Settlement Hierarchy List
A viewset for viewing and editing Settlement Hierarchies.
GET /api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api&page=6
{ "count": 563, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1)Capital in Mongolia<br>2) Regional capitals e.g. of Persia or Korea<br>3) Cities<br>4) Towns<br>5) Villages<br>The basic economic unit of Mongols was the nomadic camp [<i>ayil</i>], \"normally consisting of a single extended family with its own tent (<i>ger</i>) and herds\".§REF§Thomas Allsen, ‘The Rise of the Mongolian Empire’, in Herbert. Franke and Denis C. Twitchett (eds), The Cambridge History of China. Volume 6. Alien Regimes and Border States, 710-1368 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1995), p. 325.§REF§" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>There were no permanent settlements. There are some indications that the Naiman territory possibly included permanent settlements. This is uncertain. Avarga site near Kerulen River consists of several tens of houses protected on one side by an earthen rampart has been proposed by some to be a permanent settlement, but it is not universally accepted (Shiraishi 2006)." }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Permanent settlements in Mongolia had begun with the conversion of the Mongols to Tibetan Buddhism in the sixteenth century. The first towns grew up around the monastic establishment. These included Hohhot (Ch. Huhehaote), whose major construction began in 1555, and Urga (modern Ulaan Baatar), the headquarters of the leading Buddhist cleric of Mongolia since the early seventeenth century.\" §REF§(Perdue 2005, 232)§REF§<br>1. Towns<br>2. Villages(3. Hamlets/ Isolated farms)" }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>c500 CE and after<br>\"It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished.\" §REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§<br>\"It is also known from the sources that the number of nomadic bu could vary from one thousand tents (i.e. about 4-5 thousand people) to several tens of thousands of people (Taskin 1984, pp. 275-276, 294). Chapter 103 of the Wei shu reports that the Rouran had 10 \"nomads' camps\" in 521.\" §REF§(Kradin 2005, 162)§REF§<br>\"From Chinese chronicles: \"They do not have towns surrounded with inner and outer walls, but herd livestock, going from place to place in search of water and grass. Their homes are felt tents, which they take to the place where they stop.\" \" §REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§<br>\"the Hsiung-nu Huns in China were changing their society ... as attested by the discovery of a city built by them in northwestern China's Shaanxi Province in the fifth century C.E.\"§REF§(Waldman and Mason 2006, 396) Carl Waldman. Catherine Mason. 2006. Encyclopedia of European Peoples, Volume 2. Facts On File. New York.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Town<br>2. Camp<br>The second Khaganate had towns: \"In contrast to the Mongols, however, the Turks encouraged the voluntary creation on their territory of large Sogdian colonies which engaged in agriculture, handicrafts and trade, and even founded towns (Pulleyblank, 1952; Kliashtorny, 1964:114-22).\" §REF§(Khazanov 1984, 256)§REF§" }, { "id": 256, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"The Uighur Empire, which ruled Mongolia from 744 to 840, converted to Manicheism and built numerous cities and settlements in Mongolia.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 560)§REF§<br>1. City with royal palace<br>2. Town3. Settlements<br>\"Associated with the growth of agriculture we find the development of towns, the presence of which is well attested in the passage just quoted. We know also two important cities built on the initiative of Uighur kaghans. One of them was Bay-Balik [lit. \"Rich Town\"], to which I referred earlier. Work on its construction was started in 757 upon an order from kaghan. The other was Karabalghasun, built at about the same time. Both, then, were completed under Mo-yen-ch'o kaghan, so that the process of urbanization must have begun very quickly after the empire was founded. Very little is known about Bay-Balik, and its precise significance for the Uighurs is unclear. It is certain, however, that Karabalghasun developed into quite an impressive city. It contained a royal palace, which appears from the Shine-usu inscription (south side, line 10) to have been built at about the same time as the city itself, and was completely walled. Tamim records that \"the town has twelve iron gates of huge size. The town is populous and thickly crowded and has markets and various trades.\"4 2 He adds that it was dominated by a golden tent, which could be seen from some distance outside the city. It stood on the flat top of the palace and could hold 100 people. At least part of the Uighur community had forsaken its nomadic past. Even outside the great cities of the west like Kocho and Beshbalik, a settled urban civilization was being developed.\" §REF§(Mackerras 1990, 337-338)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>" }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. This is the code for the earlier Imperial Xiongu Confederation." }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Larger walled and open-settlement sites. eg. Ivolga, Tereljiin Dorvoljin.<br>2. Large seasonal habitations associated with local elite activities.3. Seasonal campsites of herding families.<br>\"Habitation and activity sites of the Xiongnu period also show substantial differences in size, construction, and composition, in spite of the fact that to date very few of these settlements have been systematically studied (Bemmann 2011). Archaeologists have located seasonal campsites of herding families as well as larger seasonal habitations that may have been associated with local elite activities (Honeychurch and Amartuvshin 2007; Houle and Broderick 2011). In addition to these campsites, large settlements having more intensive use and significant infrastructural investment have also been investigated. One example from the Egiin Gol valley is a site (EGS 131) with an extensive wall and ditch system perched above the main river on a substantial rise. Test excavations discovered a sparse ceramics scatter and a bronze mirror imported from China, but there was little evidence for consistent or repeated occupation. The function of this site is still unknown; but, given its prominent and defensible location, it may have been for temporary protection or possibly a site for hosting ceremonial events (Wright et al. 2009: 381-382).Many larger walled and open-settlement sites have been mapped and excavated in Siberia and Mongolia as well. Some of these have planned layouts and include semi-subterranean houses, workshop areas, large central architectural structures, and very different kinds of use histories. The prominent settlements of Boroogiin Suurin in Mongolia or Ivolga in south Siberia are clearly village-like occupations where multi-resource production including farming, herding, and craft specializations was practiced (Davydova 1995; Pousaz et al. 2007). Others, such as the walled sites of Tereljiin Dorvoljin and Bayan Under (Fig. 8.4) may have been elite residences or ritual centers (Danilov 2011). This range of site structures, arrangements, and sizes suggests a great deal more functional and economic dif- ferentiation than is generally assumed of steppe societies.\" §REF§(Honeychurch 2015, 230)§REF§" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Perdue's map §REF§(Perdue 2005, 3)§REF§ indicates the presence of regional capitals and towns; however these probably corresponded to the Chinese administration.Erdeni Batur had built a capital for the Zunghars at Kubak Zar near Tashkent but it fell into disuse after his death (before the start of our polity) §REF§(Perdue 2005,106)§REF§Zunghar farms are also mentioned §REF§(Perdue 2005)§REF§From this we can infer at least two levels, towns and villages/farms, even though this society was nomadic.<br>1. Towns<br>2. Villages/hamlets/farms<br>\"In sum, competition with the Qing state drove the Zunghars to un- dertake significant steps toward “self-strengthening.” Like many earlier nomadic empires, they established cities, developed agriculture, fostered trade, and generated tax revenues, but the primary motivation was not “as- similation” to settled societies’ customs but mobilization of resources for defense.\" §REF§(Perdue 2005, 307)§REF§<br>\"Those Oirats who stayed in Jungaria, led by the Choros under their khan Baatur-Khongtaiji (1634-53), consolidated their hold on the area, symbolizing this by stabilizing their headquarters in the form of a city which became the modern Chuguchak (Tacheng).\" §REF§(Soucek 2000, 170)§REF§" }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital town<br>2. Provincial town\"L’empire était subdivisé en royaumes et en provinces eux-mêmes morcelés en villages et cantons.\" (The empire was divided into kingdoms and provinces themselves broken up into villages and townships).§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br>3. Small agricultural villages<br>\"Sudanic societies were built on small agricultural villages or herding communities, sometimes but not always integrated into larger tribal and linguistic groups.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 590)§REF§<br>\"By about 100 B.C.E., the Soninke's ancestors began establishing small settled communities, and around 600 B.C.E. these grew into large villages administered by chieftains.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 23)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital town<br>2. Provincial town\"L’empire etait subdivise en royaumes et en provinces eux-memes morceles en villages et cantons.\" (The empire was divided into kingdoms and provinces themselves broken up into villages and townships).§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br>3. Small agricultural villages<br>\"Sudanic societies were built on small agricultural villages or herding communities, sometimes but not always integrated into larger tribal and linguistic groups.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 590)§REF§<br>\"By about 100 B.C.E., the Soninke's ancestors began establishing small settled communities, and around 600 B.C.E. these grew into large villages administered by chieftains.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 23)§REF§" }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. There are different opinions as to how many levels of settlement hierarchy there were during this period. Much of the population of the valley moved to the newly founded settlement Monte Albán, which left sites such as San José Mogote abandoned.§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p176§REF§ Monte Albán became the largest settlement by far (324ha in size towards the end of this period), but there were two other main settlements in the other arms of the valley (Yegüih and San Martin Tilcajete, the latter covering 52.8ha by the end of this period)§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p176§REF§. If these settlements are excluded (as they were the primary centres of different polities), then the remaining settlements in the Central and Etla valley areas may either form one or two levels, depending on the classification.§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p163§REF§§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2003). \"Militarism, resistance, and early state development in Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Social Evolution & History 2: 25-70, p34§REF§ Yegüih (in Tlacolula subregion) and San Mart´ın Tilcajete (in Ocotl´an-Zimatl´an subregion) were primary centres in the other arms of the valley, with two further levels of settlement hierarchy.§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p176-8§REF§.<br>1. Monte Albán-primary centre, estimated at 324ha between 400-200 BCE, and with an 8km2 central complex.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p375§REF§ (Yeguih in the Tlacolula subregion and San Mart´ın Tilcajete (52.8 ha) in the Ocotl´an-Zimatl´an subregion were also primary centres of different polities within the valley during this period.)§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p176-8§REF§<br>2. villages-<2ha§REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1982). The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns of the Central and Southern Parts of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, Regents of the University of Michigan, the Museum of Anthropology.§REF§<br>\"Table 5.4. Monte Alban Early I population hierarchy in Oaxaca and Ejutla.\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 56) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§<br>Valley of Oaxaca: Level I: 5250; II: 578-1112; III: 210-301; IV: 107-179; No rank: 8-90.§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 56) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Four levels of site size, based on settlement size, have been identified by Spencer and Redmond (2004) for this period, in each of the three arms of the Valley of Oaxaca.§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p176-7§REF§ Spencer and Redmond suggest that the increasing complexity in the Ocotlán-Zimatlán and Tlacolula valleys may have been a response to the growing threat from the Zapotecs in the Etla-Central part of the valley.§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p178§REF§<br>1. Primary centre-Monte Albán was the capital of the Zapotec polity during this period.<br>2. Secondary centre-San José Mogote, San Martin Tilcajete, Yegüih-Lambityeco§REF§Feinman, G. M., et al. (1985). \"Long-term demographic change: A perspective from the valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 12(3): 333-362, p349§REF§3. Tertiary centre-relatively small, civic-ceremonial places§REF§Feinman, G. M., et al. (1985). \"Long-term demographic change: A perspective from the valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 12(3): 333-362, p349§REF§4. Local villages<br>\"Table 5.9. Monte Alban Late I population hierarchy in Oaxaca and Ejutla.\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 63) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§<br>Valley of Oaxaca: Level I: 17242; II: 1392-1946; III: 555-879; IV: 233-496; V: 102-221; No rank: 8-98.§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 63) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Histograms of settlement size for the MA II period suggest 4 levels of settlement hierarchy§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2003). \"Militarism, resistance, and early state development in Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Social Evolution History 2: 25-70, p34-5§REF§ §REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p174§REF§<br>1. Primary centre, one settlement (Monte Albán), covered between 416-10,000ha, had a population of around 14,500 and a Main Plaza with public buildings and temple§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p82§REF§§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p174§REF§<br>2. Secondary centres, six suggested settlements (including San José Mogote), Main Plaza with public buildings and temple but smaller than at Monte Albán and population estimates of between 970-1950 people§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p82, 111§REF§§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p174§REF§3. Tertiary centres, estimated 30 \"large villages\" (including Fábrica San José), of 5-10 ha in size, many of which show evidence for public buildings.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p174§REF§4. Hamlets, more than 400 \"small villages\" of 1-3ha with a population less than 200 and no monumental architecture or public buildings§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p82§REF§§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p174§REF§<br>\"Table 6.4. Monte Alban II population hierarchy in Oaxaca and Ejutla.\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 84) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§<br>Valley of Oaxaca: Level I: 14492; II: 979-1947; III: 387-727; IV: 180-343; V: 101-161.§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 84) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Monte Alban remained the primary centre of the Zapotec polity, but secondary sites (such as Jalieza) grew in size and importance.<br>1. Monte Alban (estimated population of 16,500 people, living on 1196 terraces, and less than 5 percent of the population lived in 57 much larger, elaborate residences).§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p221-2, 226§REF§<br>2. Secondary centres: Jalieza, in the Valley Grande area (408 ha, estimated population of 12,835 people, >20 public buildings); DMTG, in the Tlacolula subvalley (a cluster of settlements which together had a population of around 12,292 people)§REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). \"Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390, p382§REF§§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p226§REF§3. Tertiary centres (including new medium-sized settlements on the piedmont, such as Rancho Tejas, Sta. Cruz Mixtepec and \"El Choco\" near Ayoquezco)§REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1982). The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns of the Central and Southern Parts of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, Regents of the University of Michigan, the Museum of Anthropology, p87§REF§§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p226§REF§4. Small villages and hamlets (hundreds of small hamlets were present but are less well represented)§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p228§REF§<br>\"Table 7.9. Monte Alban IIIA population hierarchy in Oaxaca and Ejuta.\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 109) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§<br>Vallay of Oaxaca: Level I: 12835-16507; II: 4925-6195; III: 1789-3219: IV: 715-1575; V: 211-608; VI: 116-197. No rank: 8-100.§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 109) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 267, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": 500, "year_to": 700, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Monte Alban declined in administrative importance over these periods, with Jalieza gradually becoming the largest settlement in the valley. §REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p234§REF§ Smaller, regional towns became more important in the subvalleys.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p234§REF§<br>Inferred to be the IIIb phase (500-700 CE) settlement pattern:§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p188-9§REF§<br>1. Primary centres-around 2 per cent of sites during this period had a population of 1000-2500 people. The larger sites had some evidence for administrative buildings, elite residences, plazas and occasional ballcourts<br>2. Secondary centres-around 8 per cent of sites during this period had a population of minimum 180-500 to maximum 380-1000 people.3. Smallest settlements-most sites during this period were small isolated residences, hamlets or villages of fewer than 290 people.§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p188-9§REF§<br>\"Table 8.7. Monte Alban IV population hierarchy in Oaxaca and Ejuta.\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 135) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§<br>Valley of Oaxaca: Level 1: 16117; II: 5000-6222; III: 3590-4062; IV: 486-2900; V: 269-405; VI: 102-198; No rank: 8-95.§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 135) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": 700, "year_to": 900, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Monte Alban declined in administrative importance over these periods, with Jalieza gradually becoming the largest settlement in the valley. §REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p234§REF§ Smaller, regional towns became more important in the subvalleys.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p234§REF§<br>Inferred to be the IIIb phase (500-700 CE) settlement pattern:§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p188-9§REF§<br>1. Primary centres-around 2 per cent of sites during this period had a population of 1000-2500 people. The larger sites had some evidence for administrative buildings, elite residences, plazas and occasional ballcourts<br>2. Secondary centres-around 8 per cent of sites during this period had a population of minimum 180-500 to maximum 380-1000 people.3. Smallest settlements-most sites during this period were small isolated residences, hamlets or villages of fewer than 290 people.§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p188-9§REF§<br>\"Table 8.7. Monte Alban IV population hierarchy in Oaxaca and Ejuta.\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 135) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§<br>Valley of Oaxaca: Level 1: 16117; II: 5000-6222; III: 3590-4062; IV: 486-2900; V: 269-405; VI: 102-198; No rank: 8-95.§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 135) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. For each of the 15-20 smaller polities, there was a head town with supporting villages and hamlets.§REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). \"Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390. p385§REF§ By 900 CE, Monte Alban was no longer a primary center, although it continued to be occupied.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p234§REF§<br>1. Main town of the polity<br>2. Village3. Hamlet<br>\"Table 10.9. Monte Alban V population hierarchy in Oaxaca and Ejutla.\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 172) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§<br>Valley of Oaxaca: Level I: 11504-13831; II: 6324-6649; III: 1192-3430; IV: 736-953; V: 486-665; VI: 308-545; VII: 204-297; No rank: 8-199.§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 172) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. The earliest known village settlement have been found in the Valley of Mexico around 2000 BCE.§REF§(Emmerich 1963: 20) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZZ8EAUQ8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZZ8EAUQ8</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "mx_aztec_emp", "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Information retrieved from a map of the settlement pattern in the Valley of Mexico during the Aztec rulership.§REF§(Smith 1979: 116-117) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2JN8GGSP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2JN8GGSP</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 12, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_7", "long_name": "Classic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Information retrieved from Fig 3.3 of Carballo 2016§REF§(Carballo 2016: 67) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7B7A8KA6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7B7A8KA6</a>.§REF§ which indicates the presence of City/Supra-regional centre; town /provincial centres; and Village/hamlet in the Classic period settlement." }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 13, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_8", "long_name": "Epiclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from previous period." }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Archaeological survey and excavation data indicates that settlement hierarchy ranged from 2 to 3, depending on the settlement cluster in question. The number of settlement clusters with a 3-level hierarchy increases over time.§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 94-7, 305-334.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§§REF§Steponaitis, Vincas P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2): 320-363.§REF§§REF§Earle, Timothy K., (1976). \"A nearest-neighbor analysis of two formative settlement systems.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 196-223.§REF§" }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"A minimum of three size grades is therefore observable in housing during the later Formative: palatial candidates at the largest cities, elite residencies at midtier towns, and common residencies across the settlement spectrum\".§REF§(Carballo 2016: 150) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7B7A8KA6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7B7A8KA6</a>.§REF§ Some settlement clusters have a 3-tier settlement hierarchy, while others have a 4-tier settlement hierarchy.§REF§Steponaitis, V. P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2), 320-363.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 98-105.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§<br>Late Formative<br>(1) Regional Center -- 3,000-10,000 inhabitants(2) Large Village -- 1,000-3,000 inhabitants(3) Small Village -- 100-1,000 inhabitants(4) Hamlet -- 10-100 inhabitants" }, { "id": 276, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Archaeological survey and excavation data indicates that settlement hierarchy ranged from 2 to 3, depending on the settlement cluster in question. The number of settlement clusters with a 3-level hierarchy increases over time.§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 94-7, 305-334.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§§REF§Steponaitis, Vincas P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2): 320-363.§REF§§REF§Earle, Timothy K., (1976). \"A nearest-neighbor analysis of two formative settlement systems.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 196-223.§REF§" }, { "id": 277, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Some settlement clusters have a 3-tier settlement hierarchy, while others have a 4-tier settlement hierarchy.§REF§Steponaitis, V. P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2), 320-363.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 98-105.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§<br>(1) Regional Center -- 3,000-10,000 inhabitants(2) Large Village -- 1,000-3,000 inhabitants(3) Small Village -- 100-1,000 inhabitants(4) Hamlet -- 10-100 inhabitants" }, { "id": 278, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": -2000, "year_to": -1500, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"In the period 1500-1000 BCE [...] the Basin developed a two-tiered settlement system\".§REF§(Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 279, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": -1500, "year_to": -1201, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"In the period 1500-1000 BCE [...] the Basin developed a two-tiered settlement system\".§REF§(Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 280, "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from settlement hierarchy of the previous period, somewhat supported by the following quote: \"During the Middle postclassic Period, small independent polities were founded [...] these were often city-states, encompassing an urbanized community and its surrounding hinterlad with farming villages\".§REF§(Evans 2004: 428) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 281, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. The settlement hierarchy is based on the size of settlements and the presence or absence of public buildings.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p125§REF§<br>1. Primary center<br>In addition to San Jose Mogote, in this period \"several smaller centers with public architecture were established in the other arms of the valley\", e.g. Yeguih, Tilcajete, Tlapacoyan.§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2017, 27) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2017. Settlement Patterns in the Albarradas Area of Highland Oaxaca, Mexico: Frontiers, Boundaries, and Interaction. Fieldiana Anthropology, 46(1):1-162. Publication 1572. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1</a>§REF§ P<br>Yeguih and Tilcajete have also been called primary centers (San José Mogote, Yegüih, San Martin Tilcajete)35-60ha§REF§Balkansky, A. K. (1998). \"Origin and collapse of complex societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the era from 1965 to the present.\" Journal of World Prehistory 12(4): 451-493, 459§REF§.<br>San Jose Mogote had large public buildings, including Structures 28 (a temple) and 19 (a platform for the temple and other buildings).§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p127-9§REF§ §REF§Spencer, C. S. (1982) The Cuicatlán Cañada and Monte Albán: A study of primary state formation. Studies in Archaeology. Academic Press, New York.§REF§<br>2. Smaller centers\"This basic settlement patterna dominant center surrounded by a cluster of smaller settlements and lower densities of population at greater distances from the center\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2017, 28-29) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2017. Settlement Patterns in the Albarradas Area of Highland Oaxaca, Mexico: Frontiers, Boundaries, and Interaction. Fieldiana Anthropology, 46(1):1-162. Publication 1572. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1</a>§REF§<br>Secondary centres (e.g. Huitzo, Tomaltepec, El Mogote)El Mogote was 25ha§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2003). \"Militarism, resistance, and early state development in Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Social Evolution & History 2: 25-70, 32§REF§ and these sites had their own public buildings (such as the 3m high adobe structure at Tomaltepec)§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p131§REF§<br>3. Satellite settlements of the smaller centers\"Clusters of settlements were established around these new centers, which may have been the head towns of small, spatially discrete polities that had variable degrees of autonomy from San Jose Mogote (Blanton et al., 1999, pp. 43-44).\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2017, 27-28) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2017. Settlement Patterns in the Albarradas Area of Highland Oaxaca, Mexico: Frontiers, Boundaries, and Interaction. Fieldiana Anthropology, 46(1):1-162. Publication 1572. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1</a>§REF§<br>Villages (e.g. Fábrica San José, San Sebastián Abasolo, Tierras Largas).95-3ha§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p125§REF§" }, { "id": 282, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. San José Mogote-79 ha (including all the barrios outside the central part of the settlement, roughly 20ha in size) and grew to include over 1000 people.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p11§REF§ San Jose Mogote also had numerous public buildings (including Structures 1 and 2, which were pyramidal platforms for buildings on top).§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p110§REF§<br>2. Villages-0.1-2ha with 10-12 families.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p375§REF§§REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). \"Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390, p374§REF§. Examples of these settlements include: Fábrica San José, San Sebastián Abasolo and Tierras Largas.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p65-68§REF§" }, { "id": 283, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " level. Around 26 settlements were occupied during the Tierras Largas phase§REF§Kowalewski, S. A. and R. D. Drennan (1989). Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in Tlacolula, Etla, and Ocotlan, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, Regents of the University of Michigan, the Museum of Anthropology.§REF§. Most of these settlements were small villages or hamlets, except for San José Mogote which was larger and had public buildings and a defensive palisade, although sources do not suggest there is evidence that the influence of San Jose Mogote extended beyond the village to other villages.<br>1. Including both the largest village, San Jose Mogote, and smaller villages throughout the valley.<br>Large village: San José Mogote (estimated at 7.8ha in size), although it consisted of 9 loosely clustered residential areas.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11802§REF§§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p78§REF§. The site included: nuclear family houses; subterranean storage pits (collectively 1,000kg maize per household); ritual “men’s houses”; and a palisade defense along western periphery consisting of a double line of posts, dated to 1300 BCE (which could have extended further but archaeological remains have been destroyed in other areas)§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11802§REF§ Small villages or hamlets (most were between 0.1-1.5 ha in size).<br>Smaller villages: The \"type site\" for this phase, Tierras Largas, covered around 1.58-2.24ha and consisted of 5-10 households with nearby storage pits.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p84§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 284, "polity": { "id": 14, "name": "mx_toltec", "long_name": "Toltecs", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. The polity included Hamlets, Small Villages, Large villages and small provincial or regional centres. Information retrieved from table 5.13 of Sanders et al. 1979§REF§(Sanders et al 1979: 138) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/L743EUD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/L743EUD5</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 285, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(3) Bishoprics and Elite Residences; (2) Manor Farms; (1) Homesteads of Farming Families<br>Icelanders continued to reside on dispersed farmsteads rather than concentrating in villages and towns: 'All Icelanders lived on farms. No towns developed in Iceland in the Middle Ages. Fishing was carried out from coastal farms, and also from seasonal fishing stations when fish, especially cod, came ashore. Cereal crops were grown in Iceland in the Middle Ages, mainly in the south, but animal husbandry (cattle and sheep) was the mainstay. Both provided meat, and milk for cheese and skyr (milk curd), and the sheep's wool was woven into cloth which was Iceland's principal export commodity until the 14th century [...]. The Icelandic way of life is well illustrated by the units of value used: alin vadmáls (an ell, about 50cm, of woollen cloth), kúgildi (the value of a cow), equivalent to 120 ells, and subsequently fiskur (fish), equivalent to half an ell.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. \"A Brief History of Iceland\", 12p§REF§ In the Sturlung period, a small number of chieftains had managed to establish large manors, expropriating labour and resources from landless workers and larger landholdings: 'Because of the absence of the law of odel, and through the influence of the church as well as of the government and the chieftain class landed property had been gathered in the hands of a few. As the class of smaller freeholders was disappearing, the people were becoming a struggling and oppressed peasantry with a limited outlook, few political interests, and less of public spirit and individual self-assertion than formerly.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 249§REF§ According to Karlsson, this pattern did not change significantly during the transition to a mixed agrarian/fishing economy, although some settlement shifts occurred: 'It was in the years after 1300 that seasonal fishing stations became esablished on the southwest coast, and the wealthiest sector of society began to congregate in this region. The most powerful chieftains had almost all been based inland. Now the prosperous élite began to settle along the coast between Selvogur in the southwest and Vatnsfjördur in the West Fjords. Hvalfjördur and Hafnarfjördur developed into Iceland's most important trading centres. The royal administration in Iceland was located at Bessastadir [...] This period saw the development of the mixed agrarian/fishing society that typefied the Icelandic economy for centuries. In January and Feburary, people travelled from rural areas to the fishing stations, where they remained until spring, fishing from small boats. This was the most favourable fishing season, as fish stocks were plentiful, the weather was cool enough to permit fish to be dried before spoiling, and relatively few hands were required on the farm. People were thus domiciled in rural areas, on farms.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. \"A Brief History of Iceland\", 24p§REF§ The wealthier elites attempted to inhibit the development of new occupational classes: 'Yet another distinction appears as early as in the laws of the Commonwealth, which was to persist through Icelandic history. The ruling class wanted to divide Iceland into two kinds of people: farmers and their wives, and landless workers who were contracted by the year to work for farmers, and lived in their homes. Untiring efforts were ade to prevent the development of two other social classes: casual workers who sold their labour to the highest bidder at any season, and householders who were resident by the sea, living by fishing, and had neither land nor livestock.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. \"A Brief History of Iceland\", 13§REF§ See also Commonwealth-period data sheet." }, { "id": 286, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Large village (1-5 ha): Cluster of villages near the modern location of Cuzco. \"The location of these large Qotakalli Period sites surrounding Cuzco suggests that there may also have been a large village in the area now covered by the city. Based on these findings, it is proposed that local power was concentrated in the western end of the Cuzco Basin during the Qotakalli Period. In other words, although there was a continuation of a chiefly society in the basin from Late Formative times to the Qotakalli Period, the loci of elite occupation may have shifted slightly from the single site of Wimpillay to a dense array of sites in the area where Cuzco is now. The cluster of sites in this area during the Qotakalli Period suggests that the power and wealth of the valley may have become divided between groups of elite households located in a series of separated but closely spaced kin-based (i.e. ayllu) settlements.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 52)§REF§<br>2. Secondary center \"Settlements were more numerous near the best agricultural land, and a site hierarchy suggests that social organization may have been complex with secondary centers beyond the immediate vicinity of Cuzco.\" §REF§(Quilter 2013, 193)§REF§<br>3. Small village (<1ha)<br>\"While most of the sites with Qotakalli ceramics are small, we estimate that at least 14 Qotakalli sites in the basin were villages measuring 1-5 ha.\" §REF§(Covey and Bauer 2013, 543)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 287, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Prior to the Wari occupation of the Lucre-Huaro area, the Cusco Basin was characterized by a two- or three-tier settlement hierarchy, with a few clusters of two or three small villages (1-5 hectares each) possibly indicating the most important settlement areas. In addition to these are single small villages, some of them surrounded by hamlets, as well as groups of hamlets.\"§REF§(Covey 2006, 60)§REF§<br>1. Large village (1-5 ha): Cluster of villages near the modern location of Cuzco. \"The location of these large Qotakalli Period sites surrounding Cuzco suggests that there may also have been a large village in the area now covered by the city. Based on these findings, it is proposed that local power was concentrated in the western end of the Cuzco Basin during the Qotakalli Period. In other words, although there was a continuation of a chiefly society in the basin from Late Formative times to the Qotakalli Period, the loci of elite occupation may have shifted slightly from the single site of Wimpillay to a dense array of sites in the area where Cuzco is now. The cluster of sites in this area during the Qotakalli Period suggests that the power and wealth of the valley may have become divided between groups of elite households located in a series of separated but closely spaced kin-based (i.e. ayllu) settlements.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 52)§REF§<br>2. Secondary center \"Settlements were more numerous near the best agricultural land, and a site hierarchy suggests that social organization may have been complex with secondary centers beyond the immediate vicinity of Cuzco.\" §REF§(Quilter 2013, 193)§REF§ \"few clusters of two or three small villages (1-5 hectares each) possibly indicating the most important settlement areas\"§REF§(Covey 2006, 60)§REF§<br>3. Small village (<1ha) \"single small villages, some of them surrounded by hamlets, as well as groups of hamlets.\"§REF§(Covey 2006, 60)§REF§<br>\"While most of the sites with Qotakalli ceramics are small, we estimate that at least 14 Qotakalli sites in the basin were villages measuring 1-5 ha.\" §REF§(Covey and Bauer 2013, 543)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 288, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>The four-tiered settlement hierarchy (1000-1400 CE) minus the administrative centre level which was 1300 CE onwards. §REF§(Covey 2003, 339-339)§REF§<br>1. Cuzco (capital)2. Large villages3. Small villages and hamlets<br>Tiers suggested by d'Altroy from Bauer and Covey 2004§REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 79)§REF§:<br>2. Cuzco (center) - 50ha2. Town. About ten. Towns over 10 ha seem to be in the Lucre political sphere §REF§(Covey 2006, 108)§REF§3. Smaller villages. About twenty. 1.00-7.00 ha on Covey's map §REF§(Covey 2006, 108)§REF§4. Hamlets and other small sites. Over a hundred. 0.25-1.00 ha on Covey's map §REF§(Covey 2006, 108)§REF§<br>Cuzco Basin had large, undefended villages located near the valley floor. §REF§(Covey 2006, 95)§REF§<br>In Vilcanota Valley two higher orders of settlement were added after 1000 CE. §REF§(Covey 2003, 338-339)§REF§<br>The map produced by Covey §REF§(Covey 2006, 108)§REF§ shows four settlements over 10ha in the Lucre Basin. From this we can infer:<br>1. Choquepukio (60 ha)<br>2. Other big settlements (over 10ha), possibly principal towns of other quasi polities. Huaro could be one of them.<br>3. Villages.<br>4. Hamlets." }, { "id": 289, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Four-tiered settlement hierarchy (1000-1400 CE) §REF§(Covey 2003, 338-339)§REF§<br>4. Cuzco (capital) - 50 ha<br>3. Administrative centre - c1300 CE onwards. Example: Pukara Pantillijlla, which was over 10ha §REF§(Covey 2003, 338)§REF§<br>2. Large villages - 7 ha<br>1. Small villages and hamlets - under 4 ha. §REF§(Covey 2003, 339)§REF§<br>1250-1350 CE: largest town to the north was the 10 ha Pukara Pantillijlla. §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 82)§REF§" }, { "id": 290, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§(Bauer 2004, 39)§REF§<br>1.. Center<br>2. Villages<br>3. Hamlets<br>\"For the Formative Period, Bauer has identified another three-tiered settlement system in the Cusco Basin, as well as thirty-one small sites in the Paruro region that may or may not have been organized hierarchically.\" §REF§(Covey 2006, 61)§REF§<br>\"Our regional survey data document a multitiered settlement pattern for the Late Formative Phase, with numerous small sites, a variety of bigger settlements, and a single center (Map 5.2).\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 45)§REF§" }, { "id": 291, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§(Bauer 2004, 3)§REF§<br>1. Capital city (Cuzco)<br>At its height \"Cuzco became a cosmopolitan center, and people from diverse areas of the empire came to live there.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 106)§REF§<br>Occupied almost exclusively by about 12 royal ayllus §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§<br>\"Commoners and foreigners were not permitted to live there and had to leave the city each night. These peoples were housed in satellite communities surrounding Cuzco at a short distance. As a result, Cuzco never grew to the enormous size of the capitals of European empires such as Rome or even as large as some of its key administrative centers in the provinces.\" §REF§(McEwan 2006, 76)§REF§<br>Cuzco had 20,000 inhabitants at its peak §REF§(Bauer 2004, 3)§REF§ and \"the urban core was a planned settlement, covering about 40 hectares.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 198)§REF§<br>Alan Covey: These are both weak readings of the ethnohistory. Eyewitnesses stated that nobles from across the empire had houses in Cuzco, and there were diverse populations of retainers in Inca royal households, as well as populations of craft specialists living in outer districts. McEwan’s statement about population size is inaccurate regarding the size of provincial centers, which did not have permanent populations larger than Cuzco’s. Only Chan Chan, the coastal Chimú capital, would have rivalled Cuzco in terms of population, and its size was probably greatest before Inca conquest. §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§<br>2. City (provincial)Inca provincial centers Hatun Xauxa (Peru), Cotapachi (Bolivia), Campo del Pucara (Argentina) §REF§(Bauer 2004, 96)§REF§<br>Quito was a very important city, on the way to becoming the second capital of the Inca empire. §REF§(Salomon, F., 1986. Native lords of Quito in the age of the Incas: The political economy of north Andean chiefdoms (p. 84). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>Cajamarca had 7,000-10,000 inhabitants in 1532 CE §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§ Unsubstantiated.<br>Alan Covey: Statement on Quito is accurate, but there are better sources, like Frank Salomon. The number given for Cajamarca is not based on any early colonial source that I am aware of. §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§<br>3. Town.Can have as many as 4,000-5,000 inhabitants.<br>\"In the Upper Mantaro Valley, my colleagues and I have recorded more than 125 Inca-era settlements within about a day’s walk of the provincial center of Hatun Xauxa. The largest of those towns, Marca and Hatunmarca, each contained about 4,500 residential structures. We estimate that their populations were probably in the order of 4,000-5,000.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 294)§REF§<br>4. VillageExample, Muyu Cocha. Large village. No evidence that is was occupied during the Killke Period. Perhaps created to house state construction workers. §REF§(Bauer 2004, 95-96)§REF§<br>5. Hamlet §REF§(Bauer 2004, 95)§REF§These hamlets could have grouped one or several canchas. The Cancha architectural unit was a walled domestic compound and \"the basic settlement unit in the Andean region from the inception of agriculture and llama herding to post-colonial times\" §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§ Alan Covey: completey untrue. §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§ (AD: we probably should not take anything written by Kaufmann and Kaufmann for granted.)<br>Killke period hamlets occupied between 0.25-1 ha §REF§(Covey 2006, 124)§REF§ so Inca period hamlets were probably of a similar size." }, { "id": 292, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital<br>200-300 ha including outlying settlements. §REF§(Covey, Bauer, Bélisle, Tsesmeli 2013, 538-552)§REF§<br>\"Urban capital surrounded by densely populated hinterland.\" Capital - Heartland - Colonies. §REF§(Covey 2006, 58)§REF§<br>2. Major imperial administrative centre §REF§(McEwan ed. 2005, 1)§REF§Pikillacta (47ha) §REF§(Covey, Bauer, Bélisle, Tsesmeli 2013, 540)§REF§<br>Viracochapampa<br>Conchopata §REF§(Milosz and Makowski 2014, 286)§REF§<br>3. Minor imperial administrative centreHonco Pampa<br>Huaro - 9ha §REF§(Glowacki 2012, 190)§REF§<br>Batan Orqo<br>Cerro Baul - c.10 ha §REF§(Moseley M E, Feldman R A, Goldstein P S, Watanabe L in Isabell and McEwan ed. 1991, 132)§REF§<br>Jincamocco - c. 15 ha §REF§(Schreiber in Alcock et al 2001, 90)§REF§<br>Azangaro<br>Wari Willka §REF§(Milosz and Makowski 2014, 286)§REF§<br>4. VillageCuzco basin largest settlements 3-4 ha §REF§(Covey, Bauer, Bélisle, Tsesmeli 2013, 538-552)§REF§<br>5. HamletThese settlements would include sites of 1 ha and smaller, as seen in the Cuzco Valley. §REF§(Covey et al 2013, 543)§REF§" }, { "id": 293, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Small Residential Villages<br>Residential villages were predominant: 'Small villages with populations not exceeding 720 are the typical units of settlement, with houses dispersed in a more or less rectangular form around a central earth or grass \"square.\" Villages are in flat clearings where the grass is scrupulously cut and kept free of rubbish. Houses are built by the men, each house normally being occupied by one nuclear family. Bachelors' houses, of the same size and construction, are also built.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ 'This chapter describes briefly the Orokaiva pattern of production and distribution, with particular reference to Sivepe and Inonda. Traditionally the villager operated within quite narrowly circumscribed physical limits. Each community functioned largely as an independent subsistence unit, almost all the requirements of life being produced through shifting agriculture and the subsidiary pursuits of fishing, hunting and foraging on its own land. Production was directed almost entirely to immediate and direct consumption, none of the staple foodstuffs except yams lending themselves to storage; exchange was confined largely to kindred within the community or in closely neighbouring communities. Beyond this, minor and informal trade links had developed between some of the inland and coastal peoples, but the degree of inter-dependence established can be considered insignificant.' §REF§Waddell, Eric, and P. A. Krinks 1968. “Organisation Of Production And Distribution Among The Orokaiva: An Analysis Of Work And Exchange In Two Communities Participating In Both The Subsistence And Monetary Sectors Of The Economy”, 23§REF§ The rural settlement pattern may have become more dispersed during the colonial period: 'Williams and others judge that with the modern pacification, the Orokaiva have tended to disperse in even smaller living units than before. This appears to apply particularly to the relatively densely populated Lamington slopes, though a few instances of larger aggregations approaching a village type also occurred, particularly as a result of Mission influence. Over against this greater dispersal, the people have mingled more freely as a result of travel on the government roads and trails (which they have to keep in order), trading, Mission and official gatherings, and other new opportunities for interpersonal relations. One special feature of Orokaiva life in modern times is the annual burning-off of grasslands by hunting parties in order to get wild game. This has probably involved the assembly of larger groups and is one of the few activities which could induce intersettlement co-operation. The writer sensed the parallel of the crude local fires set for garden clearing and the general burning-off of grasslands to the major burning and blackening in the wake of the volcano-doubtless a mighty job of clearing to the Orokaiva eye.' §REF§Keesing, Felix Maxwell 1952. “Papuan Orokaiva Vs Mt. Lamington: Cultural Shock And Its Aftermath”, 18§REF§ 'The social system is characterized by flexibility in arrangements for group membership and for transmission of rights to land. A village normally contains more than one clan branch and consequently is not necessarily a landholding unit. Residents may have closer kinship ties to residents of other villages than with some of their coresidents. Nevertheless, common residence implies some community of interest and a degree of group solidarity that is reinforced by government policy, which recognizes villages rather than descent groups as functional entities. Marriages between members of different clan branches within the village also reinforce this solidarity, which is expressed in ways such as daily food gifts, cooperation in certain tasks, and joint ceremonial activities. On the average, a lineage comprises three households. Usually, several clans are represented in a village, with members of a single clan (clan branches) being scattered among a number of neighboring villages. Lineages are more localized in cha racter, frequently being confined to a single village and tending to occupy one section of it.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§" }, { "id": 294, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. SCCS variable 157 'Scale 9-Political Integration' is coded as ‘2’ or 'Autonomous local communities'. We have excluded colonial settlements from the code here.<br>[(1) Colonial Settlements;]<br>(2) Small Residential Villages<br>Residential villages are predominant: 'Small villages with populations not exceeding 720 are the typical units of settlement, with houses dispersed in a more or less rectangular form around a central earth or grass \"square.\" Villages are in flat clearings where the grass is scrupulously cut and kept free of rubbish. Houses are built by the men, each house normally being occupied by one nuclear family. Bachelors' houses, of the same size and construction, are also built.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ 'This chapter describes briefly the Orokaiva pattern of production and distribution, with particular reference to Sivepe and Inonda. Traditionally the villager operated within quite narrowly circumscribed physical limits. Each community functioned largely as an independent subsistence unit, almost all the requirements of life being produced through shifting agriculture and the subsidiary pursuits of fishing, hunting and foraging on its own land. Production was directed almost entirely to immediate and direct consumption, none of the staple foodstuffs except yams lending themselves to storage; exchange was confined largely to kindred within the community or in closely neighbouring communities. Beyond this, minor and informal trade links had developed between some of the inland and coastal peoples, but the degree of inter-dependence established can be considered insignificant.' §REF§Waddell, Eric, and P. A. Krinks 1968. “Organisation Of Production And Distribution Among The Orokaiva: An Analysis Of Work And Exchange In Two Communities Participating In Both The Subsistence And Monetary Sectors Of The Economy”, 23§REF§ The rural settlement pattern may have become more dispersed during the colonial period: 'Williams and others judge that with the modern pacification, the Orokaiva have tended to disperse in even smaller living units than before. This appears to apply particularly to the relatively densely populated Lamington slopes, though a few instances of larger aggregations approaching a village type also occurred, particularly as a result of Mission influence. Over against this greater dispersal, the people have mingled more freely as a result of travel on the government roads and trails (which they have to keep in order), trading, Mission and official gatherings, and other new opportunities for interpersonal relations. One special feature of Orokaiva life in modern times is the annual burning-off of grasslands by hunting parties in order to get wild game. This has probably involved the assembly of larger groups and is one of the few activities which could induce intersettlement co-operation. The writer sensed the parallel of the crude local fires set for garden clearing and the general burning-off of grasslands to the major burning and blackening in the wake of the volcano-doubtless a mighty job of clearing to the Orokaiva eye.' §REF§Keesing, Felix Maxwell 1952. “Papuan Orokaiva Vs Mt. Lamington: Cultural Shock And Its Aftermath”, 18§REF§ The colonial authorities also established settlements. [Ira Baschkow (pers. comm.): Through WWII these were only small settlements, hardly worthy of the term \"town\" at all. Janice Newton (pers. comm.): A few families of Orokaivans had visited Port Moresby and worked there or been imprisoned there before the second World War, . By the 1970s Port Moresby had built up quite a large population in squatter settlements but these were informally ordered into regional sections and sometimes involved rent payments to original landowners. Popondetta was a small agricultural base before the war, became strategic during the war as an allied air base and was developed as a small administration centre with a few general stores after the war. Although there were small 'squatter like’ settlements around the outskirts in 1977-9 it was nothing like Port Moresby in terms of makeshift developments. Jonathan Ritchie (pers. comm.): Does he mean Port Moresby? The other ‘urban’ locations were hardly that, at least in Northern District/Province) - and wasn’t Higaturu the main centre - not a town at all but the administrative headquarters? Nigel Oram (Colonial Town to Melanesian City) and Ian Stuart (Port Moresby Yesterday and Today 1970.)have written about early Port Moresby (and should have population estimates).] 'The establishment of towns, unknown before the coming of Europeans, has forced an even more drastic adaptation than have the changes in rural areas. For a man to leave his village and go to work in the town means long separation from his family and from his kin, an experience unheard of in the past. Separation from his relatives means that he may be facing dangerous risks from the sorcery of foreigners in an unknown country. This is one reason why migrant workers tend to live in kin clusters in the towns. Unemployment, inadequate living quarters, low wages, the necessity for paying in cash for all goods and services, and the obligation to send cash gifts to relatives in the villages, all add to the town dwellers' difficulties.' §REF§Dakeyne, R. B. 1969. “Village And Town In New Guinea”, 3§REF§ 'The small urban population lives for the most part in towns whose original location was determined either by access to a good harbour for early colonial planters or, in the interior, by the availability of level land sufficient for an airstrip. Despite the greatly diminished importance of plantations and the relocation of most of these airstrips out of the towns, those origins helped determine the existing urban layout. Port Moresby and Lae, on the Huon Gulf, are the largest cities.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea</a>§REF§ Popondetta is a notable example: 'Popondetta is a small town, population 6343 in 1980 (National Statistics Office 1980:14), with a few general stores, a market, hospital, courthouse, various government and semi-government offices and an hotel. It is a sleepy town, livened only recently by oil palm activity, the bustle of wholesale buying for village trade stores, and the ‘fortnight’, the government pay day, which stimulates a long weekend of drinking, singing and the occasional fight. Children love to visit the ‘town’, but adult women in particular yearn for the bright lights of Port Moresby spoken of by their menfolk.' §REF§Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 77p§REF§ We have provisionally assumed that most Orokaiva continued to reside in rural villages rather than small colonial settlements." }, { "id": 295, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Territorial polities cannot be assumed to have existed at this point. It is also worth noting that it is not clear how much of the site Mehgarh was inhabited at any one time§REF§Alessandro Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Feb 2017§REF§.<br>1. ?Mehrgarh2. ?Villages<br>Village farming community begins at least by 7th millennium BCE. §REF§(Ahmed 2014, 312)§REF§" }, { "id": 296, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Territorial polities cannot be assumed to have existed at this point. It is also worth noting that it is not clear how much of the site Mehgarh was inhabited at any one time§REF§Alessandro Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Feb 2017§REF§.<br>1. ?Mehrgarh2. ?Villages" }, { "id": 297, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Mehgarh2. Villages (unexcavated, but probably in the region of 12 hectares)§REF§A. Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Mar 2017§REF§" }, { "id": 298, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " There has been very little excavation of verified Greek settlements, with only one Greek site directly excavated. If this one example typified the situation in the Indo-Greek Kingdom, the Greek polis was the administrative, ritualized, and monumental heartland of the territory, but not the dominant population centre and represented a new construction. Below this newly urban space were the existing infrastructure of towns and villages. §REF§Daryaee, Touraj, ed. The Oxford handbook of Iranian history. Oxford University Press, 2012. pp. 156-157§REF§<br>1. Greek Polis<br>Peucelaotis (Shaikhan Dheri) measured 1.8 x 1.5 km. §REF§Dani, Ahmad Hasan et al. History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. 2: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Paris: Unesco, 1992., p.106.§REF§<br>2. Surrounding towns<br>3. Villages" }, { "id": 299, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " Inferred. Pirak is the best-preserved site in the Kachi Plain from this time. Although other sites such as Pathani Damb have also been found, it is difficult to estimate their extent due to the poor preservation of the site. “Although no systematic surveys have been carried out in the Kachi plain, it appears that this region lying between highland Baluchistan and the Indus valley was occupied without break by sizable settlements throughout the second and into the first millennium BC.” §REF§Jarrige, J-F. (2000) Continuity and Change in the North Kachi Plain (Baluchistan, Pakistan) at the beginning of the Second Millennium BC. In, Lahiri, N. The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilization. Permanent Black, Delhi., pp345-362. p346§REF§§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard.p390§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 300, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§(Possehl 2002, 44) Gregory Possehl. 2002. <i>The Indus Civilization</i>. Delhi: Published on behalf of Indian Archaeological Society [by] B.R. Pub. Corp.§REF§ §REF§New Delhi: distributed by D.K. Publishers' Distributors, 1980.§REF§<br>1. Large settlementFor example, Quetta Miri (23 ha) and Mundigak (9 ha).<br>2. Possible medium-sized 'producer' settlements<br>3. Small settlements<br>Worth noting: \"Some settlements show signs of specialization in particular crafts or other industrial activities, such as the procurement of raw materials. For example, huge quantities of figurines were produced at Mehrgarh in this period, suggesting mass production. Lewan, a village in the Bannu Basin in northern Baluchistan, specialized in the production of stone tools, including querns, axes, and hammers, which were traded over a wide area. A degree of specialization had begun earlier, for example at Mehrgarh, but it was becoming more pronounced in this period.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2008, 69)§REF§" } ] }