Earth Rampart List
A viewset for viewing and editing Earth Ramparts.
GET /api/wf/earth-ramparts/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 368, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/earth-ramparts/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/earth-ramparts/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Present with evidence in both previous and succeeding polities, no reason to believe this stopped here" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Typical defenses included a rampart, a ditch, and a palisade§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.173.§REF§" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " ‘the other feat of almost Herculean proportions was the erection by Hideyoshi of an earthen embankment around the capital city of Kyoto. ;§REF§Kawanabe, Hiroya, Machiko Nishino, and Masayoshi Maehata (eds.). 2012. Lake Biwa: Interactions between Nature and People. Springer Science & Business Media.p.293§REF§ \"Earthern ramparts called dobashi were placed across the moat at points where attackers attempting to cross them would be most vulnerable.\"§REF§(Kirby 1962) John Kirby. 1962. From Castle to Teahouse: Japanese Architecture of the Momoyama Period. Tuttle Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.31§REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 138, "name": "jp_jomon_1", "long_name": "Japan - Incipient Jomon", "start_year": -13600, "end_year": -9200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 139, "name": "jp_jomon_2", "long_name": "Japan - Initial Jomon", "start_year": -9200, "end_year": -5300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 140, "name": "jp_jomon_3", "long_name": "Japan - Early Jomon", "start_year": -5300, "end_year": -3500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 141, "name": "jp_jomon_4", "long_name": "Japan - Middle Jomon", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 142, "name": "jp_jomon_5", "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Literary and pictorial accounts confirm that extensive planning and earthworks projects were utilized throughout the medieval era for major battles. For instance, the defense works at Ichinotani erected by the Taira clan in 1184[CE] included boulders topped by thick logs, a double row of shields, and turrets with openings for shooting.§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press. p.173.§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Site at Yoshinogari (3rd century CE) had surrounding ditch and ramparts, watchtower and inner moat.§REF§(Barnes 2007, 98-99) Gina L Barnes. 2007. State Formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-Century Ruling Elite. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Yamajiro (Yamashiro): 'A squat Japanese mountain fortress common during the Sengoku jidai era. They were carved out of canyons and gullies and were usually girded by a wooden palisade and guarded by dry moats and earth ramparts. Some had watchtowers.' §REF§Cathal J. Nolan, The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization Volume 2, Greenwood Press, 2006, p. 949§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Describing the fortifications at a fortified camp at Akaska in 1600 ‘a long curving ditch and embankment surrounds it, on top of which is a solid wooden palisade pierced by loopholes.’ §REF§Turnbull, Stephen. 2012. Tokugawa Ieyasu. Osprey Publishing.p.36.§REF§" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": -300, "year_to": 99, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Site at Yoshinogari (3rd century CE) had surrounding ditch and ramparts, watchtower and inner moat.§REF§(Barnes 2007, 98-99) Gina L Barnes. 2007. State Formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-Century Ruling Elite. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": 100, "year_to": 250, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Site at Yoshinogari (3rd century CE) had surrounding ditch and ramparts, watchtower and inner moat.§REF§(Barnes 2007, 98-99) Gina L Barnes. 2007. State Formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-Century Ruling Elite. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Krasnaya Rechka. Site in northern Kyrgyzstan, c. 36 km east of Bishkek. ... identified with either Sarigh or Navakat ... Located along the Silk Route, the settlement developed in the 6th century and explanded in the 7th. ... The city was fortified with a pise and mud-brick wall (h. 15m; w. 12.3 m) with protuding bastions, fortified gates and a large moat. In the center of the site was an extensive area (20 sq. km) with traces of an irrigation system, sections of inner walls ... Excavation of a palace (10th-12th century), manor houses, craft workshops, pottery kilns and vineyards suggest that this became the city center during the period of Karakhanid (r. 940-1211) rule.\"§REF§(Bloom and Blair 2009, 399) Jonathan M Bloom. Sheila S Blair. eds. 2009. Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ <i>The pise and mud-brick wall mentioned here.</i>" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§ Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'The enclosure of Banteay Prei Nokor is the largest and most formidable of which we have any knowledge in pre-Angkorian Cambodia. It was surrounded by a large earthen rampart, probably surmounted by a wooden palisade. The rampart is about 2.50 kilometers square. A moat, about 100 meters wide, surrounded the rampart [...].'§REF§(Briggs 1951, pg. 76)§REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'The enclosure of Banteay Prei Nokor is the largest and most formidable of which we have any knowledge in pre-Angkorian Cambodia. It was surrounded by a large earthen rampart, probably surmounted by a wooden palisade. The rampart is about 2.50 kilometers square. A moat, about 100 meters wide, surrounded the rampart [...].'§REF§(Briggs 1951, pg. 76)§REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": 1250, "year_to": 1383, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “The next Thai attack, in 1383, prompted the Khmer to construct a strong earth rampart around their capital city. Even this protection did not help.\" §REF§(Dutt 1996, 224)§REF§" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": 1383, "year_to": 1432, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The next Thai attack, in 1383, prompted the Khmer to construct a strong earth rampart around their capital city. Even this protection did not help.\" §REF§(Dutt 1996, 224)§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'The initial move seems to have been to Srei Santhor, about 30 km (19 miles) northeast of Phnom Penh, at some time in the fourteenth century; then, briefly, to Phnom Penh itself. By about 1528, the Cambodian court under its first great Post-Angkorian king, Ang Chan I, had moved once and for all to the all to the Quatre Bras region, establishing a new capital at Lovek (Longvek), on the right bank of the Tonle Sap River, 50 km (30 miles) north of Phnom Penh. Love, like Udong and Phnom Penh- the town s that succeeded it as the capital- was thoroughly international, with foreign quarters for Malay, Japanese, and Chinese traders (there were as many as 3,000 of the last in the 1540s). There Ang Chan (who really did exist) built a golden palace and at least four major wats, erecting a huge, four-faced Buddha of wood, the stone foundation of which survive in one of the town's vicars. The capital was fortified by earthen ramparts topped with palisades; these ramparts, which form a huge rectangle, are still visible.'§REF§(Coe 2003, pp. 208-209)§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'The second centre was established east of the Mekong at Banteay Prei Nokor. This huge site, the moats and ramparts of which still dominate the flat landscape, was probably the capital from which Jayavarman II began his odyssey westward to found the Kingdom of Angkor.'§REF§(Higham 2014b, 295)§REF§ 'Another text describing the kingdom, the Kinshu, begins thus: \"There are walled towns, palaces and dwellings.'\"§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, 51)§REF§ 'The ancient town at Angkor Borei was in fact a port linked by canals to both Oc-Eo and the river Baassac, a branch of the lower Mekong. It is said to have been enclosed within a rather irregularly-shaped wall forming a rough square some two by two kilometers. This was a veritable rampart comparable to that of the twelfth-century Angkor Thom. It was a brick wall more than a metre thick and six to eight metres high, lined on the inside by a ramp and a sentry path along the to'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p, 57)§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'In the 1920s Pierre Paris overflew this area [the flat plains surrounding the Mekong and its Bassac arm below Phnom Penh] and took a series of photographs. These revealed a network of canals crossing the landscape, and various nodal points where they met. One such junction revealed a huge enceinte demarcated by five moats and ramparts encoding 1,112 acres (450 ha). It was here that Louis Malleret excavated in 1944. The site was known as Oc Eco [...].'§REF§(Higham 2012b, p. 590)§REF§ 'In the second phase, housing on stilts makes its appearance in the plain itself. Funerary monuments have been discovered, betokening to the emergence of \"chiefdoms\", together with evidence of town planning at Oc-Eo, which was now supplied with an earthen enclosure rampart.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 54)§REF§ 'Nor should one overlook the extent of the moats and defences of Oc Eo, and the large brick structure which was built in its central area.'§REF§(Higham 2014b, p. 342)§REF§ 'Another text describing the kingdom, the Kinshu, begins thus: \"There are walled towns, palaces and dwellings.'\"§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 51)§REF§ 'The ancient town at Angkor Borei was in fact a port linked by canals to both Oc-Eo and the river Baassac, a branch of the lower Mekong. It is said to have been enclosed within a rather irregularly-shaped wall forming a rough square some two by two kilometers. This was a veritable rampart comparable to that of the twelfth-century Angkor Thom. It was a brick wall more than a metre thick and six to eight metres high, lined on the inside by a ramp and a sentry path along the top.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p, 57)§REF§ 'Angkor Borei, a city covering about 300 hectares (750 acres), located above the Mekong Delta in Cambodia mayonee have been the capital of a state called FUNAN. The city had been occupied as early as the fourth century B.C.E. and was a major center. It is ringed by a brick wall and a moat. Chinese visitors to the region in the third century C.E. described a capital of a state called Funan, and Angkor Borei, which was linked to OC EO and other delta settlements by a canal, may well have been such a regal centre.'§REF§(Higham 2004, p. 17)§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'In the 1920s Pierre Paris overflew this area [the flat plains surrounding the Mekong and its Bassac arm below Phnom Penh] and took a series of photographs. These revealed a network of canals crossing the landscape, and various nodal points where they met. One such junction revealed a huge enceinte demarcated by five moats and ramparts encoding 1,112 acres (450 ha). It was here that Louis Malleret excavated in 1944. The site was known as Oc Eco [...].'§REF§(Higham 2012b, p. 590)§REF§ 'In the second phase, housing on stilts makes its appearance in the plain itself. Funerary monuments have been discovered, betokening to the emergence of \"chiefdoms\", together with evidence of town planning at Oc-Eo, which was now supplied with an earthen enclosure rampart.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 54)§REF§ 'Nor should one overlook the extent of the moats and defences of Oc Eo, and the large brick structure which was built in its central area.'§REF§(Higham 2014b, p. 342)§REF§ 'Another text describing the kingdom, the Kinshu, begins thus: \"There are walled towns, palaces and dwellings.'\"§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 51)§REF§ 'The ancient town at Angkor Borei was in fact a port linked by canals to both Oc-Eo and the river Baassac, a branch of the lower Mekong. It is said to have been enclosed within a rather irregularly-shaped wall forming a rough square some two by two kilometers. This was a veritable rampart comparable to that of the twelfth-century Angkor Thom. It was a brick wall more than a metre thick and six to eight metres high, lined on the inside by a ramp and a sentry path along the top.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p, 57)§REF§" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 35, "name": "kh_cambodia_ba", "long_name": "Bronze Age Cambodia", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The term “Memotian” culture is now used to refer to 40 circular ramparted and moated sites (banteay kou in Khmer) in a hilly area of east Cambodia and a corner of southwest Vietnam measuring 85 kilometers east-west and 35 kilometers north-south, occupied between the early third millennium to early first millennium bce; about 15 have been intensively studied. The oldest sites seem to cluster in the west of this area, from whence they spread gradually east. Their components include an outer rampart, interior depression or “moat”, and a gap in the rampart, probably an entrance/exit.\"§REF§(Miksic and Goh 2016: 113) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2EZ3CBBS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2EZ3CBBS</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 36, "name": "kh_cambodia_ia", "long_name": "Iron Age Cambodia", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 224 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The term “Memotian” culture is now used to refer to 40 circular ramparted and moated sites (banteay kou in Khmer) in a hilly area of east Cambodia and a corner of southwest Vietnam measuring 85 kilometers east-west and 35 kilometers north-south, occupied between the early third millennium to early first millennium bce; about 15 have been intensively studied. The oldest sites seem to cluster in the west of this area, from whence they spread gradually east. Their components include an outer rampart, interior depression or “moat”, and a gap in the rampart, probably an entrance/exit.\"§REF§(Miksic and Goh 2016: 113) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2EZ3CBBS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2EZ3CBBS</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Sintashta-Petrovka culture (slightly preceding the Andronovo) in southern Urals: \"The fortification and layout of the settlements were deliberately planned in advance, taking into account the natural relief. Sites are surrounded by a ditch ... with two rows of defensive walls, 1.7m and more thick, made of clay blocks and vertically erected pine logs ... Walls were also made of timber frameworks filled with earth; there was probably a timber palisade above them. The ditch was cut in steps and reinforced by logs.\"§REF§(Kuz'mina 2007, 32) Elena Efimovna Kuzʹmina. 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. J P Mallory ed. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Sintashta culture 2100-1800 BCE: \"One of the signature innovations of the Sintashta culture was the appearance of heavily fortified permanent settlements, with ditches, banks, and substantial palisade walls, in the steppes southeast of the Urals, beginning a shift from mobile to settled pastoralism that was adopted soon afterward across the northern steppe zone both to the east and the west. The late 3rd milennium BC was a time of intensified conflict and intensified interchange between the people of the northern steppes and the forest zone. Conflict and competition for shrinking marsh resources essential for wintering-over pastoral herds probably led to the sedentarization of the formerly mobile pastoralists of the steppes.\"§REF§(Anthony and Brown 2014, 66) David W Anthony. Dorcas R Brown. Horseback Riding and Bronze Age Pastoralism in the Eurasian Steppes. Victor H Mair. Jane Hickman. eds. 2014. Reconfiguring the Silk Road: New Research on East-West Exchange in Antiquity. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia.§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Massive Canaanite-style fortifications persisted from the Bronze Age, and in many cases were improved upon. For example, \"[The Late Bronze Age fortification at Beirut] was replaced before the Early Iron Age by a massive new stone fortification wall with a large glacis of steeper angle (33 degrees) compared to the curved perimeter of the settlement mound.\"§REF§Markoe (2000:81).§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " A parapet walk corresponding to the ramparts is mentioned by Sagir al-Ifrani. A squad of qabdjiya walked along it every night. \"Chaque nuit, une escouade de qabdjiya montait la garde et parcourait le chemin de ronde des remparts qui entouraient la ville.\"§REF§(Mohammed Sagir al-Ifrani translated by Houdas 1889, 197)§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Reference for pre-colonial African warfare: mud walls often surrounded towns.§REF§(Smith 1989, 99) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§ Reference for pre-colonial African warfare: \"The formation of a fortified camp, distinct from the parent town or towns, was usually the first step taken by a West African army when it advanced into the field. ... the leaders were sheltered by tents or by walls of matting while the soldiers slept under such shelter as they could find... But on arrival at the point chosen by the commander as the base of operations, the practice was to throw up an earthern wall surrounded by a ditch (the excavation from which the wall had been built).\"§REF§(Smith 1989, 100) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " no evidence of \"external threats to Jenne-jeno\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " no evidence of \"external threats to Jenne-jeno\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " no evidence of \"external threats to Jenne-jeno\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " no evidence of \"external threats to Jenne-jeno\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§ Later, at least, Djenne known to have been \"fortified by a system of ramparts, with a variable number of guarded gates. A fortified city was called a tata.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 121) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " no evidence of \"external threats to Jenne-jeno\" §REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§ Later, at least, Djenne known to have been \"fortified by a system of ramparts, with a variable number of guarded gates. A fortified city was called a tata.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 121) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " mud-walled towns §REF§(Roland and Atmore 2001, 62)§REF§ Djenne had been \"fortified by a system of ramparts, with a variable number of guarded gates. A fortified city was called a tata.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 121) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Reference for pre-colonial African warfare: mud walls often surrounded towns.§REF§(Smith 1989, 99) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§ Reference for pre-colonial African warfare: \"The formation of a fortified camp, distinct from the parent town or towns, was usually the first step taken by a West African army when it advanced into the field. ... the leaders were sheltered by tents or by walls of matting while the soldiers slept under such shelter as they could find... But on arrival at the point chosen by the commander as the base of operations, the practice was to throw up an earthern wall surrounded by a ditch (the excavation from which the wall had been built).\"§REF§(Smith 1989, 100) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Djenne had been \"fortified by a system of ramparts, with a variable number of guarded gates. A fortified city was called a tata.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 121) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to personal communication with N. Kradin. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Khar Bukhyn Balgas in Mongolia: \"Built in stone by the Khitan, it was surrounded by ramparts and a moat.\"§REF§(Baumer 2016) Christoph Baumer. 2016. The History of Central Asia: The Age of Islam and the Mongols. I.B. Tauris.§REF§" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Khirkhira town had a citadel surrounded by a rampart and a moat. §REF§(Kradin 2010, 261)§REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " From Chinese chronicles: \"They do not have towns surrounded with inner and outer walls, but herd livestock, going from place to place in search of water and grass. Their homes are felt tents, which they take to the place where they stop.\"§REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§ The Chinese chronicles on this matter seem to be lacking in detail and therefore suspect. They might be referring to the condition of the majority of the Rouran so it might not preclude the existence of a capital town/city that is fortified. \"Early in the 6th century, probably under Anagui's reign, the Rouran built their capital city, the town of Mumocheng, encircled with two walls constructed by Liang shu (LS 54: 47a-47b; Taskin 1984, p. 290).\" §REF§(Kradin 2005, 163)§REF§ \"However, no trace of the town has been found to date and historians argue about its location.\" §REF§(Kradin 2005, 163)§REF§ Qarshi, built by Kebek of the Chagatai Khaganate is an example \"typical of Mongolian and south Siberian cities from the Xiongnu period onwards.\"; it was \"bounded by a strong wall, 4.5 m thick, surrounded by a deep defensive ditch, 8-10 m wide and 3.5-4 m deep, and had four gates. The original layout of the city (before Timurid additions) included one central fortress/palace surrounded by an open spaced designed for the erection of tents.\"§REF§(Biran 2013, 271-272) Michal Biran. Rulers and City Life in Mongal Central Asia (1220-1370) David Durand-Guedy. Turko-Mongol Rulers, Cities and City Life. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 439, "name": "mn_shiwei", "long_name": "Shiwei", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Earth_rampart", "earth_rampart": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" } ] }