Stone Walls Non Mortared List
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GET /api/wf/stone-walls-non-mortared/?format=api&page=6
{ "count": 363, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/stone-walls-non-mortared/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/stone-walls-non-mortared/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The fortified settlement of Ivolga in Russia, situated near the modern city of Ulan-Ude, is the most investigated one among them. The site was an irregular rectangle with sides equal to approximately 200 and 300 m. On three sides, it was protected by fortification works of three walls alternating with three ditches while on the fourth side the site was protected by the Selenga river.\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 85)§REF§ \"Botanical analyses were conducted at the Ivolga site complex, an important example of a fortified settlement of 2,500-3,000 people specializing in agriculture and metal production in the Transbaikal region (Davydova 1995; Kradin 2005a). \" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 221)§REF§" }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 256, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Many settlements show evidence for fortifications from this period, for example: “…the rocky summit of the Yagul hill [Tlacolula region] was fortified during Period V with the same kind of dry-laid stone masonry walls used at the Mitla Fortress.”§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People. New York. p292§REF§" }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic.\"§REF§(Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "mx_aztec_emp", "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"For fortifications, Aztec sites show a broad range with some totally exposed on valley floors and others being walled or at elevations. Tenochtitlan only had walls around the sacred precinct but of course had natural fortification by being an island in a lake that could be entered only through a few causeways. At the high end of fortification was the Tlaxcalan stronghold of Tepeticpac, up on a high hill and encircled by walls. That was their strategy of resistance against the Aztec empire. Huexotla is a site in the domain of Texcoco with a large wall and their were fortified garrisons on the frontier between the Aztec and Tarascan empires, in west Mexico. But probably more sites were not fortified than were. There was nothing comparable to the medieval European pattern or earlier fortified city states of Mesopotamia or elsewhere in Eurasia.\"§REF§(Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro)§REF§" }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 12, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_7", "long_name": "Classic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic.\"§REF§(Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " May not survive archaeologically, only detectable via excavation." }, { "id": 267, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " May not survive archaeologically, only detectable via excavation." }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic.\"§REF§(Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"For urban centres in the rest of Mesoamerica, the lack of perimeter walls and defensive settings is striking. The undefended nature of Aztec towns, for example, contrasts sharply with the ethnohistoric record of Aztec warfare\".§REF§(Smith 2003: 38) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEIQNSNP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEIQNSNP</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Sources§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ do not mention any archaeological evidence for fortification for this period." }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The fact that sources mention evidence for defensive palisades§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p102§REF§ but not evidence for any other kind of fortification suggests that there is only evidence for the former. Evidence for large or complex fortifications has not been found for this period." }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The fact that sources mention evidence for defensive palisades§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p102§REF§ but not evidence for any other kind of fortification suggests that there is only evidence for the former. Evidence for large or complex fortifications has not been found for this period." }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " [The walls were non-mortared.]§REF§Júlíusson and Kristissen, pers. comm. 2017§REF§" }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Brian Bauer 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 276, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Sites with defensive walls include Pungurhuaylla, Raqchi, Warq'ana, Pumamarka, Huata, Muyuch'urqu, and Tipón\" §REF§(Covey 2006, 118)§REF§" }, { "id": 277, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Sites with defensive walls include Pungurhuaylla, Raqchi, Warq'ana, Pumamarka, Huata, Muyuch'urqu, and Tipón\" §REF§(Covey 2006a, 118)§REF§" }, { "id": 278, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 279, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In the physical domain, Ollantaytambo also exemplifes their bent for modifying the terrain and adapting their designs to existing land forms. Taking advantage of a meander in the Urubamba, engineers diverted the water ow from the le bank to the right and back again and also channelized the Río Patakancha where it owed through the site (Protzen 1993: 22). e eleven expansive terraces that face the settlement gracefully blended in with the natural slope of the piedmont. In 1536, their steep stone walls helped to repel the Spanish expedition sent against Manqo Inka. e Incas even used the waterworks in their defense, as they ooded the valley where the Spanish. were attacking, handing them their only real defeat of the campaign (P. Pizarro 1986: 146-8). \" §REF§D'Altroy 2014, 224)§REF§ \"Troops defending fortified locations responded with a similar array of weaponry, to which they added large boulders rolled down onto advancing forces. Piles of hundreds of sling stones lining the interior of defensive walls can still be found at various Inca forts, such as Cerro del Inga, Chile (Planella et al. 1991: 407).\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 345-347)§REF§" }, { "id": 280, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 281, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 282, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 283, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. §REF§(Gregory L. Possehl. 'Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)§REF§." }, { "id": 284, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. §REF§(Gregory L. Possehl. 'Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)§REF§." }, { "id": 285, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. §REF§(Gregory L. Possehl. 'Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)§REF§" }, { "id": 286, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 287, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "No evidence of fortifications have been found at Pirak.§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard.§REF§" }, { "id": 288, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. §REF§(Gregory L. Possehl. 'Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)§REF§" }, { "id": 289, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 290, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 291, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There is no evidence of stone walls at Nausharo.§REF§Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.§REF§ However the claimed unsuitability of walls and gates is somewhat subjective, and ignores sites with bastions and ‘double-axis’ gateways (such as Dholavira and Surkotada in Gujarat, Bisht 1991; Joshi 1990).§REF§Cork, E. (2005) Peaceful Harappans? Reviewing the evidence for the absence of warfare in the Indus Civilisation of north-west India and Pakistan (c. 2500-1900 BC). Antiquity (79): 411-423. p420§REF§" }, { "id": 292, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There is no evidence of stone walls at Nausharo.§REF§Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.§REF§ However - the claimed unsuitability of walls and gates is somewhat subjective, and ignores sites with bastions and ‘double-axis’ gateways (such as Dholavira and Surkotada in Gujarat, Bisht 1991; Joshi 1990).§REF§Cork, E. (2005) Peaceful Harappans? Reviewing the evidence for the absence of warfare in the Indus Civilisation of north-west India and Pakistan (c. 2500-1900 BC). Antiquity (79): 411-423. p420§REF§" }, { "id": 293, "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "ru_sakha_early", "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Only gravel is mentioned: \"When speaking of structures, we should also mention the fact that in the old days the Yakuts knew how to make fortifications or ostrozhki, as they were called in the Russian texts of the 17th century. For example, in 1636-1637, during the campaign against the Kangalastsy, the Russian Cossacks found that “they had built strong forts with two walls covered with gravel, and surrounded by snow and water;” it was only after a two-day assault that the Cossacks managed to take one of these forts. In 1642 the Russians also took a Sakha fortress after great difficulty: “. . . the fort was made with two walls, the space between the walls was filled with earth, and there were log towers.” At a later stage these fortifications disappeared, and no one has described them since in detail. But even in the 19th century it was possible to find special tower-like barns here and there, which belonged to the Toyons.\" §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts.” Peoples Of Siberia, 265§REF§ We have assumed that these gravel coverings can be considered non-mortared stone walls. This remains in need of confirmation." }, { "id": 294, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": 1632, "year_to": 1642, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Only gravel is mentioned: \"When speaking of structures, we should also mention the fact that in the old days the Yakuts knew how to make fortifications or ostrozhki, as they were called in the Russian texts of the 17th century. For example, in 1636-1637, during the campaign against the Kangalastsy, the Russian Cossacks found that “they had built strong forts with two walls covered with gravel, and surrounded by snow and water;” it was only after a two-day assault that the Cossacks managed to take one of these forts. In 1642 the Russians also took a Yakut fortress after great difficulty: “. . . the fort was made with two walls, the space between the walls was filled with earth, and there were log towers.” At a later stage these fortifications disappeared, and no one has described them since in detail. But even in the 19th century it was possible to find special tower-like barns here and there, which belonged to the Toyons.\" §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts.” Peoples Of Siberia, 265§REF§ We have assumed that these gravel coverings can be considered non-mortared stone walls. This remains in need of confirmation." }, { "id": 295, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": 1643, "year_to": 1900, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Only gravel is mentioned: \"When speaking of structures, we should also mention the fact that in the old days the Yakuts knew how to make fortifications or ostrozhki, as they were called in the Russian texts of the 17th century. For example, in 1636-1637, during the campaign against the Kangalastsy, the Russian Cossacks found that “they had built strong forts with two walls covered with gravel, and surrounded by snow and water;” it was only after a two-day assault that the Cossacks managed to take one of these forts. In 1642 the Russians also took a Yakut fortress after great difficulty: “. . . the fort was made with two walls, the space between the walls was filled with earth, and there were log towers.” At a later stage these fortifications disappeared, and no one has described them since in detail. But even in the 19th century it was possible to find special tower-like barns here and there, which belonged to the Toyons.\" §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts.” Peoples Of Siberia, 265§REF§ We have assumed that these gravel coverings can be considered non-mortared stone walls. This remains in need of confirmation." }, { "id": 296, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " needs expert verification" }, { "id": 297, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 298, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Aside from occasional exceptions, [...] stone fortifications do not appear to have been favored after the classical period. [...] Building stone walls was time-consuming and probably expensive. The stone was difficult to procure and to work, whereas brick was much more readily produced. a transition from stone to brick in temple building from the classical period into the early modern period was thus accompanied by the same general shift in fortification building.\" §REF§(Charney 2004, p. 79)§REF§" }, { "id": 299, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the fact that, in early modern times, there had been a shift from stone fortification to brick fortification: \"Aside from occasional exceptions, [...] stone fortifications do not appear to have been favored after the classical period. [...] Building stone walls was time-consuming and probably expensive. The stone was difficult to procure and to work, whereas brick was much more readily produced. a transition from stone to brick in temple building from the classical period into the early modern period was thus accompanied by the same general shift in fortification building.\" §REF§(Charney 2004, p. 79)§REF§" }, { "id": 300, "polity": { "id": 462, "name": "tj_sarasm", "long_name": "Sarazm", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred absent for defensive stone walls. A stone wall has been found surrounding a funerary enclosure but this may be considered part of a building: \"No large necropolis has yet been found at Sarazm, but excavation IV led to the discovery of a funerary enclosure with a round plan (15 m in diameter) surrounded by a stone wall. (see general plan of the excavation IV).\"§REF§(Sarazm Management Plan 2005, 20)§REF§" } ] }