Settlement Hierarchy List
A viewset for viewing and editing Settlement Hierarchies.
GET /api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api
{ "count": 563, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " 3: 1766 CE; 1: 1779 CE. The Durrani ruled from the sparsely populated and rural Pashtun region of Afghanistan. As such, the settlement hierarchy was inverse to the majority of empires in that the large populated cities were underneath the power of a much smaller and extractive rural elite. After the death of the first Shah, internal conflict meant that effective control was limited to the city of Kabul and the surrounding countryside. §REF§Barfield, Thomas. Afghanistan: a cultural and political history. Princeton University Press, 2010. pp. 97-109§REF§<br>1766 CE<br>1. Kandahār(capital)<br>2. Provincial capitals (Sind, Punjab, Kashmir, Khosasan, Turkistan)<br>3. towns<br>4. Villages<br>1779 CE<br>1. Kabul<br>" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": 1200, "year_to": 1200, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital<br>Firuzkuh described as \"summer capital\". Single period of occupation of 75 years. Destroyed by Mongols 1223 CE, so origin c1148 CE.§REF§Thomas, David. Firuzkuh: the summer capital of the Ghurids <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.academia.edu/188837/Firuzkuh_the_summer_capital_of_the_Ghurids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.academia.edu/188837/Firuzkuh_the_summer_capital_of_the_Ghurids</a>§REF§2. City3. towns4. villages" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " There has been very little excavation of verified Greek settlements, with the major work based on a handful of Bactrian Greek sites. From what limited work that has been undertaken, The Greek polis was the administrative, ritualized, and monumental heartland of the territory, but not the dominant population centre and represented a new construction. Below this new urban space was the existing infrastructure of towns and villages of the indigenous Bactrians. §REF§Daryaee, Touraj, ed. The Oxford handbook of Iranian history. Oxford University Press, 2012. pp. 156-157§REF§ For the most recent survey of archaeological sites, see the survey found below. §REF§Mairs, R. (2013) ‘The Archaeology of the Hellenistic Far East: A Survey. Supplement 1,’ Hellenistic Far East Bibliography, www.bactria.org, 17 February 2013§REF§ Appian: “Seleucus founded sixteen Antiochs, nine Seleucias, five Laodiceas, three Apameas, and one Stratonicea (in total , thirty-four new cities”. §REF§Daryaee, Touraj, ed. The Oxford handbook of Iranian history. Oxford University Press, 2012. pp. 156-157§REF§<br>1. Greek Polis<br>2. Surrounding towns3. Villages" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilizations, p. 152§REF§The levels potentially consisted of:<br>1. Fortified Urban communities: Balkh, Termez. Balkh described as having 3,000 monks. It had a circumference of c. 20 <i>li</i>. Temez had \"perhaps 1, 000 monks.\" It had a circumference of 20 <i>li</i>. The area of the 'town' is 10 ha. The area of the town plus suburb is 70 ha.§REF§Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilizations, p. 152§REF§<br>2. Subjugated agricultural villages<br>3. Nomadic peoples 'Without cities and towns, they follow water and grass, using felt to make tents, moving to the cold places in summer, to the warm ones in winter.' §REF§De la Vaissière, É. \"Is there a Nationality of the Hephthalites.\" Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2008): pp 119-132.§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital<br>Balkh, Gandhara.<br>2. Large town / new foundationsKidarite rule \"coincided with ... the foundation of new cities such as Panjikent and Kushaniya. (The name of the latter probably indicates a Kidarite royal foundation, as neither the Great Kushans nor the Kushano-Sasanians had exerted control over that region.)\"§REF§(Grenet 2005) Grenet, Frantz. 2005. KIDARITES. Iranicaonline. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kidarites§REF§<br>3. Small town ?4. Village ?" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "1. City - capital<br>Kanishka I (128-150 CE) moved the capital to Purushapura.§REF§(Samad 2011, 83) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§ He had regional capitals at Taxila, Begram and Mathura.§REF§(Murugan 2013, 27) Murugan, Suresh. 2013. Introduction To Social Work. Social Work Department. PSG College of Arts and Science.§REF§<br>2. City - administrative center\"Major administrative centers are believed to have been Peshawar in northwest Pakistan and Mathura in the Ganges Basin.\"§REF§(Sinopoli 2006, 337) Sinopoli, Carla M. Imperial Landscapes of South Asia. in Stark, Miriam T. ed. 2006. Archaeology of Asia. Blackwell Publishing. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Towns2nd and 3rd CE in Bactria: \"During this period the country consisted of towns, including the important cities of Balkh and Termez, and rural settlements (roughly in the ratio of one to seven).\"§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 475) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>Vichi (Bhita) estimated population of population of between 10,000 and 20,000 persons. \"In Sisupalgarh (ancient Kalinga˙nagara), where the ruins of the ancient city cover an areaof about 1.36 km2\". \"Begram, north of Kabul, at the confluence of the Panjshir and Ghorband rivers. The city was rectangular in shape, extending 800mfrom north to south and 450m from east to west with a citadel in the northeast.\" §REF§Dani, Ahmad Hasan et al. History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. 2: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Paris: Unesco, 1992,p.287, 288.§REF§ \"The cities became centres for the production of commodities for sale, hence their key importance in the city-village-nomadic-steppe system.\" §REF§Dani, Ahmad Hasan et al. History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. 2: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Paris: Unesco, 1992,p.292.§REF§4. Rural settlements5. Nomadic camps.<br>Commune<br>\"There is some direct, and a great deal of indirect, evidence to show that the commune occupied an important place in the socio-economic life of Central Asia and in the ancient East as a whole. This seems to have continued until the Early Middle Ages, for which evidence is available. Thus, the commune in Sogdiana was known as naf; it consisted of the aristocracy (azat, azatkar), merchants (xvakar), and free peasants (who were members of the commune) and craftsmen (karikar). ... According to the written sources, the azat owned the land and the villages and were the chief retainers of the local and provincial rulers.\" §REF§(Mukhamedjanov 1994, 280) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.§REF§<br>\" In all probability, there was more land under communal ownership than any other type. There is some evidence to show that communes owned whole irrigation systems and the regions irrigated by them, as well as settlements and grazing lands. Localities settled by rural communes were called varzana, vardana or gava, meaning village or rural district, and it was precisely at this time that the fortified settlement of Vardanze, in the northern part of the Bukhara oasis, was established.\"§REF§(Mukhamedjanov 1994, 281) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. City or town<br>2. Village<br>Three cities are mentioned by Chinese chronicles: §REF§(Abdoullaev 2001, 200-201)§REF§<br>Chien-shih, the capital<br>Hu-Tsao, belonging to the principalty of Kuei-shuang<br>Lan-Chih, capital of the Ta Hsia kingdom (Bactria)<br>" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "1. Capital city<br>2. Provincial capital<br>3. Tributary capital<br>4. County capital<br>5. Town<br>6. Village<br>" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "1. Capital city2. Provincial capital3. Tributary capital4. County capital5. Town6. Village.<br>" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. <br>1. Capitals. Zhengzhou (1500 ha), Xiaoshuangqiao, and Huanbei<br>\"Exemplified by Zhengzhou and Anyang, each city was composed of a centrally situated ceremonial and administrative enclave occupied primarily by royalty, priests and a few selected craftsmen, whereas the peasantry and the majority of artisans lived in villages dispersed throughout the surrounding countryside (Wheatley 1971: 30-47).\"§REF§(Liu and Chen 2012, 295) Liu, Li. Chen, Xingcan. 2012. The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>2. Auxiliary capitals or important military stations, with a surrounding wall of rammed earth. Yanshi (190 ha)<br>3. Small cities that served as military fortresses, with a surrounding wall. Panlongcheng 盘龙城 (75 ha)<br>4. Smaller villages. 10-30ha. Mengzhuang 孟庄 (30ha) in size.<br>Tertiary center<br>\"The structure of the political centers of the Erligang period is different from anything seen before. Although many of them are enclosed by rammed-earth walls, a tradition that was underway during the Neolithic period, their standard rectangular shape and clear internal division suggest a much more formal definition of what such a city should look like (Fig. 7). The walls of two sites are impressive, measuring 17-25 m wide at the base and 9 m tall. The inner walls of Zhengzhou enclosed an area of about 300 ha, but the area inside the recently discovered outer walls was as large as 1,500 ha (Fig. 8). The area inside the walls of Yanshi, which may have been one of the secondary centers of Zhengzhou, is roughly 200 ha. While there has not yet been a systematic survey, settlement around the two sites is reportedly very dense, including relatively large tertiary centers (Liu and Chen 2003, pp. 87-101; Yuan and Zeng 2004).\" §REF§(Shelach and Jaffe 2014, 347-348)§REF§<br>\"Differences in site size for the early Shang period can be explained with reference to terms for different kinds of settlements from various Chinese historical texts. It seems that the different settlement tiers identified by archaeologists represent a hierarchical social structure which included large settlements that were regional capitals (du 都), military towns or large sites that served as auxiliary capitals (yi 邑), small cities that functioned as military strongholds, and common settlements. My colleagues and I have identified four sizes or ranks of settlements for the early Shang period as a whole (ranks 1-4, from large to small). My discussion below focuses on interpreting the functions of each type of site for the entire early Shang period.<br>The very large or rank 1 sites such as Zhengzhou, Xiaoshuangqiao, and Huanbei should be interpreted as capitals (see Table 16.1). Each of these sites is several hundred hectares in size, and each has a walled palace zone. [...] Rank 2 settlements are large sites that served as auxiliary capitals or important military stations. Most of these sites have a surrounding wall of rammed earth. The site of Yanshi, for example, is rectangular and covers an area of 190ha. [...] Rank 3 sites are relatively small cities that served as military fortresses. These settlements are considered cities because they are walled. Generally they are located at important transportation junctions in the peripheral region of the early Shang dynasty.Panlongcheng 盘龙城 is located about 5km from Wuhan city, Hubei province. Since it has a walled palace zone, it also probably once had a wall surrounding the settlement as well. Therefore, many scholars regard it as a city. The walled zone is approximately rectangular in plan, encompassing an area of 75 ha. [...] Commoners lived in the smallest (rank 4) settlements about 10-30 ha in size. They must have had close relations with larger, neighboring sites. For instance, Mengzhuang 孟庄 is relatively large and circular in shape, around 30ha in size. The excavations there discovered trash pits, building foundations, pottery kilns, water wells, and burials (Henan Provincial 1999: 241-246).\" §REF§(Yuan 2013, 327-330)§REF§" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital - Erlitou - 300 ha at maximum expansion2. Regional center3. Secondary center - Eg. Shaochau (60ha), Dashigu (50 ha)4. Small villages<br>\"Archaeological fieldwork demonstrates that with the emergence of the Erlitou capital, quite a few new settlements appeared in the Luoyang basin centered around the Erlitou site. Larger sites are distributed at intervals, revealing a large, structured network of settlements. The Shaochai 稍柴 site (60ha) seems to be located in the eastern section of a vital communication route in the Luoyang basin. In addition to being a secondary center, the important functions of this settlement included protecting the capital and transferring resources (Chen Xingcan et al. 2003; Liu et al. 2004: 75-100). More than 20 sites dating to the Erlitou period (10-30 ha in size) have been found in the surrounding area. Some sites have remains of white pottery or ritual drinking vessels of delicate pottery. These other Erlitou period sites (including burials) are concentrated around Songshan 嵩山 (Mt Song), including the area from Zhengzhou to Luoyang, and the area from the Yinghe and Ruhe rivers to Sanmenxia city. The sites are all large or medium-sized settlements located in valleys and basins. They must have been regional centers in the core area of the Erlitou state (Nishie 2005). The city discovered at Dashigu 大师姑 (51ha), 70km east of the Erlitou site, might be a military town at the eastern edge of the Erlitou state territory, or the center of another polity (Zhengzhou Kaogusuo 2004). We can conclude that there was a four- tiered settlement hierarchy in the Erlitou culture consisting of a large capital settlement, regional centers, secondary centers, and numerous small villages. This settlement pattern is in sharp contrast to the Longshan settlement pattern in which various regional centers coexisted and competed for power.\" §REF§(Xu 2013, 301-302)§REF§<br>\"A four-tier regional settlement hierarchy appeared during the Erlitou period, signifying the domination of the Erlitou site (as the paramount center) over a state-level system with at least three levels of political control above ordinary villages (Liu and Chen 2003, following the definition by Wright 1977). [...] Criticism has been leveled at different elements of this reconstruction. [...] Even more substantially, the proposed four-tier regional settlement hierarchy model has been criticized as being based on subjective criteria (Peterson and Drennan 2011; see further below).\" §REF§(Shelach and Jaffe 2014, 330)§REF§<br>\"Likewise, Erlitou may very well have been at once a political capital, a ceremonial center, and a nexus of elite production. Unfortunately, information concerning spatial practices at Erlitou and other Bronze Age Chinese sites is fragmentary at best, and characterizations are necessarily somewhat crude and speculative on current evidence.\" §REF§(Campbell 2014, 25)§REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. According to Ethnographic Atlas variable 31 'Mean Size of Local Communities', the Miao possess groups of '200-399', smaller than 400-1000, any town of more than 5,000, Towns of 5,000-50,000 (one or more), and Cities of more than 50,000 (one or more). (2) Village and (2) Hamlet.<br>[(3) Chinese Provincial Capitals; (2) Chinese Towns;] (1) Hmong and other Villages and Hamlets<br>Most Hmong lived in small villages or dispersed hamlets: 'At higher elevations, as on the plateau straddling Guizhou and Yunnan, settlements are rarely larger than twenty households. An average village in central Guizhou might have 35 or 40 households, while in Qiandongnan villages of 80 to 130 families are common, and a few settlements have close to 1,000 households. Villages are compact, with some cleared space in front of the houses, and footpaths. In some areas houses are of wood, raised off the ground, and with an additional sleeping and storage loft under a thatched or tiled roof. Elsewhere they are single-story buildings made of tamped earth or stone depending on local conditions. Windows are a recent introduction. Animals are now kept in outbuildings; in the past they were sheltered under the raised house or kept inside. Many settlements are marked by a grove of trees, where religious ceremonies are held.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ 'The Miao settlement is called “chai” (Illus. 12, 13), built generally against a mountainside or along a river, without any uniform appearance. The chai wall is made of earth or stone slabs, and there is no definite number of gates. The streets of a chai zigzag up and down, with tiny alleys on both sides. In each alley there are a few families. The alleys are interconnected. Without a guide one can get lost once inside a chai; turning right and left, one will be unable to find an exit. Chinese passing through a Miao chai often cannot find a single Miao, because they have gone into hiding in small alleys, barring the doors and refusing to come out. The Miao chais are not located along lines of communication but in the deep mountains and valleys accessible only by small paths. Although visible at a distance, they often cannot be reached. Without modern arms, they cannot be easily taken. For the last few hundred years continuous Miao unrest in western Hunan may be largely related to the fact that their chais were easy to defend and difficult to capture.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 59§REF§ '3) Lodging. Most of the Miao-I tribes live clustered in hamlets in the mountains, except the Chung-chia and the Sui-chia among the I, who live near water, hence the names “Kao-shan Miao” /high mountain Miao/ and “Shui-Chung-chia” /water Chung-chia/. It is said that the Miao-I must live in the high mountains in order to thrive and that if they live at the bottom of the mountains, they would suffer disaster and death. But, today, the Miao-I have gradually learned to live /on the plains/ and well-to-do farmers who have moved downhill are increasing in number. Although they cannot avoid pestilence, their suffering is not necessarily more than those living uphill. Most of the Miao-I follow the traditions of their ancestors and live precariously on the cliffs in backward conditions. Their living quarters are generally on one level, but some of the Miao-I in the southeast also build storied houses. In houses of one level men and beasts share the floor, but in the storied houses, men live upstairs and beasts downstairs. An ordinary house has one to three rooms; in the latter case, the rooms are small. If there is only one room, then it is used for cooking, eating, sleeping, and all other purposes. The construction of the houses is rather crude. Except those of a few wealthy families, which are enclosed with wooden or brick walls and covered with mud, tile or slate roofs, an average house is built of bamboo or corn stalks with tree barks as walls and straw for a roof. They are often slanting and dilapidated. Worse still, some of the poorest Hua Miao and Ch'ing Miao still live today in mountain caves in conditions as wretched as those in the inferno.' §REF§Che-lin, Wu, Chen Kuo-chün, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Studies Of Miao-I Societies In Kweichow”, 8§REF§ 'The Magpie Miao live in villages, occasionally compact but normally consisting of a cluster of separate hamlets. These are located on mountain slopes, usually far enough away from main transportation routes to be inaccessible and readily defensible. The Miao lack any political organization of their own, and are thoroughly integrated into the Chinese administrative system. The basic political, as well as economic and social unit, is the village. Villages are grouped into townships and divided into hamlets of about ten to twenty households each. The headmen of both the village and the hamlet are appointed by the chief of the township. The members of different villages or hamlets are bound principally by affinal ties. They may cooperate for the common good, but they lack any formal organization of an indigenous character. Disputes between members of the same hamlet are settled, if possible, within the hamlet. Those between members of different hamlets of the same village are adjudicated by a council composed of the village headman and the heads of the hamlets involved. If this council cannot effect a settlement, the litigants have a right to carry their dispute to the chief of the township or even to the Chinese court of the county.'§REF§Rui, Yifu 1960. “Magpie Miao Of Southern Szechuan”, 145§REF§ 'They [the Ch'uan Hmong; comment by RA] do not live in villages, towns, or cities but are interspersed among a much larger population of Chinese who live in the towns and cities and in many of the farmhouses.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ Government offices were generally located in Chinese towns and provincial capitals: 'Like Kweiyang, the hsien city of Lung-li was in an open plain, but a narrow one. The space between the mountains was sufficient for a walled town of one long street between the east and west gates and one or two on either side. There were fields outside the city walls. Its normal population was between three and four thousand, augmented during the war by the coming of some “companies” for the installation and repair of charcoal burners in motor lorries and the distillation of grain alcohol for fuel, an Army officers' training school, and the engineers' corps of the railway being built through the town from Kwangsi to Kweiyang. To it the people of the surrounding contryside, including at least three groups of Miao and the Chung-chia, went to market. It was also the seat of the hsien government and contained a middle school, postal and telegraph offices, and a cooperative bank, with all of which the non-Chinese, as well as the Chinese, had some dealings. A few of the more well-to-do families sent one of their boys to the middle school. Cases which could not be settled in the village or by the lien pao official, who was also a Chinese, were of necessity brought to the hsien court, as well as cases which involved both Miao and Chinese.' §REF§Mickey, Margaret Portia 1947. “Cowrie Shell Miao Of Kweichow”, 40b§REF§ The infrastructural facilities available to urban and rural settlements differed considerably: 'The Ch'uan Miao are an ethnic group living on the borders of Szechwan, Kweichow, and Yunnan Provinces, western China. The country is very mountainous with numerous peaks rising 3,000 to 6,000 feet above sea level. There are many streams, forests, waterfalls, perpendicular or overhanging cliffs, natural caves and natural bridges, and deepholes or pits where the water disappears into the bowels of the earth. While the roads between the Chinese towns and villages are generally paved with stones, most of the roads are narrow footpaths up and down the steep mountainsides or through fields and forests.' §REF§Graham, David Crockett 1954. “Songs And Stories Of The Ch’Uan Miao\", 1§REF§" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Village (administrative center)<br>2. Hamlet (residential only)" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "1. Capital city2. town3. feudal estates4. village" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "cn_longshan", "long_name": "Longshan", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Taosi (280 ha)<br>2. More than 100ha (3)<br>3. Between 10 and 99 ha (23)<br>4. Smaller than 10 ha (27)<br>\"It is argued that Taosi controlled a three- (Liu and Chen 2012, p. 221) or four-tier (He 2013) settlement hierarchy in the area between the Fen River and the Kuai River. A recent study counted 54 Taosi-period sites in this region; at least 3 of them, not including Taosi itself, are more than 100 ha in size, 23 are between 10 and 99 ha, and the rest are smaller (He 2013). Regardless of the exact number of hierarchical tiers (which in any case may be impossible to determine based on current data), the range in size, the more-or-less even distribution of the largest sites, and the association between labor investment and the largest site (Taosi) do suggest the development of a regional settlement hierarchy and the ability of the center(s) to recruit labor and accumulate resources.\" §REF§(Shelach and Jaffe 2014, 339)§REF§<br>\"At the same time, there was an increase in the size of settlements. All the Longshan settlements in the Zhengzhou-Luoyang region can be classified into four different size groups: (1) from 40-100ha, (2) 15-40ha, (3) 5-15 ha, and (4) smaller than 5 ha. So far there are only 10 sites in the large size class, just 1 percent of the known sites, including two sites of the Wangwan Type north of the Songshan mountains: Cuoli in the Luoyang city area (50ha) and Miaodian in Jiyuan city (80ha); and two sites of the Meishan Type south of the Songshan mountains: Xinzhai (over 100ha) and Wadian in Yuxian county (40ha). Although the quantity of small sites also had increased in comparison to the late Yangshao period, the sizes of the other, smaller sites had not increased (Zhao Chunqing 1999). The six other large sites are: Taipu 太仆 in Shanxian county (70ha), Boluoyao 菠萝窑 in Mengjin county (40ha), Xi- wangcun 西王村 in Luoning county (45ha), Laofandian 老樊店 in Songxian county (50 ha), Dasima 大司马 in Wuzhi county (100 ha), and Yangxiang 杨香 in Qinyang county (75ha).\" §REF§(Zhao 2013, 242)§REF§<br>\"Settlement System. Scholars have focused on understanding individual sites rather than regions. Settlement hierarchies have been proposed for more than one region, primarily on the basis of large-scale reconnaissances. However, as noted above, a few systematic, regional surveys have begun. Relatively large settlements surrounded by walls Of rammed earth are present in several regions and are thought to represent political centers (such as Wangchenggang, Pingliangtai, Haojiatai, Mengzhuang, all in Henan; Dinggong, Bianxianwang, Jingyanggang in Shandong; Shijiahe in Hubei). For several areas, surveys and reconnaissances suggest three levels in the settlement hierarchies. It appears that good agricultural soils and water sources were important factors affecting site location. Regional surveys are beginning to reveal evidence for use of upland areas as well.\" §REF§(Underhill in Peregrine and Ember 2001, 157)§REF§<br>\"Recent intensive surveys in Shandong and Henan have disclosed clusters of ruins of walled Longshan culture towns of different sizes, forming settlement hierarchies of at least two levels, some stretching over an area of several hundred square kilometers.\" §REF§(Chang 1999, 64)§REF§<br>\"From the network of small, largely self-sufficient villages of the middle Neolithic phase, the archaeological record of the Longshan era shows a hierarchical complex of territorial relationships gravitating around a single, increasingly large, political center. These hierarchical relationships probably included the creation of strong codependent ties between the center and its surrounding villages.\" §REF§(Demattè 1999, 136)§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 7, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital City2. Province (Sheng)Ming had 16 provinces including Liaodong, North Zhili, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Henan, South Zhili, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Huguang, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, and Guangdong. §REF§(Brook, 2010, p.41)§REF§<br>3. Prefecture/Subprefecture4. CountyMing had about 1,173 counties. The totals fluctuated as boundaries were revised §REF§(Brook, 2010, p.39-42)§REF§<br>5. CantonsMing counties were subdivided into half a dozen or more cantons §REF§(Brook, 2010, p.47)§REF§<br>6. TownshipCantons were divided into about a dozen townships §REF§(Brook, 2010, p.47)§REF§<br>7. WardsTownships were divided into dozen of wards. A ward was small enough- mandated as fifty families in the Yuan, a hundred or so families in the Ming- to conform the contours of existing villages, or that was ideal. §REF§(Brook, 2010, p.47-48)§REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 7, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital: Kaifeng<br>2. Prefectural Capital: Luoyang, Beijing, Nanjing: Prefectural capitals had urban populations between 20,000-100,000.§REF§(Liu 2015, 56)§REF§3. Large City4. City5. Market Town§REF§(Mote 2003, 161) Mote, Frederick W. 2003. Imperial China: 900-1800. Harvard University Press.§REF§6. Village7. Hamlet<br>There was a more complex hierarchy for taxation purposes (1077).§REF§(Liu 2015, 56)§REF§<br>Level / commercial taxes / # \"large cities\"<br>Level I: 100,000-400,000 strings. (1)<br>Level II: 50,000-100,000 strings. (7)<br>Level III: 30,000-50,000 strings. (20)<br>Level IV: 20,000-30,000 strings. (26)<br>Level V: 10,000-20,000 strings. (73)<br>\"Only 44 out of 1,132 county seats (less than 4 per cent) were able to contribute 10,000 strings or more.\"§REF§(Liu 2015, 56)§REF§<br>Kaifeng as the political center: \"Studies of Chinese urban history have pointed to a revolutionary change in urban settlement after the Rebellion. The change was conditioned by the rise of long-distance trade between the north and the south and the increase in rural markets across the country. Kaifeng is a well-known case. It was the first city in Chinese history to be chosen as the political centre because it was a hub of transport and trade.\"§REF§(Liu 2015, 57)§REF§<br>According to population study by Gilbert Rozman Kaifeng was in the 1 million range. 30 cities had 40,000-100,000, 60 cities roughly 15,000, possibly 400 towns had 4,000-5,000 people.§REF§(Mote 2003, 164) Mote, Frederick W. 2003. Imperial China: 900-1800. Harvard University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Perhaps 5-6 levels, taking up earlier imperial modes? (there seems to be a similar division into central court/capital city, prefecture, commandery, districts and villages as in earlier times; maybe more after 486 CE reforms.<br>1. Capital<br>2.3.4.5.<br>\"Li Ping (2000, 59) has noted that the Northern Wei, after establishing its capital at Pingcheng (modern Datong) in 398, divided the Sang'gan River basin of northern Shanxi into the Inner Capital District, which would include the capital city and the central basin area (jinei). This zone would be inhabited by the bulk of the settled farming population, Tuoba and related households and probably a large portion of the central army cavalry units, not to mention the palace guard units. The Outer Capital District, which would include the hills and mountains surrounding the basin area (jiwai) would be settled by nomadic and semi-nomadic tribal and clan groups who were never completely de-tribalized. Together these two zones would comprise the Capital District (dianfu). These two zones were administered by Eight Councillors (babu diafu) and Eight Chieftains (babu dashuai), respectively.\" §REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.65-66)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 543, "name": "cn_peiligang", "long_name": "Peiligang", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -5001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"No settlement hierarchy may be observed.\" (Liu 2005: 163) Larger sites on the alluvial plains and smaller sites in hilly areas\".§REF§(Liu and Chen 2012: 144) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DE5TU7HY\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DE5TU7HY</a> $ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q77FKW2H\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q77FKW2H</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 7, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital<br>2. Province seat<br>3. Tao seat<br>4. Prefecture seat<br>5. County seat<br>6. Town<br>7. Village<br>Province: 18 provinces§REF§(J. Zhang, 2011, 237)§REF§<br>Tao: Grouping of two or more prefectures for certain purpose, was interposed between the prefectures and provinces§REF§(Zhang, 2011)§REF§<br>Prefecture (Fu): 180 prefectures§REF§(Fairbank 1978 23)§REF§<br>\"The Ch'ing judicial system rose upward through a territorial hierarchy of some six different levels. It began with the 1,500 xians or counties (also called districts) and similar regions and then proceeded to the higher levels of the 180 prefectures and the 18 provinces. Thence cases went to the Board of Punishments at the capital and then to a fifth level, the three high courts. The emperor was the top level. He might confirm or reject recommendations concerning capital cases sent up from below.”§REF§(Fairbank 1978 23)§REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 7, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital City2. Province3. Tao seat <i>inferred</i>4. Prefecture (Fu) seat <i>inferred</i>5. County (Xian) seat <i>inferred</i>6. Town/City (Xiancheng)7. Village<br>Province: 18 provinces§REF§(J. Zhang, 2011, 237)§REF§<br>Tao: Grouping of two or more prefectures for certain purpose, was interposed between the prefectures and provinces§REF§(Zhang, 2011)§REF§<br>Prefecture (Fu): 180 prefectures§REF§(Fairbank 1978 23)§REF§<br>“The Ch'ing judicial system rose upward through a territorial hierarchy of some six different levels. It began with the 1,500 xians or counties (also called districts) and similar regions and then proceeded to the higher levels of the 180 prefectures and the 18 provinces. Thence cases went to the Board of Punishments at the capital and then to a fifth level, the three high courts. The emperor was the top level. He might confirm or reject recommendations concerning capital cases sent up from below.”§REF§(Fairbank 1978 23)§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "1. Royal capital.2. Aristocratic strongholds.3. Village" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. inferred continuity with Tang periods<br>1. Capital<br>2. Large cities (21)3. smaller towns4. villages?5. Hamlets?" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital: Chang'an 8th century - 1,000,000.§REF§(Roberts 1996, 106)§REF§<br>2. Secondary Capitals3. Large Cities: eg. Guangzhou 8th century - 200,000.§REF§(Roberts 1996, 106)§REF§4. Smaller towns (inferred)5. Villages (inferred)6. Hamlet (inferred)" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Studies of Chinese urban history have pointed to a revolutionary change in urban settlement after the Rebellion. The change was conditioned by the rise of long-distance trade between the north and the south and the increase in rural markets across the country. Kaifeng is a well-known case. It was the first city in Chinese history to be chosen as the political centre because it was a hub of transport and trade.\"§REF§(Liu 2015, 57)§REF§<br>\"In a general survey of urban development in China prior to 960, Shi Nianhai counted 21 large cities that performed a key role in inter- and intra-regional trade after the mid-Tang period.\"§REF§(Liu 2015, 57)§REF§<br>Possible hierarchy:1. Capital<br>2. Secondary Capitals3. Large cities (21)4. Smaller towns5. Villages?6. Hamlets?" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "pre-reforms (fifth c bce):<br>1. Capital city<br>2. town3. feudal estates (?)4. village<br>post-reforms (fifth c bce):<br>1. Capital city<br>2. Commandery capital3. County4. town5. village<br>" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "1. Capital city2. Commanderie capital3. District capital3. Foreign vassal city (e.g. in Ferghana)4. Town5. Village.<br>Ruth Mostern (pers. comm) noted that district capital and foreign vassal city seem co-equal rather than one being subordinate to the other.§REF§(Mostern, Ruth. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "1. Capital (homeland).2. Capital (eastern lands).3. Vassal strongholds.4. Towns.5. Villages." }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Example in the Li Luo River Valley:1. Big villages. 75ha is the biggest in the Li Luo River Valley.<br>2. Smaller villages. 3 to 6 ha.<br>\"There was significant differentiation in the size of middle and late phase Yangshao settlements. Settlement hierarchies have been identified from systematic survey and reconnaissance (Liu 1996; Liu and Chen 2000). In the Yi-Luo River valley,Yangshao sites range in size from less than one hectare to about 75 hectares, which formed a two-tiered settlement hierarchy (Liu 1996:254). There is a three- tiered hierarchy in the Lingbao region of western Henan. There is an unusually large settlement (about 90 hectares) called Beiyangping located between two tributaries, while most sites range in size from about 2 hectares to 36 hectares (Henan Institute of Cultural Relics et al. 1999; Henan Team et al. 1995).\" §REF§(Underhill and Habu 2008, 131-132)§REF§<br>Example in the Yangping River Valley:1. Regional center. eg: Beiyangping, 90 ha.<br>2. Secondary central settlement. Eg: Xipo, 40 ha.3. Smaller villages. 2ha and bigger.<br>\"A full-coverage survey was conducted in the Zhudingyuan 铸鼎原 area in central Lingbao in western Henan in 1999 to establish a database of prehistoric sites along two small tributaries of the Yellow river - the Yangping 阳平 river in the west and the Sha 沙 river in the east. A total of 31 sites, dating from the pre-Yangshao to late Longshan 龙山 periods were recorded. For the Miaodigou period, there was a sharp increase in the quantity of settlements (from 13 in the early Yangshao period to 19) and a marked increase in the size of settlements (from 44ha in the early Yangshao period to 189.3 ha). Even more significantly, a clear three-tiered settlement hierarchy appeared in the Miaodigou period. The Beiyangping site in the middle Yangping river valley is about 90 ha in size and obviously a regional center. The Xipo site previously mentioned, located in the upper Sha river valley, is 40ha in size and the secondary central settlement.<br>The full survey in the Yuanqu 垣曲 basin in southern Shanxi resulted in the same pattern. There also was a sharp increase in quantity of settlements (from eight in the early Yangshao to 20) and size (from 25.16ha in early Yangshao to 109.16) during the Miaodigou period. A three-tiered hierarchy of settlements occurred in the basin for the first time. The largest site, Beibaotou 北堡头, is 30 ha in size and might have been the regional center. The second largest site, Xiaozhao 小赵, is 15 ha in size and might have been a secondary center. The rank-size distribution is near a log-normal curve, indicating a well-integrated social system (Dai 2006: 19).\" §REF§(Li 2013, 218)§REF§<br>\"In the earlier phase, the settlement patterns exhibited strong egalitarian tendencies. No settlement hierarchy has been detected. In the later period, the variation of settlement size and structure increased; some settlements were built in masonry or earthen wall enclosures. Although systematic settlement system study is still lacking, it has been noted that some sites, in the dozens, clustered together, and the variation in site size suggests the emergence of settlement hierarchy.\" §REF§(Lee in Peregrine and Ember 2001, 334)§REF§<br>\"Many of these sites were occupied during the middle Yangshao phase as well, up to ca. 3500 B.C. Most sites range in size from ca. 3 to 6 hectares (Chang 1986:116-19), but Jiangzhai, an extensively excavated site, is ca. 18 hectares in size (Yan 1999:136).\" §REF§(Underhill and Habu 2008, 128)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 7, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from administrative system §REF§(Endicott-West 1994, 589-594)§REF§.<br>1. Capital city2. Circuit seat3. Route seat4. Prefecture seat5. Sub-prefecture seat6. County seat7. Village" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": 250, "year_to": 650, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. About the Serje and Oyuela settlement pattern analyses for the 16th century: \"Finally, in both cases, the information refers to the last period of prehispanic occupation, which leaves open the question of how the observed settlement patterns developed\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 23)§REF§<br>Study of the Concha, Chenge, Gairaca and Neguanje Bays: \"The development of settlement hierarchies is a relatively late and less than obvious phenomenon. During the Neguanje and Buritaca Periods it is possible to identify only one hierarchy. All the sites are relatively small and there are no clear breaks in their distribution. During both periods there is a pattern where all sites are relatively small, at the same time that a few are somewhat larger; yet, there are no differences that are significant enough to consider them a separate class.\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 71)§REF§<br>All sites surveyed by Langebaek on the bays are between 1 and 3 hectares:1 ha (5 sites), 2 ha (8 sites), 3 ha (1 site). Between the 1st and the 6th century. §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 81)§REF§<br>All sites surveyed by Langebaek on the bays are between 1 and 4 hectares: 1 ha (3 sites), 2 ha (6 sites), 3 ha (1 site), 4 ha (1 site). Between the 6th and the 10th century. §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 81)§REF§<br>\"In comparison to Tairona settlements, the Neguanje period villages are much smaller (1 to 8 hectares), although structures are also round in shape and some already have rough masonry walls similar to those built during the Tairona period (See Chapters 4 and 5).\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 52)§REF§<br>Pueblito was between 6 and 8 ha: \"The data recovered through the shovel tests was used to map out the extents of the Neguanje period occupation, indicating the existence of a small village covering 6 to 8 hectares organized along the banks of the permanent streams.\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 285)§REF§<br>For the second phase (6th-9th centuries), which corresponds to the beginnings of a ranked society, two types of settlements can be identified: villages without any kind of 'architectural' work, and villages that are set up as regional centres with megalithic infrastructure. \"Para la segunda fase (siglos VI-IX), correspondiente, como dijimos, al comienzo de una sociedad de rangos, se identifican dos tipos de asentamientos: las aldeas sin ninguna clase de trabajo ' \"arquitectónico\" y las instaladas a manera de centro de una región con infraestructura megalítica.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 1986)§REF§" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": 650, "year_to": 1050, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. About the Serje and Oyuela settlement pattern analyses for the 16th century: \"Finally, in both cases, the information refers to the last period of prehispanic occupation, which leaves open the question of how the observed settlement patterns developed\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 23)§REF§<br>Study of the Concha, Chenge, Gairaca and Neguanje Bays: \"The development of settlement hierarchies is a relatively late and less than obvious phenomenon. During the Neguanje and Buritaca Periods it is possible to identify only one hierarchy. All the sites are relatively small and there are no clear breaks in their distribution. During both periods there is a pattern where all sites are relatively small, at the same time that a few are somewhat larger; yet, there are no differences that are significant enough to consider them a separate class.\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 71)§REF§<br>All sites surveyed by Langebaek on the bays are between 1 and 3 hectares:1 ha (5 sites), 2 ha (8 sites), 3 ha (1 site). Between the 1st and the 6th century. §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 81)§REF§<br>All sites surveyed by Langebaek on the bays are between 1 and 4 hectares: 1 ha (3 sites), 2 ha (6 sites), 3 ha (1 site), 4 ha (1 site). Between the 6th and the 10th century. §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 81)§REF§<br>\"In comparison to Tairona settlements, the Neguanje period villages are much smaller (1 to 8 hectares), although structures are also round in shape and some already have rough masonry walls similar to those built during the Tairona period (See Chapters 4 and 5).\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 52)§REF§<br>Pueblito was between 6 and 8 ha: \"The data recovered through the shovel tests was used to map out the extents of the Neguanje period occupation, indicating the existence of a small village covering 6 to 8 hectares organized along the banks of the permanent streams.\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 285)§REF§<br>For the second phase (6th-9th centuries), which corresponds to the beginnings of a ranked society, two types of settlements can be identified: villages without any kind of 'architectural' work, and villages that are set up as regional centres with megalithic infrastructure. \"Para la segunda fase (siglos VI-IX), correspondiente, como dijimos, al comienzo de una sociedad de rangos, se identifican dos tipos de asentamientos: las aldeas sin ninguna clase de trabajo ' \"arquitectónico\" y las instaladas a manera de centro de una región con infraestructura megalítica.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 1986)§REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1300, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Main towns with 1,000 structures or more. Excavated sites: Pueblito (100ha), Ciudad Perdida (30ha). Sites recorded in ethnohistory: Bonda, Pocigueica. They have more than 200 structures and a civic-ceremonial centre. Their residential areas are arranged into neighbourhoods.<br>2. Large town with 400 to 1,000 structures, including ceremonial houses and temples. Above 10 ha, like Nulicuandecue (13 ha).3. Pueblos (villages) of 20, 40 or 60 houses. 1-5 ha.<br>\"Fast forward next to 1975. Archaeologists Luisa Fernanda Herrera and Gilberto Cadavid have almost completed a large survey of the northern and western sides of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, locating and documenting two hundred and eleven sites with similar characteristics, ranging from a few terraces and circular buildings, stone paths and stairways to very large towns like Pueblito surpassing one hundred hectares. Site 200 found in this survey, or Buritaca 200, as it was then called, is Ciudad Perdida, the “Lost City”, comprising more than 30 hectares of stone masonry terracing, circular and oblong buildings, stairways, and flag-stoned paths and sidewalks.\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 22-23)§REF§<br>\"Spanish informants describe a densely populated area with towns and settlements of all sizes, from pueblos of 20, 40, or 80 houses to large towns with 400 to 1,000 structures that included ceremonial houses and temples. These figures fit well with the archaeological evidence from coastal and from highland regions for the existence of a three-level hierarchy of sites (Serje 1987; Oyuela Caycedo 1987b) in which the larger ones, such as Pueblito, have some 1,000 structures (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1954a: 161; 1954b; G. Reichel-Dolmatoff and A. Reichel-Dolmatoff 1955). Major towns, such as Bonda and Pocigueica, were governed by chiefs (caciques) and seem to have formed the nuclei of incipient states. \" §REF§(Bray 2003, 301-2)§REF§<br>\"Not surprisingly, prehispanic societies took advantage of this river and its resources, including the Muisca, Tierradentro, San Agustin/ Alto Magdalena, and Tairona chiefdoms of Colombia. In general, these chiefdoms exhibited two-tier settlement systems, composed of multiple primary centers with associated second-level communities.\" §REF§(Moore 2014, 386)§REF§<br>\"What is absent on the Alto Buritaca is a neat hierarchy of settlements, the pattern often used to identify the centralized organizations of chiefdoms. Oyuela-Caycedo has written, “Decentralized political complexes coordinated the whole commercial enterprise for one or more of the mountainous valleys, as indicated for Ciudad Perdida.” \" §REF§(Moore 2014, 396)§REF§<br>\"The only projects that contribute data about the distribution of settlements at the regional scale are those of Serje and Oyuela. The former attempts to differentiate among the types of Late Period settlements on the Buritaca Basin based on the number of dwelling platforms. Using such criteria, Serje (1987:90) identifies 'provincial capitals', like Buritaca 200 or Pueblito, with more than two hundred terraces; second order sites, with an average of eighty terraces; and peripheral sites, with fewer than fifty terraces. Based on that information a 'three-tiered settlement hierarchy' is proposed (Serje 1987:90). Oyuela (1995) also makes an attempt to evaluate the information about settlement patterns as they relate to models of social organization in Gaira and the Alto Buritaca Basin. Oyuela evaluated the presence of centralization in the settlements found in those two regions. Based on the rank-size method (Johnson 1981) he found a strongly convex distribution in both regions, thus proposing that the chiefdoms in the Sierra Nevada and the coastal plain did not constitute \"centralized organizations\" (Oyuela 1995:126).\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 21-3)§REF§<br>\"Nevertheless, if the larger regional scale is considered, two or more clearly differentiated hierarchies may be identified. In fact, the studied area is very close to Pueblito (approximately 10km) where the Bonda settlement might belong, one of the places that the Spanish considered the seat of an important chiefdom (Figure1). Given that the most conservative estimate for Pueblito's area is 4km2, such a site would represent a higher level in the hierarchy.\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 79)§REF§<br>\"Site size and complexity ranges from a few masonry terraces with domestic structures to very large towns with elaborate stone masonry terracing, flag-stoned paths and walk ways, public areas, and canals covering over one hundred and fifty hectares.\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 54)§REF§<br>Gaira settlement hierarchy, three levels: 10 ha and above, between 2 and 6 ha, and below 1ha. \"El gráfico de Gaira (Figura 5) efectivamente tiene una forma convexa fuerte. El centro primario es el asentamiento de Gaira (13.5 ha); el segundo asentamiento más grande está localizado donde hoy día se encuentra el Sena (10 ha). Los resultados muestran que el primer asentamiento no es muy diferente de los otros (todos los datos presentados en el gráfico están en m2) Sólo después del octavo asentamiento es que hay una caída en el tamaño de éstos. Hay tres clases de asentamientos: uno por encima de las 10 hectáreas, el segundo entre las 6 y 2 hectáreas y un último grupo de asentamientos pequeños por debajo de una hectárea.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 1995, 122)§REF§<br>Buritaca settlement hierarchy four levels: 8 ha, between 3 and 4 ha, between 1 and 3 ha, and below 1 ha; Oyuela-Caycedo also mentions the site of Buritaca 200 (Ciudad Perdida) at 20ha and Nulicuandecue at 13 ha. \"En contraste, el gráfico del alto Buritaca muestra una distribución convexa más cercana a la normal logarítmica (Figura 6). El asentamiento de mayor rango es Buritaca 200 con 20 hectáreas, seguido por Nulicuandecue con 13 hectáreas. En este caso, la distribución parece estar más cerca a la esperada en un sistema integrado. Igualmente, en contraste con Gaira, hay tendencia hacia la centralización, pero ésta no es fuerte como para estar formando una distribución cóncava. Considerando la cercanía de Buritaca 200 y Nulicuandecue (un día de camino), es probable que existiese algún tipo de competencia entre estos dos asentamientos. En cuanto a los tipos de asentamientos, una tipología de éstos basada de manera principal en atributos cualitativos fue previamente desarrollada. En comparación, se pueden definir cuatro clases de asentamientos: uno con asentamientos por encima de ocho hectáreas y compuesto por cuatro asentamientos que son los más monumentales; una suave caída en el gráfico separa otro grupo de asentamientos con tamaños entre cuatro y tres hectáreas, y un tercer grupo compuesto por pequeñas aldeas con tamaños entre una y tres hectáreas. El último está conformado por asentamientos con un tamaño por debajo de una hectárea y es el final del gráfico de rango-tamaño.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 1995, 124)§REF§<br>Oyuela-Caycedo's proposed classification (1986):<br>1. Primary regional centres, of which two are known, Pueblito and Ciudad Perdida. These are characterised by their central ceremonial-civic zone, and more than 150 residential terraces grouped in sectors<br>2. Secondary centres, which have a civic-ceremonial centre with megalithic structures (there are no sectors grouping or dividing the residential terraces)3. Villages that sometimes exhibit megalithic infrastructure in their central sector4. temporary habitation sites, without any megalithic structures, perhaps occasional fishing or salt exploitation camps<br>In the Classic Period [for Oyuela-Caycedo, after the 9th century] there are at least four types of settlement: temporary habitation sites, without any megalithic structures, perhaps occasional fishing or salt exploitation camps. Villages that sometimes present megalithic infrastructure in their central sector. The third type are the secondary centres, which have a civic-ceremonial centre with megalithic structures (there are no sectors in the residential terraces). The last type of settlement consists in primary regional centres, of which two are known, Pueblito and Ciudad Perdida. These are characterised by their central ceremonial-civic zone, and more than 150 residential terraces grouped in sectors. Given their strategic location, it is possible that their function was to distribute and exchange products within the region, as in the well-studied cases of Formative Mesoamerica. \"En el período clásico se distinguen por lo menos cuatro tipos de asentamientos como son: sitios de habitación temporal, sin ningún vestigio megalítico, tal vez campamentos ocasionales de pesca o de obtención de sal. Aldeas que en algunas ocasiones presentan infraestructura megalítica en el sector central. El tercer tipo son los centros secundarios de regular tamaño que presentan un sector central cívico ceremonial con estructuras megalíticas (no se observan sectorizaciones entre las terrazas de vivienda). El último tipo de asentamiento lo constituyen los centros primarios regionales, de los cuales se conocen dos, que son Pueblito y Ciudad Perdida. Estos se caracterizan por constar de una zona central de carácter cívico ceremonial y más de ciento cincuenta terrazas de vivienda agrupadas en sectores. Dada su situación estratégica, es probable que la función de esos asentamientos fuera la distribución y el intercambio de productos dentro de la región, de manera análoga a los bien estudiados casos de Mesoamérica durante el formativo.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 1986)§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": 1400, "year_to": 1524, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Main towns with 1,000 structures or more. Excavated sites: Pueblito (100ha), Ciudad Perdida (30ha). Sites recorded in ethnohistory: Bonda, Pocigueica. They have more than 200 structures and a civic-ceremonial centre. Their residential areas are arranged into neighbourhoods.<br>2. Large town with 400 to 1,000 structures, including ceremonial houses and temples. Above 10 ha, like Nulicuandecue (13 ha).3. Pueblos (villages) of 20, 40 or 60 houses. 1-5 ha.<br>\"Fast forward next to 1975. Archaeologists Luisa Fernanda Herrera and Gilberto Cadavid have almost completed a large survey of the northern and western sides of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, locating and documenting two hundred and eleven sites with similar characteristics, ranging from a few terraces and circular buildings, stone paths and stairways to very large towns like Pueblito surpassing one hundred hectares. Site 200 found in this survey, or Buritaca 200, as it was then called, is Ciudad Perdida, the “Lost City”, comprising more than 30 hectares of stone masonry terracing, circular and oblong buildings, stairways, and flag-stoned paths and sidewalks.\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 22-23)§REF§<br>\"Spanish informants describe a densely populated area with towns and settlements of all sizes, from pueblos of 20, 40, or 80 houses to large towns with 400 to 1,000 structures that included ceremonial houses and temples. These figures fit well with the archaeological evidence from coastal and from highland regions for the existence of a three-level hierarchy of sites (Serje 1987; Oyuela Caycedo 1987b) in which the larger ones, such as Pueblito, have some 1,000 structures (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1954a: 161; 1954b; G. Reichel-Dolmatoff and A. Reichel-Dolmatoff 1955). Major towns, such as Bonda and Pocigueica, were governed by chiefs (caciques) and seem to have formed the nuclei of incipient states. \" §REF§(Bray 2003, 301-2)§REF§<br>\"Not surprisingly, prehispanic societies took advantage of this river and its resources, including the Muisca, Tierradentro, San Agustin/ Alto Magdalena, and Tairona chiefdoms of Colombia. In general, these chiefdoms exhibited two-tier settlement systems, composed of multiple primary centers with associated second-level communities.\" §REF§(Moore 2014, 386)§REF§<br>\"What is absent on the Alto Buritaca is a neat hierarchy of settlements, the pattern often used to identify the centralized organizations of chiefdoms. Oyuela-Caycedo has written, “Decentralized political complexes coordinated the whole commercial enterprise for one or more of the mountainous valleys, as indicated for Ciudad Perdida.” \" §REF§(Moore 2014, 396)§REF§<br>\"The only projects that contribute data about the distribution of settlements at the regional scale are those of Serje and Oyuela. The former attempts to differentiate among the types of Late Period settlements on the Buritaca Basin based on the number of dwelling platforms. Using such criteria, Serje (1987:90) identifies 'provincial capitals', like Buritaca 200 or Pueblito, with more than two hundred terraces; second order sites, with an average of eighty terraces; and peripheral sites, with fewer than fifty terraces. Based on that information a 'three-tiered settlement hierarchy' is proposed (Serje 1987:90). Oyuela (1995) also makes an attempt to evaluate the information about settlement patterns as they relate to models of social organization in Gaira and the Alto Buritaca Basin. Oyuela evaluated the presence of centralization in the settlements found in those two regions. Based on the rank-size method (Johnson 1981) he found a strongly convex distribution in both regions, thus proposing that the chiefdoms in the Sierra Nevada and the coastal plain did not constitute \"centralized organizations\" (Oyuela 1995:126).\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 21-3)§REF§<br>\"Nevertheless, if the larger regional scale is considered, two or more clearly differentiated hierarchies may be identified. In fact, the studied area is very close to Pueblito (approximately 10km) where the Bonda settlement might belong, one of the places that the Spanish considered the seat of an important chiefdom (Figure1). Given that the most conservative estimate for Pueblito's area is 4km2, such a site would represent a higher level in the hierarchy.\" §REF§(Langebaek 2005, 79)§REF§<br>\"Site size and complexity ranges from a few masonry terraces with domestic structures to very large towns with elaborate stone masonry terracing, flag-stoned paths and walk ways, public areas, and canals covering over one hundred and fifty hectares.\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 54)§REF§<br>Gaira settlement hierarchy, three levels: 10 ha and above, between 2 and 6 ha, and below 1ha. \"El gráfico de Gaira (Figura 5) efectivamente tiene una forma convexa fuerte. El centro primario es el asentamiento de Gaira (13.5 ha); el segundo asentamiento más grande está localizado donde hoy día se encuentra el Sena (10 ha). Los resultados muestran que el primer asentamiento no es muy diferente de los otros (todos los datos presentados en el gráfico están en m2) Sólo después del octavo asentamiento es que hay una caída en el tamaño de éstos. Hay tres clases de asentamientos: uno por encima de las 10 hectáreas, el segundo entre las 6 y 2 hectáreas y un último grupo de asentamientos pequeños por debajo de una hectárea.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 1995, 122)§REF§<br>Buritaca settlement hierarchy four levels: 8 ha, between 3 and 4 ha, between 1 and 3 ha, and below 1 ha; Oyuela-Caycedo also mentions the site of Buritaca 200 (Ciudad Perdida) at 20ha and Nulicuandecue at 13 ha. \"En contraste, el gráfico del alto Buritaca muestra una distribución convexa más cercana a la normal logarítmica (Figura 6). El asentamiento de mayor rango es Buritaca 200 con 20 hectáreas, seguido por Nulicuandecue con 13 hectáreas. En este caso, la distribución parece estar más cerca a la esperada en un sistema integrado. Igualmente, en contraste con Gaira, hay tendencia hacia la centralización, pero ésta no es fuerte como para estar formando una distribución cóncava. Considerando la cercanía de Buritaca 200 y Nulicuandecue (un día de camino), es probable que existiese algún tipo de competencia entre estos dos asentamientos. En cuanto a los tipos de asentamientos, una tipología de éstos basada de manera principal en atributos cualitativos fue previamente desarrollada. En comparación, se pueden definir cuatro clases de asentamientos: uno con asentamientos por encima de ocho hectáreas y compuesto por cuatro asentamientos que son los más monumentales; una suave caída en el gráfico separa otro grupo de asentamientos con tamaños entre cuatro y tres hectáreas, y un tercer grupo compuesto por pequeñas aldeas con tamaños entre una y tres hectáreas. El último está conformado por asentamientos con un tamaño por debajo de una hectárea y es el final del gráfico de rango-tamaño.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 1995, 124)§REF§<br>Oyuela-Caycedo's proposed classification (1986):<br>1. Primary regional centres, of which two are known, Pueblito and Ciudad Perdida. These are characterised by their central ceremonial-civic zone, and more than 150 residential terraces grouped in sectors<br>2. Secondary centres, which have a civic-ceremonial centre with megalithic structures (there are no sectors grouping or dividing the residential terraces)3. Villages that sometimes exhibit megalithic infrastructure in their central sector4. temporary habitation sites, without any megalithic structures, perhaps occasional fishing or salt exploitation camps<br>In the Classic Period [for Oyuela-Caycedo, after the 9th century] there are at least four types of settlement: temporary habitation sites, without any megalithic structures, perhaps occasional fishing or salt exploitation camps. Villages that sometimes present megalithic infrastructure in their central sector. The third type are the secondary centres, which have a civic-ceremonial centre with megalithic structures (there are no sectors in the residential terraces). The last type of settlement consists in primary regional centres, of which two are known, Pueblito and Ciudad Perdida. These are characterised by their central ceremonial-civic zone, and more than 150 residential terraces grouped in sectors. Given their strategic location, it is possible that their function was to distribute and exchange products within the region, as in the well-studied cases of Formative Mesoamerica. \"En el período clásico se distinguen por lo menos cuatro tipos de asentamientos como son: sitios de habitación temporal, sin ningún vestigio megalítico, tal vez campamentos ocasionales de pesca o de obtención de sal. Aldeas que en algunas ocasiones presentan infraestructura megalítica en el sector central. El tercer tipo son los centros secundarios de regular tamaño que presentan un sector central cívico ceremonial con estructuras megalíticas (no se observan sectorizaciones entre las terrazas de vivienda). El último tipo de asentamiento lo constituyen los centros primarios regionales, de los cuales se conocen dos, que son Pueblito y Ciudad Perdida. Estos se caracterizan por constar de una zona central de carácter cívico ceremonial y más de ciento cincuenta terrazas de vivienda agrupadas en sectores. Dada su situación estratégica, es probable que la función de esos asentamientos fuera la distribución y el intercambio de productos dentro de la región, de manera análoga a los bien estudiados casos de Mesoamérica durante el formativo.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 1986)§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Residential Hamlets<br>The Shuar lived in autonomous residential hamlets (these are sometimes referred to as 'Jivaras' by scholars): 'Each community is politically independent with its own headman. Each is also located four or more kilometers from their nearest neighboring community. The community is made up of patrilineally and affinally related individuals, traditionally consisting of from 80 to 300 people (30 to 40 people in the twentieth century), living in one house called a JIVARIA. For defensive purposes, this house is built on a steep hill usually at the upper end of a stream. The house itself is approximately 13 meters by 26 meters in size, elliptical in shape, and has a thatched roof. In times of war, two or more communities united to fight a common enemy, as was the case when the Spanish attempted to conquer them.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ The Jivaria housed the whole kin-based community: 'The Jívaro have a tropical-forest agriculture, growing cassava, corn (maize), sweet potatoes, and other crops supplemented by the gathering of wild fruits, fishing, and hunting. The blowgun and poisoned darts are their chief weapons. Related families live in a single large community house rather than in a village.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Jivaro\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Jivaro</a>§REF§ 'The houses are always very spacious since they have to serve more than one family. According to one of my informants, such a house is inhabited by up to 50 persons. As a rule it is the Curaca, as the chief, with his children and their wives and husbands. And since a Curaca may have up to ten wives, the great number of dwellers can be explained without difficulty. The aforementioned house of the Curaca Laichape had a width of 10 meters and a length of 15 meters. 20 - 30 persons lived in this house.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 52§REF§ 'It is the rule that a settlement consists of only one house. Two houses, as I had seen them, for instance, in S. Antonio, are rarely found together. The various houses form, however, larger or smaller groups, separated from each other by forest and yet connected with each other by narrow footpaths. One such group has a definite name.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 52§REF§ '“Jivaro houses, it might be noted, are never built closely together after the manner of a village, but widely separated in the jungle, with greater resultant personal freedom and less squabbling amongst neighbours. A wise precaution which we in our country might emulate to advantage.”' §REF§Dyott, George Miller 1926. “On The Trail Of The Unknown In The Wilds Of Ecuador And The Amazon”, 160§REF§ 'Generally, there are many families living in a single house, usually about 15 people united by close family ties. The building has the form of an elongated ellipse( ) (fig. 10). the long axis of which measures 15 to 25 meters. The framework is made in the following manner: two posts about 4 meters high, placed in the foci of the ellipse, support a longitudinal ridge-pole, four other posts measuring about 3 meters in height, located on the periphery at the angles of the [584] rectangle inscribed in this ellipse, support two transverse longitudinal timbers which outline this rectangle. All this framework is of chonta wood (Bactris Iriartea) and the joints are secured with the aid of lianas. The walls( ) are made of cane-stalks (Guadua angustifolia) placed close together; in addition to this they are reinforced on the inside to a height of 1 50 from the ground by planks of chonta or caña about 5 cm. wide, arranged in such a manner that their joints never coincide with the interstices of the exterior wall. This precaution is for the purpose of preventing an enemy thrusting his lance through the fissures and striking the Jíbaro in his bed, which, as well shall see, is backed up against the partition. The battens are made of caña stalks spaced o 50 apart and placed in diverging rays from the longitudinal beam to the peripheral beams; cross-beams placed at the same distance from each other complete the lattice work upon which the roof rests; the roof is formed of little bundles of straw called cambana or of leaves of a kind of Pandanus (cambaalga), skillfully imbricated from the edges toward the center.' §REF§Rivet, Paul 1907. “Jivaro Indians: Geographic, Historical And Ethnographic Research”, 583p§REF§ Autonomous hamlets were separated by no-man's lands: 'The redistribution of settlements and creation of no-man's lands between them has been a repeated consequence of escalated hostilities between or within Jivaroan subgroups. The fact that these buffer zones may not be reoccupied or exploited for several decades is important to the reestablishment of game densities in zones that may have experienced considerable hunting over long periods of time. The relationship between game depletion, armed conflict, and no-man's lands is explored below and in greater detail elsewhere (see Bennett Ross 1980:48,53).' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 93§REF§ 'The escalation of hostilities also may lead relatives to withdraw from home communities and unite at a single fortified settlement. However, attempts to construct separate dwellings and gardens require time and considerable effort, and the stress placed on the facilities and resources available to such communities provides an important impetus to reconcile the difficulties when possible.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 96§REF§ Hamlets were left behind and reestablished elsewhere periodically: 'The Indians are inhabitants of a region which extends along the upper course of the Marañón River, from Yusamaro downward to Puerto Meléndez at the Pongo de Manseriche. They live in this region in small and widely dispersed settlements close to the banks of the River. I have been informed that their chief settlements are located farther up along the tributary rivers. Beyond Yusamaro no Indians are said to remain anymore, yet formerly their settlements are said to have extended to the Pongo Rentema. They had moved down to the Marañón River on account of the quarrels they had with the whites or, rather, the mestizos. Their settlements can not be called permanent anyway. Despite the fact that the Indians live at one place for a long time, and in relatively permanent dwellings at that, they are said to leave their settlements frequently for no special reason in order to reestablish themselves again at some distance from the former settlement.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 46§REF§ During the early Ecuadorian period, there was apparently no significant migration of Shuar to colonial towns: 'By 1899, when the explorer Up de Graff ascended the Marañón, Barranca was considered the westernmost outpost of civilization on the river (1923:146). It had, nevertheless, withstood its own share of Indian attacks (Larrabure i Correa 1905/II:369; IX:357-367). Less than a year prior to Up de Graff's visit, Barranca was nearly devastated by a party of Huambisas who arrived from upriver ostensibly to trade, but then burned and looted most of the cauchero quarters (Up de Graff 1923:150).' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 91§REF§ 'By the turn of the century, when Ecuadorian missionaries had reunited some of the scattered refugees and reestablished their town on the Bobonaza River, there were at least a dozen caucheros exploiting rubber along western tributaries of the middle Pastaza such as the Huasaga (Fuentes 1908/I:194ff.), which was gradually being occupied by southward-moving Achuarä.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 89§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. SCCS variable 157 'Scale 9-Political Integration' is coded as ‘1’ or ‘None’.<br>(1) Residential Hamlets<br>The Shuar lived in autonomous residential hamlets (these are sometimes referred to as 'Jivaras' by scholars): 'Each community is politically independent with its own headman. Each is also located four or more kilometers from their nearest neighboring community. The community is made up of patrilineally and affinally related individuals, traditionally consisting of from 80 to 300 people (30 to 40 people in the twentieth century), living in one house called a JIVARIA. For defensive purposes, this house is built on a steep hill usually at the upper end of a stream. The house itself is approximately 13 meters by 26 meters in size, elliptical in shape, and has a thatched roof. In times of war, two or more communities united to fight a common enemy, as was the case when the Spanish attempted to conquer them.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ The Jivaria housed the whole kin-based community: 'The Jívaro have a tropical-forest agriculture, growing cassava, corn (maize), sweet potatoes, and other crops supplemented by the gathering of wild fruits, fishing, and hunting. The blowgun and poisoned darts are their chief weapons. Related families live in a single large community house rather than in a village.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Jivaro\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Jivaro</a>§REF§ 'The houses are always very spacious since they have to serve more than one family. According to one of my informants, such a house is inhabited by up to 50 persons. As a rule it is the Curaca, as the chief, with his children and their wives and husbands. And since a Curaca may have up to ten wives, the great number of dwellers can be explained without difficulty. The aforementioned house of the Curaca Laichape had a width of 10 meters and a length of 15 meters. 20 - 30 persons lived in this house.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 52§REF§ 'It is the rule that a settlement consists of only one house. Two houses, as I had seen them, for instance, in S. Antonio, are rarely found together. The various houses form, however, larger or smaller groups, separated from each other by forest and yet connected with each other by narrow footpaths. One such group has a definite name.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 52§REF§ '“Jivaro houses, it might be noted, are never built closely together after the manner of a village, but widely separated in the jungle, with greater resultant personal freedom and less squabbling amongst neighbours. A wise precaution which we in our country might emulate to advantage.”' §REF§Dyott, George Miller 1926. “On The Trail Of The Unknown In The Wilds Of Ecuador And The Amazon”, 160§REF§ 'Generally, there are many families living in a single house, usually about 15 people united by close family ties. The building has the form of an elongated ellipse( ) (fig. 10). the long axis of which measures 15 to 25 meters. The framework is made in the following manner: two posts about 4 meters high, placed in the foci of the ellipse, support a longitudinal ridge-pole, four other posts measuring about 3 meters in height, located on the periphery at the angles of the [584] rectangle inscribed in this ellipse, support two transverse longitudinal timbers which outline this rectangle. All this framework is of chonta wood (Bactris Iriartea) and the joints are secured with the aid of lianas. The walls( ) are made of cane-stalks (Guadua angustifolia) placed close together; in addition to this they are reinforced on the inside to a height of 1 50 from the ground by planks of chonta or caña about 5 cm. wide, arranged in such a manner that their joints never coincide with the interstices of the exterior wall. This precaution is for the purpose of preventing an enemy thrusting his lance through the fissures and striking the Jíbaro in his bed, which, as well shall see, is backed up against the partition. The battens are made of caña stalks spaced o 50 apart and placed in diverging rays from the longitudinal beam to the peripheral beams; cross-beams placed at the same distance from each other complete the lattice work upon which the roof rests; the roof is formed of little bundles of straw called cambana or of leaves of a kind of Pandanus (cambaalga), skillfully imbricated from the edges toward the center.' §REF§Rivet, Paul 1907. “Jivaro Indians: Geographic, Historical And Ethnographic Research”, 583p§REF§ Autonomous hamlets were separated by no-man's lands: 'The redistribution of settlements and creation of no-man's lands between them has been a repeated consequence of escalated hostilities between or within Jivaroan subgroups. The fact that these buffer zones may not be reoccupied or exploited for several decades is important to the reestablishment of game densities in zones that may have experienced considerable hunting over long periods of time. The relationship between game depletion, armed conflict, and no-man's lands is explored below and in greater detail elsewhere (see Bennett Ross 1980:48,53).' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 93§REF§ 'The escalation of hostilities also may lead relatives to withdraw from home communities and unite at a single fortified settlement. However, attempts to construct separate dwellings and gardens require time and considerable effort, and the stress placed on the facilities and resources available to such communities provides an important impetus to reconcile the difficulties when possible.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 96§REF§ Hamlets were left behind and reestablished elsewhere periodically: 'The Indians are inhabitants of a region which extends along the upper course of the Marañón River, from Yusamaro downward to Puerto Meléndez at the Pongo de Manseriche. They live in this region in small and widely dispersed settlements close to the banks of the River. I have been informed that their chief settlements are located farther up along the tributary rivers. Beyond Yusamaro no Indians are said to remain anymore, yet formerly their settlements are said to have extended to the Pongo Rentema. They had moved down to the Marañón River on account of the quarrels they had with the whites or, rather, the mestizos. Their settlements can not be called permanent anyway. Despite the fact that the Indians live at one place for a long time, and in relatively permanent dwellings at that, they are said to leave their settlements frequently for no special reason in order to reestablish themselves again at some distance from the former settlement.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 46§REF§ During the early Ecuadorian period, there was apparently no significant migration of Shuar to colonial towns: 'By 1899, when the explorer Up de Graff ascended the Marañón, Barranca was considered the westernmost outpost of civilization on the river (1923:146). It had, nevertheless, withstood its own share of Indian attacks (Larrabure i Correa 1905/II:369; IX:357-367). Less than a year prior to Up de Graff's visit, Barranca was nearly devastated by a party of Huambisas who arrived from upriver ostensibly to trade, but then burned and looted most of the cauchero quarters (Up de Graff 1923:150).' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 91§REF§ 'By the turn of the century, when Ecuadorian missionaries had reunited some of the scattered refugees and reestablished their town on the Bobonaza River, there were at least a dozen caucheros exploiting rubber along western tributaries of the middle Pastaza such as the Huasaga (Fuentes 1908/I:194ff.), which was gradually being occupied by southward-moving Achuarä.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 89§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "EWA:<br>1. Cairo 150K,<br>2. Alexandria 35-70k or Damascus 18-50k,3. Nomal/Provincial Capitals like Fayum City 10-20k,4. Villages 1-2k,5. Hamlets 0.1-0.2 (inferred)<br>Ref: Shatzmiller. for low estimates. Russell for the high estimates.<br>" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " The larger and more permanent settlements were probably close to the floodplain (Mahgar Dendera), but the possible remains of those would have been washed away by the Nile a long time ago already.§REF§Shaw, I. 2003. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press. Pg. 40.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "EWA: 4 Memphis, 3 regional centres like Hierakonpolies and Abidos, 2 minor centre like Aswan/Naga-el-Deir, 1 villages. ref. Bard 2014, 2nd edition.<br>EWA final: this variable for early dynastic to Hyksos should be 4 to 5. The reason is that we can infer the existince of hamlets at the bottom end of the scale. This should be implemented for all the intermediate polities.<br>1. Memphis<br>2. Regional centres (Hierakonpolis, Abydos)3. Minor centres (Aswan, Naga-el-Deir)4. Villages(5. Hamlets)" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "EWA: 4 Memphis, 3 regional centres like Hierakonpolies and Abidos, 2 minor centre like Aswan/Naga-el-Deir, 1 villages. ref. Bard 2014, 2nd edition.<br>1. Memphis<br>2. Regional centres like Hierakonpolis and Abydos3. Minor centres like Aswan and Naga-el-Deir4. Villages(5. Hamlets)<br>EWA final: this variable for early dynastic to Hyksos should be 4 to 5. The reason is that we can infer the existince of hamlets at the bottom end of the scale. This should be implemented for all the intermediate polities." }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>This is the code for the Saite Period:<br>1. Capital<br>2. City3. Town4. Village<br>Demographic estimates for Ancient Egypt §REF§(Mumford 2010, 331)§REF§:<br>Late Period to Ptolemaic-Roman: 1069 BC-AD 400<br>1. Largest towns. 85-170 ha. 25,000-50,000 inhabitants. 294 inhabitants per hectare.2. Medium towns. 25-65 ha. 7,500-25,000 inhabitants. 300-385 per hectare3. Small towns. 8-15 ha. 2,500-5,000 inhabitants. 312-333 per hectare.<br>\"During the Late Period, provincial centers display much diversity and prosperity. Mendes, a city sacred to the ram god Banebdjed, contains a series of massive temple enclosures, a ram hypogeum, an elaborate shrine dedicated to Shu, Geb, Osiris, and Re, shrines built by Nectanebo I-II, private and royal burials (e.g., Nepherites), and other structures (Hansen 1999: 497; Redford and Redford 2005: 170-94).\" §REF§(Mumford 2010, 334)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Luz, N. 2014. The Mamluk City in the Middle East: History, Culture, and the Urban Landscape. Cambridge University Press§REF§§REF§Rabbat, N. 2010. Mamluk History through Architecture: Monuments, Culture and Politics in Medieval Egypt and Syria. Bloomsbury Publishing, 20§REF§ Pollack mentions cities, small towns, villages, and farming hamlets that are turned into villages once they become too populous. §REF§(39-40) Pollak, N. The General Organization of the Mamluk State. In, Hatwig, G. (ed) 2012. Muslims, Mongols and Crusaders. Routledge Press.§REF§<br>1. Cairo, capital.<br>2. Provincial capitals (e.g. Damascus)<br>3. Dependent cities (e.g. Mecca and Medina)<br>4. Large townships.<br>5. Small towns.<br>6. Villages<br>7. (Hamlets?) Tribes.<br>" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Luz, N. 2014. The Mamluk City in the Middle East: History, Culture, and the Urban Landscape. Cambridge University Press§REF§<br>1. Cairo, capital.<br>2. Provincial capitals (e.g. Damascus)<br>3. Dependent cities (e.g. Mecca and Medina)<br>4. Large townships.<br>5. Small towns. §REF§Rabbat, N. 2010. Mamluk History through Architecture: Monuments, Culture and Politics in Medieval Egypt and Syria. Bloomsbury Publishing§REF§<br>6. Villages<br>7. Hamlets and Tribes.<br>" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Luz, N. 2014. The Mamluk City in the Middle East: History, Culture, and the Urban Landscape. Cambridge University Press§REF§§REF§Rabbat, N. 2010. Mamluk History through Architecture: Monuments, Culture and Politics in Medieval Egypt and Syria. Bloomsbury Publishing, 20§REF§ Pollack mentions cities, small towns, villages, and farming hamlets that are turned into villages once they become too populous. §REF§(39-40) Pollak, N. The General Organization of the Mamluk State. In, Hatwig, G. (ed) 2012. Muslims, Mongols and Crusaders. Routledge Press.§REF§<br>1. Cairo, capital.<br>2. Provincial capitals (e.g. Damascus)<br>3Dependent cities (e.g. Mecca and Medina)<br>4. Large townships.<br>5. Small towns.<br>6. Villages<br>7. Hamlets and Tribes.<br>" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "EWA: 4 Memphis, 3 regional centres like Hierakonpolies and Abidos, 2 minor centre like Aswan/Naga-el-Deir, 1 villages. ref. Bard 2014, 2nd edition.<br>1. Memphis<br>2. Regional centres like Hierakonpolis and Abydos3. Minor centres like Aswan and Naga-el-Deir4. Villages(5. Hamlets)<br>EWA final: this variable for early dynastic to Hyksos should be 4 to 5. The reason is that we can infer the existince of hamlets at the bottom end of the scale. This should be implemented for all the intermediate polities.<br>" }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": -3800, "year_to": -3651, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": "1: 4000-3650 BCE; 2: 3650-3000 BCE§REF§Bard, A. 1994. From farmers to pharaohs: mortuary evidence for the rise of complex society in Egypt. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pg: 135.§REF§<br>Naqada IA-B: Villages<br>Nagada IC-III: chiefdoms/proto-states centers. Villages<br>Naqada IC-IIB§REF§G. p. Gilbert: 2004. Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt. Archaeopress: Oxford. pg: 108.§REF§ Hoffman thought that in most of villages less than 75 people lived. In centers there were much more§REF§<i>Ciałowicz, M.A. 1999. Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa-Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.</i>pg:156.§REF§<br>over 13,000<br>\"The Predynastic towns were probably not major centers of population and their function must have been primarily symbolic of a new order of life and a center of sacred shrine and deities. There were probably no more than a few towns and perhaps only two important ones in all of Upper Egypt - South Town and Hierakonpolis (Kemp, 1977).\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 162)§REF§<br>Naqada IC-IIB§REF§G. p. Gilbert: 2004. Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt. Archaeopress: Oxford. pg: 108.§REF§ Hoffman thought that in most of villages less than 75 people lived. In centers there were much more§REF§<i>Ciałowicz, M.A. 1999. Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa-Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.</i>pg:156.§REF§<br>over 13,000<br>Naqadian Egypt is a quasi-polity, or rather a collection of quasi polities. During the majority of Naqada I there were single villages, which might have formed temporary alliances with other villages, but in fact were politically independent. Most of these villages consisted of 50 to 200 habitants. However it is possible that some of these alliances grew up to the bigger towns consisted 1,000 or 2,000 people.<br>It is during Naqada IC that these towns and villages started to unite and polities began to form. Now instead of scattered villages, there are a few chiefdoms with the town-centres, called sometimes pre-states and later, as the unification and polity development proceed, proto-states. So the rapidly changes in the polity population coded above is not only an effect of growing population but also or even first of all the result of development of the chiefdoms size.<br>The exact time and the spreed of unification is not known so scholars can only show the level of changes in some distinguishing point. And this is exactly what G. P. Gilbert did." }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": -3650, "year_to": -3551, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "1: 4000-3650 BCE; 2: 3650-3000 BCE§REF§Bard, A. 1994. From farmers to pharaohs: mortuary evidence for the rise of complex society in Egypt. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pg: 135.§REF§<br>Naqada IA-B: Villages<br>Nagada IC-III: chiefdoms/proto-states centers. Villages<br>Naqada IC-IIB§REF§G. p. Gilbert: 2004. Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt. Archaeopress: Oxford. pg: 108.§REF§ Hoffman thought that in most of villages less than 75 people lived. In centers there were much more§REF§<i>Ciałowicz, M.A. 1999. Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa-Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.</i>pg:156.§REF§<br>over 13,000<br>\"The Predynastic towns were probably not major centers of population and their function must have been primarily symbolic of a new order of life and a center of sacred shrine and deities. There were probably no more than a few towns and perhaps only two important ones in all of Upper Egypt - South Town and Hierakonpolis (Kemp, 1977).\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 162)§REF§<br>Naqada IC-IIB§REF§G. p. Gilbert: 2004. Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt. Archaeopress: Oxford. pg: 108.§REF§ Hoffman thought that in most of villages less than 75 people lived. In centers there were much more§REF§<i>Ciałowicz, M.A. 1999. Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa-Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.</i>pg:156.§REF§<br>over 13,000<br>Naqadian Egypt is a quasi-polity, or rather a collection of quasi polities. During the majority of Naqada I there were single villages, which might have formed temporary alliances with other villages, but in fact were politically independent. Most of these villages consisted of 50 to 200 habitants. However it is possible that some of these alliances grew up to the bigger towns consisted 1,000 or 2,000 people.<br>It is during Naqada IC that these towns and villages started to unite and polities began to form. Now instead of scattered villages, there are a few chiefdoms with the town-centres, called sometimes pre-states and later, as the unification and polity development proceed, proto-states. So the rapidly changes in the polity population coded above is not only an effect of growing population but also or even first of all the result of development of the chiefdoms size.<br>The exact time and the spreed of unification is not known so scholars can only show the level of changes in some distinguishing point. And this is exactly what G. P. Gilbert did." }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Bard, A. 1994. From farmers to pharaohs: mortuary evidence for the rise of complex society in Egypt. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pg: 135.§REF§<br>1. Large centres (Hierakonpolis, Naqada, Abydos...)<br>2. Minor centres (e.g. Adaima)<br>3. Villages (inferred)Gerzean: \"The hierarchy of chiefs amounted in essence to a hierarchical management system. Village chiefs were \"clients\" of a district chief, who in turn was a client to a regional chief. Clients owed loyalty to their superior chief (Mair, 1967).\"<br>\"The Predynastic towns were probably not major centers of population and their function must have been primarily symbolic of a new order of life and a center of sacred shrine and deities. There were probably no more than a few towns and perhaps only two important ones in all of Upper Egypt - South Town and Hierakonpolis (Kemp, 1977).\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 162)§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Bard, A. 1994. From farmers to pharaohs: mortuary evidence for the rise of complex society in Egypt. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pg: 135.§REF§<br>1. Large centres (Hierakonpolis, Naqada, Abydos...)<br>2. Minor centres (e.g. Adaima)<br>3. Villages (inferred)Gerzean: \"The hierarchy of chiefs amounted in essence to a hierarchical management system. Village chiefs were \"clients\" of a district chief, who in turn was a client to a regional chief. Clients owed loyalty to their superior chief (Mair, 1967).\"§REF§(Hassan 1988, 172)§REF§<br>\"The Predynastic towns were probably not major centers of population and their function must have been primarily symbolic of a new order of life and a center of sacred shrine and deities. There were probably no more than a few towns and perhaps only two important ones in all of Upper Egypt - South Town and Hierakonpolis (Kemp, 1977).\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 162)§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "EWA: example of vassal capital: Byblos. District capital and vassal capital is the same but district capital is within Egypt and vassal capital is for outside. There is strong inferred evidence for the level of hamlets.<br>1. Capital<br>2. Vassal capital or Regional Centre §REF§(Baines, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§(3. Towns)(4. Villages)(5. Hamlets)<br>\"There was a distinct heirarchy of settlements. The cities were Memphis, Thebes and (later) Pi-Ramesse. Elsewhere, in any given region, the provincial capital was usually the most important administratively and probably the largest in population. It was surrounded by a zone of fairly large and densely concentrated villages (interspersed by rare towns intermediate in administrative function (and size?) between the villages and the capital. Unfortunately, it is impossible to equate this hierarchy with any certainty to Egyptian nomenclature; 'cities', 'towns' and 'villages' (respectively niwt, dmi and whyt) were distinguished from each other, but the terms appear to be used with great looseness. Slightly less ambiguous are smaller units, such as 'nobleman's estate' (bhm) and 'house (hamlet? of X' ('tnx).\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 211-213) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>" } ] }