Written Record List
A viewset for viewing and editing Written Records.
GET /api/sc/written-records/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 584, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/written-records/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/written-records/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Western alphabet developed c800 BCE and by 700 BCE had arrived in Italy. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 103)§REF§" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " <i>Liber Pontificalis</i> §REF§(Partner 1972, 6)§REF§ Constitutum Constantini imperatoris (known as \"Donation of Constantine\", fictional historical document created to justify paper rule). §REF§(Partner 1972, 23)§REF§ 817 CE Ludovicianum, example of Frankish-Papal treaty which assured military protection for the Papal state. There were earlier ones. §REF§(Kleinhenz 2004)§REF§" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest extant written records from Japan are the 8th century court Japanese chronicles <i>Kojiki</i> and <i>Nihon Shoki</i>§REF§G. Barnes, 1993.The rise of civilization in East Asia : the archaeology of China, Korea and Japan. New York, N.Y.: Thames and Hudson, 21.§REF§ -- these incorporated even earlier historical records. \"The earliest Japanese imperial chronicles, that is, the Kojiki and the Nihonshoki, were completed in AD 712 and 720, and included compilations of various historical records as well as ancestral legends dating back to ancient times\"§REF§(Mizoguchi 2013, 32) Mizoguchi, Koji. 2013. The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.\"§REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 138, "name": "jp_jomon_1", "long_name": "Japan - Incipient Jomon", "start_year": -13600, "end_year": -9200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” §REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 139, "name": "jp_jomon_2", "long_name": "Japan - Initial Jomon", "start_year": -9200, "end_year": -5300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” §REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 140, "name": "jp_jomon_3", "long_name": "Japan - Early Jomon", "start_year": -5300, "end_year": -3500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” §REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 141, "name": "jp_jomon_4", "long_name": "Japan - Middle Jomon", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” §REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 142, "name": "jp_jomon_5", "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” §REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” §REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": 250, "year_to": 399, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.\"§REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§ \"The earliest Japanese imperial chronicles, that is, the Kojiki and the Nihonshoki, were completed in AD 712 and 720, and included compilations of various historical records as well as ancestral legends dating back to ancient times\"§REF§(Mizoguchi 2013, 32) Mizoguchi, Koji. 2013. The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": 399, "year_to": 449, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "A~P", "comment": null, "description": "\"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.\"§REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§ \"The earliest Japanese imperial chronicles, that is, the Kojiki and the Nihonshoki, were completed in AD 712 and 720, and included compilations of various historical records as well as ancestral legends dating back to ancient times\"§REF§(Mizoguchi 2013, 32) Mizoguchi, Koji. 2013. The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'it was during the age of Nara that Chinese writing led to the appearance of the first real books produced in Japan, the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles of 712 and 720. These were followed shortly afterwards by the first poetry anthologies, the Kaifuso (Fond Recollections of Poetry) of 751 and the Manyo¯shu¯ (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves) of 759. Some documents were even printed - another Chinese influence. §REF§Henshall, Kenneth .2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. New York. [Third Edition].p.24-25§REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.\"§REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§ However, 'now and then Chinese characters appeared on Yayoi pottery, showing a degree of literacy among craftsmen.' §REF§Kidder Jr., J. Edward, 2007. Himiko and Japan's Elusive Kingdom of Yamatai Honolulu: Hawaii University Press. p. 113§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Compendium of the Turkic Dialects.§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Sogdian contributions to the Türk Empire were important. Chief among them was unquestionably writing. In fact, the Sogdian alphabet, adapted progressively to Turkic phonology, was used throughout the history of the Türk and then Uighur Empires to write Turkic texts, aside from a rather brief period of national xenophobic reaction within the elites at the beginning of the 8th century, during which the runic alphabet was used.\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 202)§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to Miriam Stark, '[i]ndividuals increased their karma for the next life by establishing temples or making donations to extant temple (see also Hagesteijn 1996:189, passim). Entrenched and aspiring elite members recorded their temple offerings in stone. Such activity is clear in the earliest dated Khmer inscription (K. 600) from Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia. This inscription lists donations to the temple/foundation by two elite individuals: nine males, nine females, two children, eighty head of cattle, two buffalo, ten goats, forty coconut trees, and two rice fields (Vickery 1998:227)',§REF§(Stark, Miriam 2006, p.160-161)§REF§ and 'most indigenous inscriptions record the beneficence of aspiring elite individuals'§REF§(Stark, Miriam 2010, p. 144)§REF§" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to Miriam Stark, '[i]ndividuals increased their karma for the next life by establishing temples or making donations to extant temple (see also Hagesteijn 1996:189, passim). Entrenched and aspiring elite members recorded their temple offerings in stone. Such activity is clear in the earliest dated Khmer inscription (K. 600) from Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia. This inscription lists donations to the temple/foundation by two elite individuals: nine males, nine females, two children, eighty head of cattle, two buffalo, ten goats, forty coconut trees, and two rice fields (Vickery 1998:227)',§REF§(Stark, Miriam 2006, p.160-161)§REF§ and 'most indigenous inscriptions record the beneficence of aspiring elite individuals'§REF§(Stark, Miriam 2010, p. 144)§REF§" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The people of Angkorreplaced Sanskrit with Pali, another India-based language used by the Theravada Buddhists. Pali inscriptions began to appear in Angkor around 1309,33 a date marking the twilight period of Hinduism in Cambodia.\" §REF§(Dutt 1996, 225)§REF§ ‘The signally used in the Khmer language is and Indic-based script which dates back about 1500 years. It was used in inscription as far back as the sixth century and remains in use throughout Cambodia. The system is highly complex. Much of the complexity is due to its long history, since the phonology of the language has changed radically while the writing system has remained fairly constant.§REF§(Schiller 1996, p.467)§REF§ 'The contents of Khmer temple libraries which may have been reproduced over the centuries, and the Khmer language royal chronicles, for which we have some evidence, are no longer extant (Jacques and Dumont [1990]1999: 17-18)." }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to Miriam Stark, '[i]ndividuals increased their karma for the next life by establishing temples or making donations to extant temple (see also Hagesteijn 1996:189, passim). Entrenched and aspiring elite members recorded their temple offerings in stone. Such activity is clear in the earliest dated Khmer inscription (K. 600) from Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia. This inscription lists donations to the temple/foundation by two elite individuals: nine males, nine females, two children, eighty head of cattle, two buffalo, ten goats, forty coconut trees, and two rice fields (Vickery 1998:227)',§REF§(Stark, Miriam 2006, p.160-161)§REF§ and 'most indigenous inscriptions record the beneficence of aspiring elite individuals'§REF§(Stark, Miriam 2010, p. 144)§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'There can hardly be any doubt that the polities within Cambodia from the 7th to the 13th centuries were mainly agrarian, their development of written records very high for the period, these records largely concerned with economic and administrative matters, and that by the Angkor period temples had political and economic managerial functions. The notable Southeast Asian societies without an impressive epigraphic tradition, such as Funan, Srivijaya, Ayutthaya, and Pregu, were preeminently maritime trading polities.'§REF§(Vickery 1998, 99)§REF§ 'The archaeological hardware of these vital centuries is provided by the surviving temples, reservoirs and rice fields, but the social software has to be teased out of the surviving inscriptions. Carved onto stone stelae, these were inscribed in Sanskrit and old Khmer languages. Nearly all relate to the foundation and administration of a temple. They regularly refer to a ruler or the title and name of a local grandee associated with the temple foundation and its maintenance. The Khmer text includes information on rice fields, their boundaries, donations of surplus products to the temple, and the number and duties of individuals assigned to its support.'§REF§(Higham 2014, 830)§REF§ 'From 550 AD, a network of powerful chiefdoms emerged in the interior of Cambodia, under the generic name Chenla. By this period, paramounts were setting up inscriptions to record their august genealogies and achievements. These were carved in Sanskrit, but some texts were written in Old Khmer. These provide us with a vital glimpse of the religious beliefs under the veneer of Hindu worshi'§REF§(Higham 2011, 475)§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'There can hardly be any doubt that the polities within Cambodia from the 7th to the 13th centuries were mainly agrarian, their development of written records very high for the period, these records largely concerned with economic and administrative matters, and that by the Angkor period temples had political and economic managerial functions. The notable Southeast Asian societies without an impressive epigraphic tradition, such as Funan, Srivijaya, Ayutthaya, and Pregu, were preeminently maritime trading polities.'§REF§(Vickery 1998, p. 99)§REF§ \"Taxes are paid in gold, silver, pearls and perfumes. They have books and repositories of archives and other things. Their writing characters resemble those of the Hu (i.e. the Indians)\". (Pelliot, ibid, p. 254)§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 51)§REF§ 'There were specialists in engraving and metalworking, and the ordinary people lived in houses raised on piles against the regular threat of flooding. The people kept written records, and a repre- sentative of the Indian Murunda king was present.'§REF§(Higham 2004, p. 113)§REF§ 'We have a detailed description of an early South-east Asian trading state, following a visit to the Mekon Delta by Kang Tai, an an emissary of the Chinese emperor. Sent to explore a maritime trade route in the third century AD, he encountered a state controlled by a ruling dynasty, with its own legal and taxation systems, which kept written records, and defended cities.'§REF§(Higham 2011, pp. 474-475)§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'There can hardly be any doubt that the polities within Cambodia from the 7th to the 13th centuries were mainly agrarian, their development of written records very high for the period, these records largely concerned with economic and administrative matters, and that by the Angkor period temples had political and economic managerial functions. The notable Southeast Asian societies without an impressive epigraphic tradition, such as Funan, Srivijaya, Ayutthaya, and Pregu, were preeminently maritime trading polities.'§REF§(Vickery 1998, p. 99)§REF§ \"Taxes are paid in gold, silver, pearls and perfumes. They have books and repositories of archives and other things. Their writing characters resemble those of the Hu (i.e. the Indians)\". (Pelliot, ibid, p. 254)§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 51)§REF§ 'We have a detailed description of an early South-east Asian trading state, following a visit to the Mekon Delta by Kang Tai, an an emissary of the Chinese emperor. Sent to explore a maritime trade route in the third century AD, he encountered a state controlled by a ruling dynasty, with its own legal and taxation systems, which kept written records, and defended cities.'§REF§(Higham 2011, pp. 474-475)§REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Achaemenids brought writing to Sogdiana, and the written language long remained the Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire.\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 17)§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In the <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum</i> mentioned above, of the 6058 Phoenician inscriptions listed, only about one hundred of these had been found in the Phoenician Levantine homeland.\"§REF§Dixon (2013:32).§REF§ \"The Phoenician alphabetic script was easy to write on papyrus or parchment sheets, and the use of these materials explains why virtually no Phoenician writings - no history, no trading records - have come down to us. In their cities by the sea, the air and soil were damp, and papyrus and leather moldered and rotted away. Thus disappeared the literature of the people who taught a large portion of the earth’s population to write.\"§REF§Lipiński (1995:1321-1322)§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " For example, a copious epistolary literature§REF§M. El Fasi, Morocco, in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 200-232§REF§." }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13)§REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Scholars use oral tradition to help reconstruct life in the Segou kingdom.§REF§(Monroe and Ogundiran 2012) J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa. J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. eds. 2012. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives.Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ The polity may not have used written documents but there were written documents in the semi-autonomous, Islamic 'marka' towns, populated by Soninke and other Mande-speakers." }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13)§REF§ Written language was culture of an urban élite, that did not absorb surrounding cultures and languages §REF§(Cissoko 1984, 2010)§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The inscriptions of the Orkhon, written in Turk in rune-type characters, contain a number of words not common to Turkic but with parallels in Samoyed or Ugric languages from which, directly or indirectly, they had to be borrowed.\" §REF§(Sinor 1990, 291)§REF§ \"The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Abaoji had two new scripts developed to write Khitan, and the dynasty supported monastic Buddhism, artisanal and agricultural production in the steppes, and established two hundred cities or more in what is now Inner Mongolia.\" §REF§(Sneath 2007, 27)§REF§ \"In 920 the first Khitan script (the \"large script,\" an adaptation of the Chinese script to the very different, highly inflected Khitan language) was presented, and by the end of A-pao-chi's reign this script was widely used. In 925, when Uighur envoys visited the court, the emperor's younger brother Tieh-la (whom A-pao-chi recognized as the most clever member of his family) was entrusted with their reception and, after learning their script (which was alphabetic), devised a second \"small script\" for Khitan.\" §REF§(Twitchett 1994, 67)§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g 'Manghal un Niuca Tobca'an<i> (</i>The Secret History of the Mongols<i>). A Chinese version the Sheng-wu ch’in-chneg lu was also produced. §REF§Leeming, David. \"Secret History of the Mongols.\" In The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press, 2005§REF§ §REF§Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, P.11.§REF§</i>" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " There could be diplomatic letters perhaps with the Uyghurs. There could be individuals who knew Chinese writing." }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Late 16th century: “Tümen Jasaghtu Khan tried to unify the country administratively and so included in his government not only Abtai, Altan and Khutughtai Sechen, but also other influential nobles from all the tümens and from the Oirat regions. He compiled a new code that was supposed to be based on Chinggis Khan’s Great Ya ̄sa ̄ or Jasaq (see Volume IV, Part One). Subsequently, Altan Khan, Abtai Khan and, most likely, several others followed his example and adopted their own laws and codes in their respective tümens. But only some of these have been preserved, whether wholly or partially. They were written in the old Mongol script, which had been borrowed from the Uighur, and adopted under Chinggis Khan as the official script of the Mongols. » §REF§(Ishjamts 2003, 214)§REF§" }, { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": 300, "year_to": 499, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Historical sources report that by A.D. 500 the Jujan were actively adopting a variety of Chinese influences, including the use of written Chinese for official records. \" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 224)§REF§ c500 CE and after: \"It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished.\"§REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§ \"the early steppe peoples would not have been a promising vehicle for the diffusion of complicated, textually based knowledge; according to the Northern Wei dynastic history, the Rouran were illiterates whose leaders at first kept records of their troop numbers by piling up sheep turds as counters but eventually graduated to scratching simple marks onto pieces of wood. Not surprisingly, there is no evidence of the transmission of Chinese military theories and texts to the West by way of the Avars, other steppe nomads, Silk Road caravans, or any other channel prior to the activities of the Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.\"§REF§(Graff 2016, 146) David A Graff. 2016. The Eurasian Way of War. Military practice in seventh-century China and Byzantium. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": 500, "year_to": 555, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Historical sources report that by A.D. 500 the Jujan were actively adopting a variety of Chinese influences, including the use of written Chinese for official records. \" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 224)§REF§ c500 CE and after: \"It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished.\"§REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§ \"the early steppe peoples would not have been a promising vehicle for the diffusion of complicated, textually based knowledge; according to the Northern Wei dynastic history, the Rouran were illiterates whose leaders at first kept records of their troop numbers by piling up sheep turds as counters but eventually graduated to scratching simple marks onto pieces of wood. Not surprisingly, there is no evidence of the transmission of Chinese military theories and texts to the West by way of the Avars, other steppe nomads, Silk Road caravans, or any other channel prior to the activities of the Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.\"§REF§(Graff 2016, 146) David A Graff. 2016. The Eurasian Way of War. Military practice in seventh-century China and Byzantium. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" } ] }