Stone Walls Non Mortared List
A viewset for viewing and editing Stone Walls Non Mortared.
GET /api/wf/stone-walls-non-mortared/?format=api&page=7
{ "count": 363, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/stone-walls-non-mortared/?format=api&page=8", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/stone-walls-non-mortared/?format=api&page=6", "results": [ { "id": 301, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 302, "polity": { "id": 160, "name": "tr_konya_eba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " defensive stone walls dated from 2670-2300 BCE being found and had been present at the end of the previous polity. §REF§Sharon Steadman, ‘The Early Bronze Age on the Plateau’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 245§REF§" }, { "id": 303, "polity": { "id": 163, "name": "tr_konya_lba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " same as the previous polity: 'this fortification system arrangement remained unchanged throughout the imperial Hittite and Neo-Hittite periods’§REF§Marcella Frangipane, ‘Arslantepe-Malatya: A Prehistoric and Early Historic Center in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 985§REF§" }, { "id": 304, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " not found in settlements" }, { "id": 305, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 306, "polity": { "id": 170, "name": "tr_cappadocia_2", "long_name": "Late Cappadocia", "start_year": -330, "end_year": 16 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 307, "polity": { "id": 158, "name": "tr_konya_eca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information in the archaeological evidence for this time, even if stone architecture has been found in Göbekli Tepe, it does not appear to be for military purposes §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_a/advanced/ta_1_2b.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_a/advanced/ta_1_2b.html</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 308, "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "tr_konya_lca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": -5000, "year_to": -4000, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " 'At Hacınebi already in Level A evidence for a massive stone buttressed wall, nearly four meters in height, and monumental mudbrick platforms, were discovered'.§REF§Rana Özbal, ‘The Chalcolithic of Southeast Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 187§REF§" }, { "id": 309, "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "tr_konya_lca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": -3999, "year_to": -3001, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'At Hacınebi already in Level A evidence for a massive stone buttressed wall, nearly four meters in height, and monumental mudbrick platforms, were discovered'.§REF§Rana Özbal, ‘The Chalcolithic of Southeast Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 187§REF§" }, { "id": 310, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 311, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " same as the previous polity: 'this fortification system arrangement remained unchanged throughout the imperial Hittite and Neo-Hittite periods’§REF§Marcella Frangipane, ‘Arslantepe-Malatya: A Prehistoric and Early Historic Center in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 985§REF§" }, { "id": 312, "polity": { "id": 162, "name": "tr_hatti_old_k", "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The following code clearly states the walls were always made of mudbrick even if they were build upon stone ground it does not seem to be a 'stone wall' so I have coded this as absent from a blank code and pasted in the following quote: '(e.g. Hattusa) The fortification walls were built in a casemate system with a width of up to 8 m. Two parallel walls were connected by diagonal walls, and the compartments thus constructed were filled with rubble. Towers protruded at regular intervals from the outer face of the walls. The walls are always situated on earthen ramparts, which provided protection against battering rams. As usual in Hittite architecture, the foundations and the lower parts of the walls were made of stone, whereas the upper parts consisted of a timber-framed structure of mud-brick. The superstructure of the walls can be reconstructed with a high degree of certainty thanks to the discovery of vessels showing fortification walls with battlements and towers. The gates were always flanked by towers. The Lion's Gate in Hattusa was approached via a ramp, which ran parallel to the wall to the right, thus exposing the unshielded side of potential attackers to fire from the wall. Every gate could be closed on the outer and inner side by heavy wooden doors, which could be bolted with copper bars. A peculiarity of Hittite fortifications is the so-called postern, a narrow tunnel of up to 50 m in length and 3-4 m in width and height that led through the earthen ramparts on which the fortification stood. According to one theory, these posterns may have served as sally ports, enabling the defenders to make quick sorties. The length and the narrowness of the posterns made them easily defendable against intruders who, on the other hand, were exposed to fire from the fortification walls during their approach.' §REF§Lorenz J. and I. Schrakamp (2011) Hittite Military and Warfare, pp. 141 [In:] H. Genz and D. P. Mielke (ed.) <i>Insights Into Hittite History And Archaeology,</i> Colloquia Antiqua 2, Leuven, Paris, Walpole MA: PEETERS, pp. 125-151§REF§" }, { "id": 313, "polity": { "id": 168, "name": "tr_lydia_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Lydia", "start_year": -670, "end_year": -546 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'By the end of Croesus’s reign, Sardis was a city of monumental architecture that included: a fortification wall twenty meters thick (figure 52.3) that enclosed a lower city area of about 108 hectares; terraces of white ashlar masonry that regularized natural slopes and contours of the acropolis (figures 52.4, 52.5; Ratté 2011); probably the triple-wall defenses of the acropolis—if they are not Persian—that later impressed Alexander the Great (Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri 1.17.5; Lucian, Charon 9); three huge tumuli at Bin Tepe—the largest more than 350 m in diameter (figure 52.6)—that were visible from afar and heralded the city to those approaching it (Roosevelt 2009).'§REF§Crawford H. Greenewalt, ‘Sardis: A First Millennium B.C.E. Capital in Western Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p.1117§REF§" }, { "id": 314, "polity": { "id": 169, "name": "tr_lysimachus_k", "long_name": "Lysimachus Kingdom", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Lysimachus defeated Thracian cities with dry-stone walls, including Odessus, defeated during the revolt of 313 BCE by Lysimachus. §REF§Lund, H. S. (1992) Lysimachus: A study in early Hellenistic kingship. Routledge: London and New York. p40§REF§ <i>This was essentially an earth rampart with stone facing (Waterfield's quote contains more detail) so am coding it as mortared. A true non-mortared defensive wall should be self-supporting without any other material (mortar). This one was directly backed by earth which helped bind the stones together. Maybe it can be coded both ways, coding suspected unknown for now.</i>" }, { "id": 315, "polity": { "id": 156, "name": "tr_konya_mnl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information in the archaeological evidence for this time, even if stone architecture has been found in Göbekli Tepe, it does not appear to be for military purposes §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_a/advanced/ta_1_2b.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_a/advanced/ta_1_2b.html</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 316, "polity": { "id": 155, "name": "tr_konya_enl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Neolithic", "start_year": -9600, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information in the archaeological evidence for this time, even if stone architecture has been found in Göbekli Tepe, it does not appear to be for military purposes §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_a/advanced/ta_1_2b.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_a/advanced/ta_1_2b.html</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 317, "polity": { "id": 157, "name": "tr_konya_lnl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Neolithic", "start_year": -6600, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information in the archaeological evidence for this time, even if stone architecture has been found in Göbekli Tepe, it does not appear to be for military purposes §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_a/advanced/ta_1_2b.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_a/advanced/ta_1_2b.html</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 318, "polity": { "id": 165, "name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": -1180, "year_to": -1000, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " following evidence between 1000 BCE and 700 BCE: Urartu’s craftsmen used iron picks and hammers to forge horizontal planes out of bedrock on which to erect the empire’s numerous and imposing stone fortresses.§REF§Lori Khatchadourian, ‘The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 480§REF§" }, { "id": 319, "polity": { "id": 165, "name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": -1000, "year_to": -901, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " following evidence between 1000 BCE and 700 BCE: Urartu’s craftsmen used iron picks and hammers to forge horizontal planes out of bedrock on which to erect the empire’s numerous and imposing stone fortresses.§REF§Lori Khatchadourian, ‘The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 480§REF§" }, { "id": 320, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 321, "polity": { "id": 174, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_1", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire I", "start_year": 1402, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 322, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 323, "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 324, "polity": { "id": 166, "name": "tr_phrygian_k", "long_name": "Phrygian Kingdom", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -695 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Urartu’s craftsmen used iron picks and hammers to forge horizontal planes out of bedrock on which to erect the empire’s numerous and imposing stone fortresses.§REF§Lori Khatchadourian, ‘The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 480§REF§‘Brian Rose provided a better definition of the walled Lower Town to the south of the Citadel and confirmed the presence of a similar area to the north that had been suspected based on massive stone walls in the Sakarya River bed’§REF§Mary M. Voigt, ‘Gordion: The Changing Political and Economic Roles of a First Millennium B.C.E. City’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 1074§REF§" }, { "id": 325, "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "tr_roman_dominate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 326, "polity": { "id": 171, "name": "tr_rum_sultanate", "long_name": "Rum Sultanate", "start_year": 1077, "end_year": 1307 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Konya had \"a city-wall and a citadel” §REF§Cahen, Claude. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. Translated by P. M. Holt. A History of the Near East. Harlow, England: Longman, 2001. P.121.§REF§" }, { "id": 327, "polity": { "id": 167, "name": "tr_tabal_k", "long_name": "Tabal Kingdoms", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -730 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Urartu’s craftsmen used iron picks and hammers to forge horizontal planes out of bedrock on which to erect the empire’s numerous and imposing stone fortresses.' §REF§Lori Khatchadourian, ‘The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 480§REF§" }, { "id": 328, "polity": { "id": 32, "name": "us_cahokia_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Palisade 2.8km in length, 15m in height according to Iseminger et al. §REF§(Milner 2006, 148)§REF§ Whilst the mounds were easily built over hundreds of years by a small number of workers, working few hours in a year, \"partial walls were useless\" and so arguably amounted to the more impressive challenge.§REF§(Milner 2006, 148)§REF§ In terms of time and resources the first palisade was the biggest challenge because subsequent palisades could initially incorporate what was left standing from the earlier one.§REF§(Milner 2006, 148)§REF§ Conservative estimate, 291,000 hours spent building each palisade. \"1,000 workers could have erected a formidable wall in two to three months\" §REF§(Milner 2006, 148)§REF§ \"If Cahokia's residents could afford to move more slowly, taking nine months to complete the job, then 220 to 340 laborers were needed.\" §REF§(Milner 2006, 148)§REF§" }, { "id": 329, "polity": { "id": 33, "name": "us_cahokia_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Moorehead", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1275 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Palisades. Palisade 2.8km in length, 15m in height according to Iseminger et al. §REF§(Milner 2006, 148)§REF§ Whilst the mounds were easily built over hundreds of years by a small number of workers, working few hours in a year, \"partial walls were useless\" and so arguably amounted to the more impressive challenge.§REF§(Milner 2006, 148)§REF§ In terms of time and resources the first palisade was the biggest challenge because subsequent palisades could initially incorporate what was left standing from the earlier one.§REF§(Milner 2006, 148)§REF§ Conservative estimate, 291,000 hours spent building each palisade. \"1,000 workers could have erected a formidable wall in two to three months\" §REF§(Milner 2006, 148)§REF§ \"If Cahokia's residents could afford to move more slowly, taking nine months to complete the job, then 220 to 340 laborers were needed.\" §REF§(Milner 2006, 148)§REF§" }, { "id": 330, "polity": { "id": 30, "name": "us_early_illinois_confederation", "long_name": "Early Illinois Confederation", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1717 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In terms of settlement organisation, the main defensive strategy seems to have been to construct larger villages§REF§Illinois State Museum, Illinois Economy: Settlements (2000), <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/ec_settle.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/ec_settle.html</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 331, "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 332, "polity": { "id": 102, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_2", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late", "start_year": 1714, "end_year": 1848 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 333, "polity": { "id": 100, "name": "us_proto_haudenosaunee", "long_name": "Proto-Haudenosaunee Confederacy", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1565 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " By this period villages were often located on defensible hilltops, away from major routes, and were fortified \"either by ravines or by artificial earthworks and multiple palisades,\" and even watchtowers. Also, \"the placement of houses within a palisade may also have been motivated by defensive considerations\" and to create defensible corridors.§REF§(Snow 1994: 52) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TQ4KR3AE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TQ4KR3AE</a>.§REF§§REF§(Engelbrecht 2003: 92) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FJ3EAI76\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FJ3EAI76</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 334, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 335, "polity": { "id": 22, "name": "us_woodland_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Early Woodland", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the following. \"About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups.\"§REF§(Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” <i>Evolutionary Anthropology</i> 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 336, "polity": { "id": 34, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1049 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 337, "polity": { "id": 25, "name": "us_woodland_4", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland II", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the following. \"About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups.\" The situation only changed \"[l]ate in the first millennium AD\".§REF§(Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” <i>Evolutionary Anthropology</i> 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 338, "polity": { "id": 23, "name": "us_woodland_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Middle Woodland", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the following. \"About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups.\"§REF§(Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” <i>Evolutionary Anthropology</i> 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 339, "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "us_woodland_5", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the following. \"About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups.\" The situation only changed \"[l]ate in the first millennium AD\".§REF§(Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” <i>Evolutionary Anthropology</i> 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 340, "polity": { "id": 24, "name": "us_woodland_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland I", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the following. \"About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups.\" The situation only changed \"[l]ate in the first millennium AD\".§REF§(Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” <i>Evolutionary Anthropology</i> 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 341, "polity": { "id": 28, "name": "us_cahokia_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Sand Prairie", "start_year": 1275, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 342, "polity": { "id": 27, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 343, "polity": { "id": 29, "name": "us_oneota", "long_name": "Oneota", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1650 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 344, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 345, "polity": { "id": 469, "name": "uz_janid_dyn", "long_name": "Khanate of Bukhara", "start_year": 1599, "end_year": 1747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 346, "polity": { "id": 465, "name": "uz_khwarasm_1", "long_name": "Ancient Khwarazm", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " About Kiuzeli-g'ir: \"The first, in northern Turkmenistan, consists of long walls with rounded towers, the walls containing corridors which have been called 'living walls' by Tolstov (Fig. 3). This complex is dated in about the 6th century BC and substantiates cultural, and thus probably also economic, contacts far to the south, as far as north-west India.\" §REF§(Helms 1998, 88)§REF§" }, { "id": 347, "polity": { "id": 464, "name": "uz_koktepe_1", "long_name": "Koktepe I", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 348, "polity": { "id": 466, "name": "uz_koktepe_2", "long_name": "Koktepe II", "start_year": -750, "end_year": -550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 349, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 350, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The Sogdian princelings bad the title of gwPw ( = xvatâv ) or gwtl(w). These rulers, whom Chinese sources claim belonged to one clan (the bouse of Chao-wu [t'siiiu-miu] = jmûk [jamûg] of the Muslim authors), were more ofte:n than not merely the first among equals in the class of dihqâns, aristocratic landholders who lived in fortified castles.2\" §REF§(Golden 1992, 189)§REF§" } ] }