Earth Rampart List
A viewset for viewing and editing Earth Ramparts.
GET /api/wf/earth-ramparts/?format=api&page=6
{ "count": 368, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/earth-ramparts/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/earth-ramparts/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Qarshi, built by Kebek of the Chagatai Khaganate is an example \"typical of Mongolian and south Siberian cities from the Xiongnu period onwards.\"; it was \"bounded by a strong wall, 4.5 m thick, surrounded by a deep defensive ditch, 8-10 m wide and 3.5-4 m deep, and had four gates. The original layout of the city (before Timurid additions) included one central fortress/palace surrounded by an open spaced designed for the erection of tents.\"§REF§(Biran 2013, 271-272) Michal Biran. Rulers and City Life in Mongal Central Asia (1220-1370) David Durand-Guedy. Turko-Mongol Rulers, Cities and City Life. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ We don't know if the walls in this region were made out of stone or earth." }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the Shajing people, nearby Mongolia: \"people were sedentary and lived in fortified settlements surrounded by earthen walls.\" §REF§Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 46§REF§" }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 256, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Djenne had been \"fortified by a system of ramparts, with a variable number of guarded gates. A fortified city was called a tata.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 121) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Djenne had been \"fortified by a system of ramparts, with a variable number of guarded gates. A fortified city was called a tata.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 121) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Djenne had been \"fortified by a system of ramparts, with a variable number of guarded gates. A fortified city was called a tata.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 121) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Djenne had been \"fortified by a system of ramparts, with a variable number of guarded gates. A fortified city was called a tata.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 121) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The defensive wall around Monte Alban was made of earth and stone.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p150§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§" }, { "id": 267, "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic.\"§REF§(Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "mx_aztec_emp", "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"For fortifications, Aztec sites show a broad range with some totally exposed on valley floors and others being walled or at elevations. Tenochtitlan only had walls around the sacred precinct but of course had natural fortification by being an island in a lake that could be entered only through a few causeways. At the high end of fortification was the Tlaxcalan stronghold of Tepeticpac, up on a high hill and encircled by walls. That was their strategy of resistance against the Aztec empire. Huexotla is a site in the domain of Texcoco with a large wall and their were fortified garrisons on the frontier between the Aztec and Tarascan empires, in west Mexico. But probably more sites were not fortified than were. There was nothing comparable to the medieval European pattern or earlier fortified city states of Mesopotamia or elsewhere in Eurasia.\"§REF§(Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro)§REF§" }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 12, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_7", "long_name": "Classic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic.\"§REF§(Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " May not survive archaeologically, only detectable via excavation." }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " May not survive archaeologically, only detectable via excavation." }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Whereas no sites are documented as fortified or military observatories during the Formative and Classic periods, approximately one quarter of sites are during the Epiclassic and one-third of sites are during the Postclassic.\"§REF§(Carballo and Pluckhahn 2007: 615) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MUW5MHB7</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"For urban centres in the rest of Mesoamerica, the lack of perimeter walls and defensive settings is striking. The undefended nature of Aztec towns, for example, contrasts sharply with the ethnohistoric record of Aztec warfare\".§REF§(Smith 2003: 38) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEIQNSNP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEIQNSNP</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Sources§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ do not mention any archaeological evidence for fortification for this period." }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The fact that sources mention evidence for defensive palisades§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p102§REF§ but not evidence for any other kind of fortification suggests that there is only evidence for the former. Evidence for large or complex fortifications has not been found for this period." }, { "id": 276, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The fact that sources mention evidence for defensive palisades§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p102§REF§ but not evidence for any other kind of fortification suggests that there is only evidence for the former. Evidence for large or complex fortifications has not been found for this period." }, { "id": 277, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Amory describes fortifications and 'earthworks': 'Larger groups (sixteen to eighteen members and on up) readily developed a ‘siege mentality’, and would sometimes entrench themselves, not in caves, but in fortified earthworks or strongholds, thrown up against the inroads of their enemies. Both Óspakr and Hörðr had such fortifications built for themselves, their wives and families, and their men, Hörðr's island retreat of wood and turf being virtually impregnable. Though Óspakr's earthworks enclosed a farm with two cows, where his wife and son lived, these fortifications were not internally self-sustaining but were chiefly designed for receiving stolen goods, viz., the produce of the surrounding countryside, and for staging last-ditch defenses. It is remarkable but not unintelligible that the sizeable outlaw colony on the tiny island of Geirshólmr, under the leadership of Hörðr Grímkelsson and his foster-brother Geirr Grímsson, seems never to have engaged in animal husbandry of any sort on the island, or gone fishing in the surrounding waters, but instead preferred to launch expedition after expedition to the mainland in order to rustle from the rich coastal farms the cattle and sheep that it lacked; these would be slaughtered at once for its consumption. One may well think that cattle- and sheep-rustling was a perfectly suitable occupation for outlaws, but they were undercutting themselves by their total dependence on the mainland, and finally allowed themselves to be lured to shore by promises of freedom and were put to death in batches by a coalition of farmers who were lying in wait to dispatch them. So, at any rate, the story of the ‘Hólmverjar’ goes in Harðar saga Grímkelssonar (chs 34ff.). The colony was eradicated in three years' time without the mainland farmers' even having to assault the impregnable hall of Hörðr on one cliffside of the island.'§REF§(Amory 1992, 196) Amory, Frederic. 1992. <i>The Medieval Icelandic Outlaw: Lifestyle, Saga, and Legend</i>. Middlesex: Hisarlik Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/8FGVBVMM/itemKey/BH4V87MW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/8FGVBVMM/itemKey/BH4V87MW</a>§REF§ [Fortifications usually seem to be made of stone (and sod) with vertical sides rather than sloping sides as in earth ramparts. It is a theoretical possibility that some such fortifications were made exclusively of sod (this was sometimes done in house-walls) but these would still have vertical sides and seems unlikely as stone is stronger.] We have accordingly chosen to code this as 'inferred absent'." }, { "id": 278, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Brian Bauer 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 279, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Brian Bauer 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 280, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 281, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 282, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " no direct evidence for earth ramparts, but considering the elaborate forts constructed by the Incas, we can probably infer presence" }, { "id": 283, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 284, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 285, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 286, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. §REF§(Gregory L. Possehl. 'Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)§REF§." }, { "id": 287, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. §REF§(Gregory L. Possehl. 'Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)§REF§." }, { "id": 288, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. §REF§(Gregory L. Possehl. 'Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)§REF§" }, { "id": 289, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mud wall at the city of Taxila. §REF§Tarn, William Woodthorpe. <i>The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University Press: 1951, p.124-5. Sidky, H., The Greek Kingdom of Bactria, from Alexander to Eucratides the Great, Oxford, 2000, pp. 168-169</i>§REF§ Reference for use of the mud rampart in ancient India.§REF§(Singh 2008, 336) Upinder Singh. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Longman. Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 290, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "No evidence of fortifications have been found at Pirak.§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard.§REF§" }, { "id": 291, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. §REF§(Gregory L. Possehl. 'Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)§REF§" }, { "id": 292, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 293, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Reference for use of the mud rampart in ancient India.§REF§(Singh 2008, 336) Upinder Singh. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Longman. Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 294, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The decline of the Delhi Sultanate in the 15th century led to a situation where each lord needed to fortify his province with numerous castles.\"§REF§Konstantin S Nossov. 2012. Indian Castles 1206-1526: The Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate. Osprey Publishing.§REF§ Reference for use of the mud rampart in ancient India.§REF§(Singh 2008, 336) Upinder Singh. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Longman. Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 295, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "A mudbrick wall at Nausharo could potentially be the remains of fortifications, or the remains of a retaining wall§REF§Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi. p44§REF§. Mudbrick walls were built around Harappa in this period§REF§Jonathan M. Kenoyer. 'Uncovering the Keys to the Lost Indus Cities', <i>Scientific American</i>, vol. 15, no. 1, 2005, p. 29§REF§, making a defensive wall around Nausharo seem more likely, but it is uncertain whether these walls had a defensive function and were not solely used for purposes of tax collection by controlling the inand outflow of people and goods.§REF§Jonathan M. Kenoyer. 'Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New Insights from Harappa, Pakistan', <i>World Archaeology</i>, vol. 29, no. 2, Oct. 1997, p. 263§REF§" }, { "id": 296, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "A mudbrick wall at Nausharo could potentially be the remains of fortifications, or the remains of a retaining wall§REF§Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi. p44§REF§. Mudbrick walls were built around Harappa in this period§REF§Jonathan M. Kenoyer. 'Uncovering the Keys to the Lost Indus Cities', <i>Scientific American</i>, vol. 15, no. 1, 2005, p. 29§REF§, making a defensive wall around Nausharo seem more likely, but it is uncertain whether these walls had a defensive function and were not solely used for purposes of tax collection by controlling the in- and outflow of people and goods.§REF§Jonathan M. Kenoyer. 'Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New Insights from Harappa, Pakistan', <i>World Archaeology</i>, vol. 29, no. 2, Oct. 1997, p. 263§REF§" }, { "id": 297, "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "ru_sakha_early", "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"When speaking of structures, we should also mention the fact that in the old days the Yakuts knew how to make fortifications or ostrozhki, as they were called in the Russian texts of the 17th century. For example, in 1636-1637, during the campaign against the Kangalastsy, the Russian Cossacks found that “they had built strong forts with two walls covered with gravel, and surrounded by snow and water;” it was only after a two-day assault that the Cossacks managed to take one of these forts. In 1642 the Russians also took a Yakut fortress after great difficulty: “. . . the fort was made with two walls, the space between the walls was filled with earth, and there were log towers.” At a later stage these fortifications disappeared, and no one has described them since in detail. But even in the 19th century it was possible to find special tower-like barns here and there, which belonged to the Toyons.\" §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts.” Peoples Of Siberia, 265§REF§" }, { "id": 298, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": 1632, "year_to": 1642, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"When speaking of structures, we should also mention the fact that in the old days the Yakuts knew how to make fortifications or ostrozhki, as they were called in the Russian texts of the 17th century. For example, in 1636-1637, during the campaign against the Kangalastsy, the Russian Cossacks found that “they had built strong forts with two walls covered with gravel, and surrounded by snow and water;” it was only after a two-day assault that the Cossacks managed to take one of these forts. In 1642 the Russians also took a Yakut fortress after great difficulty: “. . . the fort was made with two walls, the space between the walls was filled with earth, and there were log towers.” At a later stage these fortifications disappeared, and no one has described them since in detail. But even in the 19th century it was possible to find special tower-like barns here and there, which belonged to the Toyons.\" §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts.” Peoples Of Siberia, 265§REF§" }, { "id": 299, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": 1643, "year_to": 1900, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"When speaking of structures, we should also mention the fact that in the old days the Yakuts knew how to make fortifications or ostrozhki, as they were called in the Russian texts of the 17th century. For example, in 1636-1637, during the campaign against the Kangalastsy, the Russian Cossacks found that “they had built strong forts with two walls covered with gravel, and surrounded by snow and water;” it was only after a two-day assault that the Cossacks managed to take one of these forts. In 1642 the Russians also took a Yakut fortress after great difficulty: “. . . the fort was made with two walls, the space between the walls was filled with earth, and there were log towers.” At a later stage these fortifications disappeared, and no one has described them since in detail. But even in the 19th century it was possible to find special tower-like barns here and there, which belonged to the Toyons.\" §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts.” Peoples Of Siberia, 265§REF§" }, { "id": 300, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " needs expert verification" } ] }