciples became the basis of a powerful cult of relic worship.” [1]

[1]: (De Silva 1981, 49) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection


131 Anurādhapura IV Theravada Buddhism Confident -
“Though it was never able to displace Theravāda Buddhism from its position of primary, Mahāyānism had a profound influence on Sri Lankan Buddhism. This it achieved by the response it evoked among the people, in the shift of emphasis from the ethical to the devotional aspect of religion. To the lay Buddhist Mahāyānist ritual and ceremonies had a compelling attraction, and they became a vital part of worship. The anniversary of the birth of Buddha became a festive occasion celebrated under state auspices. Relics of the Buddha and of the early disciples became the basis of a powerful cult of relic worship.” [1]

[1]: (De Silva 1981, 49) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection


132 Dambadaneiya Theravada Buddhism Confident -
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133 Late Pallava Empire Theravada Buddhism Confident -
“The Nayanmars, who were Shaivites composed songs in praise of Shiva; they were sixty-three in number and they lived from 6th century AD to 12th century AD. Shaivites in Tamil Nadu consider Tirumurai as their most sacred text. Marai in Tamil is equivalent to Veda in Sanskrit.” [1] “Theravada Buddhism seems indeed to have flourished in south India from the earliest times till as late as the seventeenth century. Even in Ceylon there were evidently Tamil monks and Tamil patrons of Buddhism.” [2]

[1]: (Ramachandran 2018, 204) Ramachandran, R. 2018. A History of Hinduism: The Past, Present and Future. New Delhi: Sage. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/XBIURS7C/collection

[2]: (Gombrich 2006, 104) Gombrich, Richard. 2006. Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/S2XSCQ46/collection


134 Polonnaruwa Theravāda Buddhism Confident -
“Vijayabāhu’s role in the prolonged resistance to Cōḷa rule which culminated eventually in their expulsion from the island would by itself have ensured his position as one of the greatest figures in the island’s history, but his achievements in the more humdrum fields of administration and economic regeneration were no less substantial. Infusing fresh energy into the machinery of administration, he established firm control over the whole island, and presided over both a rehabilitation of the island’s irrigation network and the resuscitation of Buddhism. The established religion had suffered a severe setback during the rule of the Cōḷas who, naturally enough, had given precedence to Saivite Hinduism.” [1] “The resuscitatory zeal of these two monarchs in particular demonstrated afresh the remarkable resilience of Sri Lankan Buddhism. Sinhalese bhikkhus maintained contacts with distant centres of Buddhism like Nepal and Tibet; they also made vigorous but unsuccessful attempts to spread their teachings in Bengal, apart from engaging in spirited disputes with their Theravādin colleagues in South India on questions relating to the interpretation of the canon. It was South-East Asia, however, that was most receptive to their teachings, and the expansion of Sinhalese Theravāda Buddhism in that region was an important trend in this cultural history during this period.” [2]

[1]: (De Silva 1981, 61) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection

[2]: (De Silva 1981, 73-74) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection


135 Nayaks of Thanjavur Vaishnavist Hinduism Confident -
“The rule of the nayaka in Thanjavur came to an end in the second half of the seventeenth century. Vijayaraghava Nayak (1634-73), son of Raghunatha Nayak, was the last ruler of the nayaka dynasty. On the whole, this period shaped the country both economically and culturally since most of these Hindu (Vaishnava) rulers had cultural, literary, and scientific interests and were comparatively tolerant and open in religious matters.” [1]

[1]: (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection


136 Vijayanagara Empire Vaisnava Traditions Confident Expert -
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137 Gupta Empire Vaisnava Traditions Confident Expert -
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138 Magadha - Sunga Empire Vedic Traditions Confident Expert -
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139 Satavahana Empire Vedist Traditions Confident Expert -
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140 Whydah Vodun Confident -
“Understanding of the distribution of political power in Whydah also requires consideration of the sphere of religion, which both legitimated and circumscribed the actions of the ruling elite. The most important national cult in Whydah was that of the god Dangbe (incarnated in the royal python), which was celebrated by annual public processions to the principal Dangbe shrine. Dangbe was primarily concerned with regulation of the weather and of agricultural fertility, but was also invoked for political purposes, "on all occasions relating to their government." Some European accounts imply that the worship of Dangbe was controlled by the king, the head of the cult being an official of the royal palace. It appears, however, that the Dangbe priesthood had rather more autonomy vis-a-vis the king than this suggests, since other evidence shows that King Agbangla in the 1690s expressed resentment at the scale of offerings which he was obliged to make to the cult and sought to reduce the expense which they involved. There was also a publicly celebrated cult of the deceased kings of the royal dynasty, with annual processions to offer sacrifices at their tombs. These did not, however, attain the elaboration of the comparable "Annual Customs" of the kingdom of Dahomey later, where these rather than the worship of any of the gods constituted the principal national religious ceremony. The "Annual Customs" in Whydah are mentioned only in a single contemporary account, and were clearly of much less political significance than the cult of the snake god Dangbe.” [1]

[1]: Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 209. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection


141 Western Zhou Western Zhou Religion Confident Expert -
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142 Cuzco - Early Intermediate II unknown Suspected Expert -
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143 Cuzco - Early Intermediate I unknown Suspected Expert -
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144 Oyo unknown Suspected -
"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977)." [1] Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: "Of the earliestperiod of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known." [2] Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable.

[1]: (Ogundiran 2005: 151-152)

[2]: (Law 1977: 33)


145 Wari Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
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146 Cuzco - Late Formative unknown Suspected Expert -
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147 Cuzco - Late Intermediate II unknown Suspected Expert -
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148 Cuzco - Late Intermediate I unknown Suspected Expert -
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