Written Record List
A viewset for viewing and editing Written Records.
GET /api/sc/written-records/?format=api
{ "count": 584, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/written-records/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. tribute tabulations and tax receipts. Or the commercial records kept by the Hindkis merchants. §REF§Hanifi, Shah Mahmoud. Connecting Histories in Afghanistan: Market Relations and State Formation on a Colonial Frontier. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2011, p.37.§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Greek literary tradition, legal and economic records, religious texts. §REF§Neelis, Jason. Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. Vol. 2. Brill, 2010, pp. 98-107§REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Examples of the Hephthalite written language have been discovered in East Turkestan, Central Asia, Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. However, these are only insignificant vestiges of the large quantity of written material which, if we are to believe Hsüan-tsang, was to be found in the regions occupied by the Hephthalites and particularly in Tokharistan\" §REF§Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia p. 151.§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Bactrian script and language were used for a long time after the Kushan age but only small fragments of Bactrian literary works have been discovered so far.\"§REF§(Harmatta 1994, 424) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " the state chancery used both \"Bactrian written in Greek script and Gandhari written in Kharoshthi\".§REF§(Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ There also was a \"formulae transmitted from the Achaemenians.\"§REF§(Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ \"Bactrian writing was widely used throughout the Kushan Empire both for official purposes and for everyday life.\"§REF§(Harmatta 1994, 413) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ Conningham reinforces the code of present by discussing the assortment of leather documents with Bactrian writing.§REF§Conningham, Robin, pers. comm. Interview with Harvey Whitehouse and Christina Collins, Jan 2017§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'It is thought that prior to entering Bactria [the Da Yuezhi] were not literate. By the time they invaded northern India in the first century CE, they had become capable administrators, traders and scholars'.§REF§(Hill 2009, 319) John E. Hill. 2009. <i>Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the 'Western Regions' from the</i> Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Early in the Han and before, writing had been done on wood, bamboo and silk. Wood and bamboo were bulky and cumbersome, and silk was expensive. As papermaking technology improved, it proved to be the most economical and easiest medium on which to write.\"§REF§(Knechtges 2010, 117) Knechtges, David R. in Chang, Kang-i Sun. Ownen, Stephen. 2010. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ However, older mediums, such as bamboo tablets, remained in use.§REF§(Knechtges 2010, 118) Knechtges, David R. in Chang, Kang-i Sun. Ownen, Stephen. 2010. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The administrative structure inherited Qin and Han reach down to the local level, the county (xian) ... it relied heavily on written records and documents, and sought to maintain a high degree of control over the population.\"§REF§(Graff 2002, 20-21)§REF§" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Pat Savage: Barend ter Har distrusted this and other references claiming early origins of writing as being politically motivated to establish early Chinese invention. He says the first true writing isn't attested until the Shang oracle bone script §REF§William G. Boltz. The origin and early development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental Society, 2003).§REF§§REF§Keightley, D. N. The ancestral landscape: Time, space, and community in late Shang China (ca. 1200-1045 B.C.). (University of California Press, 2000).§REF§. \"Despite the almost complete absence of other written remains, it is clear that Erligang had a writing system that was in its capabilities at least the equal of the Egyptian writing from tomb U-j ... Both systems come to our notice in a ritual context, where their function was some sort of display, but we must remember that normally it is only after writing comes to be used for display that archaeology begins to find traces of it. Because administrative documents were almost certainly written on perishable materials like bamboo and papyrus, we will probably never find them.\"§REF§(Wang 2014, 179) Wang, Haicheng. 2014. Writing and the Ancient State: Early China in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"The emergence of writing is one of the indicators of civilization, and there is abundant evidence for this from early Shang sites. Inscribed symbols have been found mainly in phase III deposits at Zhengzhou (rank 1), Xiaoshuangqiao (rank 1), and Taixi (rank 2). Several symbols were found at Zhengzhou, as well as some resembling modern characters. These symbols were found mostly on dakou zun (大口尊 “large-mouthed” zun jars). In addition, some vessels from Xiaoshuangqiao have incised symbols under the rim. Some of these symbols seem similar to inscriptions on oracle bones from the late Shang period.\"§REF§(Yuan 2013, 337)§REF§ Other scholars suggest that there was no established writing system before the Late Shang or Anyang period. \"Nevertheless, the Anyang period is notable for two important new developments: writing and the introduction of the chariot. The first of these, although possibly having unpreserved antecedents (Keightley 2006; Bagley 2004 but see Smith 2008 for the argument that the script could have developed rapidly), appeared in two forms in the Anyang period.\"§REF§(Campbell 2014, 130)§REF§" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Barend ter Har distrusted this and other references claiming early origins of writing as being politically motivated to establish early Chinese invention. He says the first true writing isn't attested until the Shang oracle bone script §REF§William G. Boltz. The origin and early development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental Society, 2003).§REF§§REF§Keightley, D. N. The ancestral landscape: Time, space, and community in late Shang China (ca. 1200-1045 B.C.). (University of California Press, 2000).§REF§. However, anything written on perishable materials such as bamboo, for instance, unlikely to be preserved. \"so far no writing has been found at the Erlitou site; the only evidence of writing discovered as yet consists of various carved symbols on pottery (fig. 6.11). Nevertheless, because the writing system of the Shang dynasty oracle bone inscriptions is already highly developed, it is possible that there was writing in the Erlitou culture, particularly at the major Erlitou site.\"§REF§(Chang, Xu, Allan and Lu, 2005, 150) Chang, Kwang-chih. Xu, Pingfang. Allan, Sarah. Lu, Liancheng. 2005. The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective. Yale University Press.§REF§ \"Since no writing system has been found at Erlitou, it is unclear how the administration of this archaic state managed the flow of information and material between the core and the periphery.\" §REF§(Liu and Chen 2008, 168)§REF§ \"Nevertheless, the Anyang period is notable for two important new developments: writing and the introduction of the chariot. The first of these, although possibly having unpreserved antecedents (Keightley 2006; Bagley 2004 but see Smith 2008 for the argument that the script could have developed rapidly), appeared in two forms in the Anyang period.\"§REF§(Campbell 2014, 130)§REF§ Although we have no evidence of written records we could infer that a writing system would evolve in an environment of perishable written records that do not get preserved rather than in the evolutionary less intensive competition of pottery inscriptions which do survive." }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Barend ter Har distrusted this and other references claiming early origins of writing as being politically motivated to establish early Chinese invention. He says the first true writing isn't attested until the Shang oracle bone script §REF§William G. Boltz. The origin and early development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental Society, 2003).§REF§§REF§Keightley, D. N. The ancestral landscape: Time, space, and community in late Shang China (ca. 1200-1045 B.C.). (University of California Press, 2000).§REF§. However, anything written on perishable materials such as bamboo, for instance, unlikely to be preserved. \"so far no writing has been found at the Erlitou site; the only evidence of writing discovered as yet consists of various carved symbols on pottery (fig. 6.11). Nevertheless, because the writing system of the Shang dynasty oracle bone inscriptions is already highly developed, it is possible that there was writing in the Erlitou culture, particularly at the major Erlitou site.\"§REF§(Chang, Xu, Allan and Lu, 2005, 150) Chang, Kwang-chih. Xu, Pingfang. Allan, Sarah. Lu, Liancheng. 2005. The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective. Yale University Press.§REF§ \"Since no writing system has been found at Erlitou, it is unclear how the administration of this archaic state managed the flow of information and material between the core and the periphery.\" §REF§(Liu and Chen 2008, 168)§REF§ \"Nevertheless, the Anyang period is notable for two important new developments: writing and the introduction of the chariot. The first of these, although possibly having unpreserved antecedents (Keightley 2006; Bagley 2004 but see Smith 2008 for the argument that the script could have developed rapidly), appeared in two forms in the Anyang period.\"§REF§(Campbell 2014, 130)§REF§ Although we have no evidence of written records we could infer that a writing system would evolve in an environment of perishable written records that do not get preserved rather than in the evolutionary less intensive competition of pottery inscriptions which do survive." }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Some shamans used written magic charms: \"Among the Chung-chia people the magic charms used for such spiritual purposes are marked with Chinese characters as phonetic symbols and written down as a scripture to be transmitted from master to disciple\".§REF§Chen, Guojun, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Religious Beliefs Of The Miao And I Tribes In An-Shun Kweichow”, 3§REF§ However, it is not clear that these magic charms included \"at least several sentences strung together\", as per our definition of \"written records\". Christian missionaries introduced a Romanized script for the publication of sacred texts and religious literature in the native languages,§REF§Che-lin, Wu, Chen Kuo-chün, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Studies Of Miao-I Societies In Kweichow”, 15§REF§ but since we are discounting most other Christian \"interventions\", it makes sense to discount this one as well." }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The A-Hmao language was first written by the Pollard script in apprx. 1905.§REF§Duffy, John M. (2007). Writing from these roots: literacy in a Hmong-American community. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-3095-4.§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Hsu 1999, 569)§REF§ However, Spring and Autumn polities wrote on perishable materials such as silk§REF§(Cook and Major 1999, viii) Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. eds. 1999. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai'i Press. Honolulu.§REF§, which means that texts are less likely to be preserved." }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "cn_longshan", "long_name": "Longshan", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Pat Savage: Barend ter Har distrusted this and other references claiming early origins of writing as being politically motivated to establish early Chinese invention. He says the first true writing isn't attested until the Shang oracle bone script §REF§William G. Boltz. The origin and early development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental Society, 2003).§REF§§REF§Keightley, D. N. The ancestral landscape: Time, space, and community in late Shang China (ca. 1200-1045 B.C.). (University of California Press, 2000).§REF§. \"Not only did political chiefdoms, hierarchical settlements, and high shamanism begin in this period, but it may have witnessed the invention of true writing as well; many inscribed but yet to be deciphered pottery pieces have come to light (Fig. I.IO).\" §REF§(Chang 1999, 64)§REF§ \"A recurring characteristic of Longshan walled settlements in Shandong appears to be the presence of incipient forms of writing; at four of the six sites (Chengziyai, Dinggong, Shijia, and ]ingyanggang) excavators have found inscribed pottery or bones.\" §REF§(Demattè 1999, 127)§REF§ \"While there is an ongoing debate about the presence of writing in pre-Shang China, archaeological evidence indicates that simple recording systems occurred before the Longshan period, and that by the Longshan era some simple form of writing may have appeared (Dematte 1999). Particularly crucial are the discoveries of pictographic signs structurally similar to later Chinese characters in the area of the eastern coastal cultures (such as Dawenkou, Liangzhu, and Yueshi).\" §REF§(Demattè 1999, 141)§REF§ However, anything written on perishable materials such as bamboo, for instance, unlikely to be preserved." }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. the Yellow Register Archives in Nanjing to record population surveys, imperial taxation, etc. §REF§(Zhang, 2008, p.148)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Sung was among the most document-driven of all Chinese states and compiled its own history from the plethora of bureaucratic records generated during the course of routine administration. But few of these records survive in their primary form.\" §REF§(Hartman 2015, 24)§REF§ E.g. Sung hui-yao chi-kao (A draft compendium of Sung documents) 19th-Century era compilation that copied from the 1408 CE (Ming dynasty) Yung-lo ta-tien (Yung-lo encyclopedia). §REF§(Hartman 2015, 24)§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. continuation of producing official versions of history inherited from the Ming. A textual research method known as <i>Jia Qian Pu Xue</i> evolved during the early Qing and involved the comprehensive and spirited research of documents, texts, and records ranging from history to geography and Confucian Classics. §REF§(Zhang 2015, p.380)§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. historical archives and documents collected by the Hanlin Academy, Qing imperial archives §REF§(Rowe 2010, 340§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Shang documents were originally recorded on strips of bamboo and silk that have long since decomposed\".§REF§(The Shang Dynasty, 1600 to 1050 BCE. Spice Digest, Fall 2007. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf</a>)§REF§ Written records are preserved instead on non-perishable mediums. Most of what is known of Shang written on 107,000 \"oracle\" bones. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 7)§REF§§REF§(Kerr 2013, 20)§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Census in 766 CE. Written history" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " contracts (quan) written between state and officials as a way of budget accounting.§REF§(Lewis 1999b, 609)§REF§ Historical records and documents refer to the Fa jing.§REF§(Fu 1993, 108) Fu, Zhengyuan. 1993. Autocratic Tradition and Chinese Politics. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"everything done at court was put in writing: the investitures themselves, ... but also verdicts in legal cases, maps, and so forth.\"§REF§(Shaughnessy 1999, 326) Shaughnessy \"Western Zhou History\" in Loewe, Michael. Shaughnessy, Edward L. 2009. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Writing may have been invented in the Longshan §REF§(Chang 1999, 64)§REF§, no evidence for earlier writing in earlier times." }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"None of the native peoples developed a system of writing comparable to that of the Mayas, and much less would the Spaniards encounter a native empire such as that of either the Aztecs or Incas. By 1500 A.D., the most advanced of the indigenous peoples were two Chibcha groups: the Taironas and the Muiscas.\" §REF§(Hudson 2010, 5)§REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " None of the native peoples developed a system of writing comparable to that of the Mayas, and much less would the Spaniards encounter a native empire such as that of either the Aztecs or Incas. By 1500 A.D., the most advanced of the indigenous peoples were two Chibcha groups: the Taironas and the Muiscas.\" §REF§(Hudson 2010, 5)§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " SCCS variable 149 'Writing and Records' is coded as ‘1’ or ‘None’, not ‘Mnemonic devices’, or ‘Nonwritten records’, or 'True writing, no records', or ‘True writing; records’ According to Salazar's information, written records and literacy became more widespread only in the second half of the 20th century: 'The official publication of the federation is a bilingual Shuar-Spanish newspaper called Chicham, “Message,” which appears irregularly. Chicham is devoted to accounts of the activities of the federation, as well as general information on such varied subjects as acculturation, government policies, and the situation of Indian groups in Ecuador and South America as a whole. The Shuar have already established contact with native American movements throughout the American continent. Furthermore, the federation has sponsored about 30 publications of different kinds, including scientific subjects (technology, social structure, and mythology of the Shuar), school books (literacy booklets and school texts), and religious works (prayer books, gospel translations). Particular attention must be drawn to the publication of the Mundo Shuar booklets, which represents the greatest effort so far to diffuse Shuar culture in printed form. The collection includes seven series of publications, each series covering a broad aspect of Shuar culture (e.g. ethnohistory, technology, linguistics). Authors include missionaries, white teachers, and Shuar intellectuals who contribute to the recently established Center for Documentation and Research on Shuar Culture. The collection as a whole is printed at the Salesian Publishing House in Quito, and is also directed by a Salesian priest, Father Juan Botasso. Mundo Shuar thus appears as a Salesian effort to rescue what is left of a rich culture that almost disintegrated as a result of more than half a century of Salesian administration of the Shuar people. The works so far published show, as could be expected, a varying degree of scholarship, but on the whole Mundo Shuar has been well accepted in the country, and promises to be an indispensable research tool for anthropologists interested in Shuar culture.' §REF§Salazar, Ernesto 1981. “Federación Shuar And The Colonization Frontier”, 601§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " SCCS variable 149 'Writing and Records' is coded as ‘1’ or ‘None’, not ‘Mnemonic devices’, or ‘Nonwritten records’, or 'True writing, no records', or ‘True writing; records’ According to Salazar's information, written records and literacy became more widespread only in the second half of the 20th century: 'The official publication of the federation is a bilingual Shuar-Spanish newspaper called Chicham, “Message,” which appears irregularly. Chicham is devoted to accounts of the activities of the federation, as well as general information on such varied subjects as acculturation, government policies, and the situation of Indian groups in Ecuador and South America as a whole. The Shuar have already established contact with native American movements throughout the American continent. Furthermore, the federation has sponsored about 30 publications of different kinds, including scientific subjects (technology, social structure, and mythology of the Shuar), school books (literacy booklets and school texts), and religious works (prayer books, gospel translations). Particular attention must be drawn to the publication of the Mundo Shuar booklets, which represents the greatest effort so far to diffuse Shuar culture in printed form. The collection includes seven series of publications, each series covering a broad aspect of Shuar culture (e.g. ethnohistory, technology, linguistics). Authors include missionaries, white teachers, and Shuar intellectuals who contribute to the recently established Center for Documentation and Research on Shuar Culture. The collection as a whole is printed at the Salesian Publishing House in Quito, and is also directed by a Salesian priest, Father Juan Botasso. Mundo Shuar thus appears as a Salesian effort to rescue what is left of a rich culture that almost disintegrated as a result of more than half a century of Salesian administration of the Shuar people. The works so far published show, as could be expected, a varying degree of scholarship, but on the whole Mundo Shuar has been well accepted in the country, and promises to be an indispensable research tool for anthropologists interested in Shuar culture.' §REF§Salazar, Ernesto 1981. “Federación Shuar And The Colonization Frontier”, 601§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"early writing preserves specialized information that is of a very cursory nature at this point in cultural development.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 64)§REF§ \"by Dynasty 0, writing was used by scribes and artisans of the Egyptian state.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 74)§REF§ The earliest phonetic hieroglyphic writing was found in the tomb J at the Abytos Cemetary U - on the pottery vessels and small bone/ivory labels§REF§Köhler, E. C. \"Theories of State Formation\". [in:] Wendrich, W. [ed.]. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. pg: 41.§REF§ They are dated to Naqada IIIA. But it should be noticed that already in Naqada I, signs similar to hieroglyphs have been found, especially on the pottery vessels (pot marks).§REF§Kahl, J. \"Hieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC: an Analysis of Systems\". Archeo-NiI 11 (2001); 122, 124.§REF§" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"early writing preserves specialized information that is of a very cursory nature at this point in cultural development.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 64)§REF§ \"by Dynasty 0, writing was used by scribes and artisans of the Egyptian state.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 74)§REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest phonetic hieroglyphic writing was found in the tomb J at the Abytos Cemetary U - on the pottery vessels and small bone/ivory labels§REF§Köhler, E. C. \"Theories of State Formation\". [in:] Wendrich, W. [ed.]. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. pg: 41.§REF§. They are dated to Naqada IIIA. But it should be noticed that already in Naqada I, signs similar to hieroglyphs have been found, especially on the pottery vessels (pot marks). However \"none of these signs hints at the existence of phonograms, phonetic complements or detenninatives\" and \"the absence of an important component of the hieroglyphic writing system does not allow us to designate these signs as \"hieroglyphic writing\"\"§REF§Kahl, J. \"Hieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC: an Analysis of Systems\". Archeo-NiI 11 (2001); 122, 124.§REF§. It can be rather treated as an abstract symbolic system§REF§Meza, A. 2012. ANCIENT EGYPT BEFORE WRITING: From Markings to Hieroglyphs. Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation. pg: 25.§REF§ Still they can be precursors of \"real\" hieroglyphs." }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " John Baines confirmed that these should not count as true written records until Naqada III. The earliest phonetic hieroglyphic writing was found in the tomb J at the Abytos Cemetary U - on the pottery vessels and small bone/ivory labels§REF§Köhler, E. C. \"Theories of State Formation\". [in:] Wendrich, W. [ed.]. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. pg: 41.§REF§. They are dated to Naqada IIIA. But it should be noticed that already in Naqada I, signs similar to hieroglyphs have been found, especially on the pottery vessels (pot marks). However \"none of these signs hints at the existence of phonograms, phonetic complements or detenninatives\" and \"the absence of an important component of the hieroglyphic writing system does not allow us to designate these signs as \"hieroglyphic writing\"\"§REF§Kahl, J. \"Hieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC: an Analysis of Systems\". Archeo-NiI 11 (2001); 122, 124.§REF§. It can be rather treated as an abstract symbolic system§REF§Meza, A. 2012. ANCIENT EGYPT BEFORE WRITING: From Markings to Hieroglyphs. Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation. pg: 25.§REF§ Still they can be precursors of \"real\" hieroglyphs." }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The earliest eample of accounting, and indeed writing, which dates back to Dynasty Zero (about 3,300 BC), was in the form of tax lists on linen (Davies and Friedman, 1998).\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2002) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. 2002. Accounting working for the state: Tax assessment and collection during the New Kingdom, ancient Egypt. Accounting and business research. Volume 32. Issue 1. pp 17-39.§REF§ \"by Dynasty 0, writing was used by scribes and artisans of the Egyptian state.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 74)§REF§ The earliest phonetic hieroglyphic writing was found in the tomb J at the Abytos Cemetary U - on the pottery vessels and small bone/ivory labels§REF§Köhler, E. C. \"Theories of State Formation\". [in:] Wendrich, W. [ed.]. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. pg: 41.§REF§. They are dated to Naqada IIIA. But it should be noticed that already in Naqada I, signs similar to hieroglyphs have been found, especially on the pottery vessels (pot marks).§REF§Kahl, J. \"Hieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC: an Analysis of Systems\". Archeo-NiI 11 (2001); 122, 124.§REF§ \"A joint Yale and Royal Museums of Art and History (Brussels) expedition to explore the the ancient Egyptian city of Elkab has uncovered some previously unknown rock inscriptions, which include the earliest monumental hieroglyphs dating back around 5,200 years. These new inscriptions were not previously recorded by any expedition and are of great significance in the history of the ancient Egyptian writing systems, according to Egyptologist John Coleman Darnell, professor in Yale's Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at Yale, who co-directs the Elkab Desert Survey Project.\"§REF§Martell, Bess Connolly. June 20 2017. Yale archaeologists discover earliest monumental Egyptian hieroglyphs. news.yale.edu/2017/06/20/yale-archaeologists-discover-earliest-monumental-egyptian-hieroglyphs§REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Annals of Thutmose III carved into temple walls at Karnak. §REF§(Manning 2012, 76)§REF§§REF§(Mokhtar 1981, 100)§REF§ Armana Letters records on 350 clay tablets, written in cuneiform script, record diplomacy with the Near East.§REF§(Teeter and Brewer 1999, 43)§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Annals of Thutmose III carved into temple walls at Karnak. §REF§(Manning 2012, 76)§REF§§REF§(Mokhtar 1981, 100)§REF§ Armana Letters records on 350 clay tablets, written in cuneiform script, record diplomacy with the Near East.§REF§(Teeter and Brewer 1999, 43)§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Written_record", "written_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null } ] }