Settlement Hierarchy List
A viewset for viewing and editing Settlement Hierarchies.
GET /api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 563, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "EWA: example of vassal capital: Byblos. District capital and vassal capital is the same but district capital is within Egypt and vassal capital is for outside. There is strong inferred evidence for the level of hamlets.<br>1. Memphis, Thebes, Pi-Ramesses<br>2. Provincial Capital or Regional Centre §REF§(Baines, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§3. Town (rare)4. Village5. Hamlet<br>\"There was a distinct heirarchy of settlements. The cities were Memphis, Thebes and (later) Pi-Ramesse. Elsewhere, in any given region, the provincial capital was usually the most important administratively and probably the largest in population. It was surrounded by a zone of fairly large and densely concentrated villages (interspersed by rare towns intermediate in administrative function (and size?) between the villages and the capital. Unfortunately, it is impossible to equate this hierarchy with any certainty to Egyptian nomenclature; 'cities', 'towns' and 'villages' (respectively niwt, dmi and whyt) were distinguished from each other, but the terms appear to be used with great looseness. Slightly less ambiguous are smaller units, such as 'nobleman's estate' (bhm) and 'house (hamlet? of X' ('tnx).\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 211-213) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "EWA: 4 Memphis, 3 regional centres like Hierakonpolies and Abidos, 2 minor centre like Aswan/Naga-el-Deir, 1 villages. ref. Bard 2014, 2nd edition.<br>1. Memphis<br>2. Regional centres like Hierakonpolis and Abydos3. Minor centres like Aswan and Naga-el-Deir4. Villages(5. Hamlets)<br>EWA final: this variable for early dynastic to Hyksos should be 4 to 5. The reason is that we can infer the existince of hamlets at the bottom end of the scale. This should be implemented for all the intermediate polities.<br>" }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "EWA: 4 Memphis, 3 regional centres like Hierakonpolies and Abidos, 2 minor centre like Aswan/Naga-el-Deir, 1 villages. ref. Bard 2014, 2nd edition.<br>1. Memphis<br>2. Regional centres like Hierakonpolis and Abydos3. Minor centres like Aswan and Naga-el-Deir4. Villages(5. Hamlets)<br>EWA final: this variable for early dynastic to Hyksos should be 4 to 5. The reason is that we can infer the existince of hamlets at the bottom end of the scale. This should be implemented for all the intermediate polities.<br>" }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " Reference: Hassan.<br>The rough hierarchy is as follows:<br>1. Alexandria 300-400K<br>2. Memphis and Ptolemais 100K<br>3. nome captials (e.g. Thebes, Mendes, Krokodilopolis) 30-40K ref for Thebes: Vleeming. Hundred-gated Thebes. 1995.<br>4. towns 5-10K<br>5. villages 1-2K<br>6. hamlets/scattered settlements 0.1 to 0.2K.<br>EWA: ref. W. Clarysse. an article 1994<br>Memphis<br>D J Thompson has hectare data<br>Alexandria<br>New Archaeology may have hectare data<br>" }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " Reference: Hassan.<br>The rough hierarchy is as follows:<br>1. Alexandria 300-400K<br>2. Memphis and Ptolemais 100K<br>3. nome captials (e.g. Thebes, Mendes, Krokodilopolis) 30-40K ref for Thebes: Vleeming. Hundred-gated Thebes. 1995.<br>4. towns 5-10K<br>5. villages 1-2K<br>6. hamlets/scattered settlements 0.1 to 0.2K.<br>EWA: ref. W. Clarysse. an article 1994<br>Memphis<br>D J Thompson has hectare dat<br>Alexandria<br>New Archaeology may have hectare data<br>" }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. (1) Memphis (capital); (2) Regional centres (e.g. Abydos, Hierakonpolis); (3) Minor centres (e.g. Aswan, Naga-el-deir); (4) Villages; (5) Hamlets (inferred)§REF§(EWA 2014: pers. comm.)§REF§" }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. At most: (1) Capital; (2) Regional centres; (3) Minor centres; (4) Villages; (5) Hamlets. Inferred from previous periods.<br>1. Capital Memphis.<br>Palace<br>2. City eg. Mendes. \"During the Late Period, provincial centers display much diversity and prosperity. Mendes, a city sacred to the ram god Banebdjed, contains a series of massive temple enclosures, a ram hypogeum, an elaborate shrine dedicated to Shu, Geb, Osiris, and Re, shrines built by Nectanebo I-II, private and royal burials (e.g., Nepherites), and other structures (Hansen 1999: 497; Redford and Redford 2005: 170-94). Explor- ation outside the temple precincts at Mendes suggests the residential area lay to the east and south, with a harbor to the east (Redford 2005: 8). In addition, geophysical surveys have been used at Buto and Tell el-Balamun to reveal much of the Saite settlement (Herbich and Hartung 2004: 16; Herbich and Spencer 2006: 17).\" §REF§(Mumford 2010, 334-335)§REF§Temple<br>3. TownGovernment administrative building<br>4. Village<br>\"Thebes had a special status, at least for a part of the Saite period.\" §REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "EWA: 4 Memphis, 3 regional centres like Hierakonpolies and Abidos, 2 minor centre like Aswan/Naga-el-Deir, 1 villages. ref. Bard 2014, 2nd edition.<br>1. Memphis<br>2. Regional centres like Hierakonpolis and Abydos3. Minor centres like Aswan and Naga-el-Deir4. Villages(5. Hamlets)<br>EWA final: this variable for early dynastic to Hyksos should be 4 to 5. The reason is that we can infer the existince of hamlets at the bottom end of the scale. This should be implemented for all the intermediate polities.<br>" }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. AD: uncoded, so replaced by a code.<br>1. Memphis, capital.<br>2. Town3. Village(4. Hamlet)<br>" }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Six levels under later Fatimids and earlier Abbasids.<br>" }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 7, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Spain:<br>1. Capital (Madrid): Permanent court established in the 1560s by Philip II. §REF§(Alves, Abel. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.§REF§<br>1. Unofficial Capital: Before the 1560s: \"The capital was where the monarch, the embodiment of the body politic, was to be found… often Toledo and other leading cities.\"§REF§(Alves, Abel. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.§REF§2. Kingdoms/Provinces: Castile, Aragon, Valencia, León, Andalusia, Granada, Catalonia, Murica, Navarre §REF§(Sommerville, Johan. “Spain in the Seventeenth Century.” <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/spain.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/spain.htm</a> <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KQS9J33T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KQS9J33T</a>)§REF§3. Regional Capitals: Barcelona, Seville, Zaragoza, Pamplona §REF§Sommerville, Johan. “Spain in the Seventeenth Century.” <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/spain.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/spain.htm</a> <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KQS9J33T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KQS9J33T</a>§REF§4. Cities: Toledo5. Towns6. Villages7. Rural Settlements<br>Colonial Outposts<ul><li>Spanish East Indies: Philippines</li><li>Viceroyalty of New Spain</li><li>Viceroyalty of Peru</li><li>North African Towns and Outposts</li><li>Canary Islands</li></ul>Viceroyalty of Peru §REF§(Kamen 2002, 24) Kamen, Henry. 2002. <i>Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763.</i> London: Penguin Books. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ</a>§REF§<br>1. Audiencia Capitals. Examples: Bogota, Lima, Panama, Quito2. Major Provincial Cities. Examples: Cusco, Cartagena, Arequipa, Guayaquil,3. Missions<br>3. Presidios<br>3. Town4. Village (inferred)5. Rural Settlement (inferred)<br>Colonies Under the Iberian Union (1580-1640)<ul><li>Brazil (Porto Seguro)</li><li>Azores</li><li>Ceuta</li><li>Madeira</li><li>Cape Verde</li><li>Angola</li><li>Mozambique</li><li>Ormuz (1515-1622)</li><li>Muscat (1508-1650)</li><li>Diu</li><li>Bombay</li><li>Goa</li><li>Calcut</li><li>Cochin</li><li>Colombo</li><li>Macau</li><li>Malacca (1511-1641)</li><li>Nagasaki (trading post until 1638)</li><li>Ternate (1522-1622)</li><li>East Timor</li><li>Mina (until 1637)</li><li>Mombasa</li><li>Guinea</li></ul><br>" }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital - city<br>2. TownsMany specialist workers \"must have been urban dwellers, living in towns and cities that apparently did not need protection by surrounding walls ...\"§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"Intermediate-sized houses excavated at Matara would indicate that there were also people who belonged to neither the elite nor the peasantry, at least in Aksumite times.\"§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Adulis known before the city of Aksum.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 381) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>3. VillagesFirst century CE. \"Where there used to be only villages, small towns and cities are now developing.\"§REF§(Anfray 1981, 376) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>4. HamletsTowns, villages and isolated hamlets.§REF§(Fattovich 2017, 94) Rodolfo Fattovich. Aksumite culture. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing.§REF§ \"In central Tegray the ancient landscape was characterized by a clearly-cut hierarchy in size of the settlements, ranging from the city of Aksum, over 100ha in size, to small compounds less than 1ha in area, and included large and small villages, elite residences, residential compounds, farming hamlets and workshops. Large settlements, ranging from 7ha to over 11ha in area, were located mainly at the base or sometimes on the top of the hills. Isolated elite palaces were often scattered in the open plain. Villages, hamlets and compounds were located on the top or along the slopes of the hills.\"§REF§(Fattovich 2017, 96) Rodolfo Fattovich. Aksumite culture. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Lineage Dwellings or Hamlets<br>Extended family households traditionally served as the primary residential units: 'The domestic unit was an extended family, based on the women of a lineage or sublineage. It consisted of at least one experienced older woman and two more younger women of childbearing age together with their husbands. Unmarried sons and brothers slept apart in their lineage's meeting house. Extended family households continued through the periods of foreign administration.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§ 'These impressive sites, however, do not reflect the experience of the average Micronesian. Most lived in dispersed extended-family homesteads. On atolls, the inhabitants generally preferred the lagoon side of the larger islands for ease in launching canoes and for protection from cyclones. On the high islands, people also wanted access to lagoons, although easily defensible sites were sometimes preferred, such as the tops of steep cleared slopes.' §REF§(Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE</a>.§REF§ 'In aboriginal times there used to be associated with most lineages a dwelling house, jimw. This house varied in size depending on the number of its inhabitants. Since married men normally went to live in the jimw of their wives’ lineages, the occupants of an jimw were the women of a lineage and their husbands. The only males of the lineage who resided there were boys below puberty. A large jimw was usually partitioned off into sleeping compartments along its side walls under the eaves, one for each married woman and her husband with their small children, and a separate one for the unmarried girls past puberty. The house had a sand floor spread over with coconut fronds. Its occupants slept and sat on mats plaited from pandanus leaves. The central part of the house formed a sort of living room in which minor cooking was done over an open fire, ordinary meals were taken, and where the members of the household whiled away the time before going to bed.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 67§REF§ 'Not all houses were of this type, for some were much smaller, without partitions, and were occupied by only one or two couples. Such houses were used when a lineage had only a few women, or when a man brought his wife to live on his own land instead of going to live in her lineage household. In the latter case it was customary to build a separate house for the man and wife, since it is normally taboo for a man to sleep in the same house with his sisters. A small house might also be built alongside the main one if the latter became too crowded.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 67§REF§ The settlement pattern became more concentrated in the colonial period, with households merging into villages: 'Chuuk was divided into small districts, each consisting of a small island or a wedge-shaped segment of a larger one. Not clustered into villages, households were scattered on rising land back from the shore. With population growth many of the once looser neighborhoods have become more densely settled villages. Land holdings were scattered.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§ 'The old, large lineage house is in little use today. The Trukese now live in smaller houses of the old type or in new-style houses, raised on posts and built of planks with corrugated iron roofs. These smaller houses are still occupied by the women of a lineage, either singly or in pairs, and are clustered together either by lineage or by descent line. [Page 68] Thus the old pattern of organization is still maintained even though the physical arrangement has been somewhat modified.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 67p§REF§ Land was held by individuals as well as lineages: 'Land was held privately both by individuals and matrilineal, corporate descent groups. Rights in undeveloped space, productive soil, trees and gardens were separable. When soil and breadfruit trees were given in grant, the grantor retained residual rights and the grantee acquired provisional rights. Grantors and grantees could be either individuals or corporations. Full rights went to the survivor on the death or extinction of the other.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. SCCS variable 157 'Scale 9-Political Integration' is coded as ‘2’ or 'Autonomous local communities'. According to Ethnographic Atlas variable 31 'Mean Size of Local Communities', the Trukese possess groups of '3' or '100-199', smaller than 200-399, 400-1000, any town of more than 5,000, Towns of 5,000-50,000 (one or more), and Cities of more than 50,000 (one or more).<br>1. Colonial Posts and Towns<br>2. Villages and Hamlets<br>" }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 448, "name": "fr_atlantic_complex", "long_name": "Atlantic Complex", "start_year": -2200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"Towns began to appear in the late first millennium over much of Europe, with considerable populations and large-scale industrial activity.\" §REF§(McIntosh 2006, 155)§REF§ From this we can infer that most settlements before the 1st millennium BCE were villages or hamlets. \"Settlements varied between two primary forms in the Earlier Bronze Age. One was a simple hamlet of several small, square structures, probably housing one or more extended family groups. The other was a fortified town, usually built on an easily defended prominence and surrounded by a series of walls and ditches.\" §REF§(Peregrine 2001, 412-413)§REF§" }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "fr_beaker_eba", "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"Towns began to appear in the late first millennium over much of Europe, with considerable populations and large-scale industrial activity.\" §REF§(McIntosh 2006, 155)§REF§ From this we can infer that most settlements before the 1st millennium BCE were villages or hamlets.\"The fortified settlements had a hierarchical system of population with an area of influence more or less extensive.\" §REF§(Clop Garcia 2001, 25)§REF§" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital city<br>2. Provincial city3?. ColoniesQuebec, Antilles, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Dominica. §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 65)§REF§<br>3. Large town4. Town - Prévôt5. Village6. HamletUrbanization: 14% 1600 CE. §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 306)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 154, 244, 281)§REF§<br>1. Capital city<br>Paris > 400,000 c1700 CE §REF§(Briggs 1998, 53)§REF§<br>2. Provincial cityLyon 100,000 c1700 CE §REF§(Briggs 1998, 53)§REF§<br>Provincial centres < 60,000 §REF§(Briggs 1998, 53)§REF§<br>3. Large town - municipal government4. Town - parish government?5. Village6. HamletUrbanization: 14% 1600 CE. §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 306)§REF§<br>Colonial outposts<br>Pondicherry - Indian colonies lost 1755 CE (?)<br>Reunion<br>Antilles<br>CaribbeanMartinique 20,761: 1702 CE; 36,229: 1715 CE<br>Santo Domingo: 6,688: 1673 CE; 38,651: 1722 CE<br>Canada and North America - abandoned 1763 CEInhabitants of French origin: 2,500: 1660 CE; 7,850: 1675 CE; 20,000: 1700 CE.<br>" }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. City<br>Paris 25,000? 1200 CE §REF§(Percy Jr 1995)§REF§<br>2. Town\"no town surpassed 10,000 inhabitants between the 8th century and the year 1000.\"§REF§(Percy Jr 1995, 1739-1740 CE)§REF§<br>Avignon about 1300 CE population 5,000-6,000 §REF§(Spufford 2006, 169)§REF§<br>Provins over 10,000 population 1200-1300 CE §REF§(Kibler and Clark 1995, 1446)§REF§<br>3. Small town<br>4. Hamlet90% population lived in rural settlements§REF§(Percy Jr 1995)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital city<br>Paris may have grown from about 25,000 in 1200 to 210,000 in 1328 CE. §REF§(Percy Jr 1995)§REF§<br>Regional City or colonial city (Kingdom of Navarre c.1200 CE)<br>2. Capital of a principalityFrance c1300 CE 12 cities 20,000-50,000 population§REF§(Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 118)§REF§<br>Marseille, Montpellier, Lyon, and Bordeaux about<br>30,000.§REF§(Percy Jr 1995)§REF§<br>3. Large Town - with district administrative buildingsFrance c1300 CE 20 cities 10,000-20,000 population§REF§(Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 118)§REF§<br>Avignon about 1300 CE population 5,000-6,000 §REF§(Spufford 2006, 169)§REF§ ballooned to 40,000 ten years after arrival of Pope§REF§(Spufford 2006, 84)§REF§ - 1319 CE.Provins over 10,000 population 1200-1300 CE §REF§(Kibler and Clark 1995, 1446)§REF§<br>4. Small town<br>5. Hamlet90% population lived in rural settlements§REF§(Percy Jr 1995)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "1. Large town<br>\"no town surpassed 10,000 inhabitants between the 8th century and the year 1000.\"§REF§(Percy Jr 1995, 1739-1740 CE)§REF§<br>2. Small town<br>3. Hamlet90% population lived in rural settlements§REF§(Percy Jr 1995)§REF§<br>All urban settlements had very low population levels." }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Large town<br>\"no town surpassed 10,000 inhabitants between the 8th century and the year 1000.\"§REF§(Percy Jr 1995, 1739-1740 CE)§REF§<br>2. Small town<br>3. Hamlet90% population lived in rural settlements§REF§(Percy Jr 1995)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Village<br><br>2. Farmstead<br><br>2500-800 BCE (European Bronze Age)<br>\"centralization of power but only at a restricted scale and in three forms (Brun and Pion 1992): 1. A cluster of dispersed farms gravitate around a monument, a sort of tomb-sanctuary, which symbolizes the unity of the territorial community. This community is ruled by a chief who occupies one of the farms. 2. A cluster of farmsteads polarized by a village, near which is found the territorial sanctuary. ... 3. Identical in organization to #2, but the central role of the village is held by a fortification. It appears that this type of settlement owes its existence to the control it exerted over long-distance exchange, especially over exchange in metal.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Fortified center<br>Includes cemeteries of tumuli and is \"the seat of the local aristocracy.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§<br>2. Village<br><br>3. Farmstead<br><br>Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)<br>\"the settlement pattern changes markedly. There is a great increase in the number of fortified sites. Small cemeteries of tumuli appear, often close to the fortifications. Typologies of ceramic and metal objects indicate the fragmentation of previous cultural units. Bronze hoards become more numerous - they are larger and their composition is more varied. Iron working becomes widespread. Rare earlier, iron objects increase rapidly in number during the ninth and eighth centuries BC. ... A small fortification, the seat of the local aristocracy, polarizes each politically autonomous territory.\"§REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§<br>2500-800 BCE (European Bronze Age)<br>\"centralization of power but only at a restricted scale and in three forms (Brun and Pion 1992): 1. A cluster of dispersed farms gravitate around a monument, a sort of tomb-sanctuary, which symbolizes the unity of the territorial community. This community is ruled by a chief who occupies one of the farms. 2. A cluster of farmsteads polarized by a village, near which is found the territorial sanctuary. ... 3. Identical in organization to #2, but the central role of the village is held by a fortification. It appears that this type of settlement owes its existence to the control it exerted over long-distance exchange, especially over exchange in metal.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Fortified center<br>Includes cemeteries of tumuli and is \"the seat of the local aristocracy.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§<br>2. Village<br>3. Farmstead<br>Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)<br>\"the settlement pattern changes markedly. There is a great increase in the number of fortified sites. Small cemeteries of tumuli appear, often close to the fortifications. Typologies of ceramic and metal objects indicate the fragmentation of previous cultural units. Bronze hoards become more numerous - they are larger and their composition is more varied. Iron working becomes widespread. Rare earlier, iron objects increase rapidly in number during the ninth and eighth centuries BC. ... A small fortification, the seat of the local aristocracy, polarizes each politically autonomous territory.\"§REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"The period between 600 and 500 BC in west central Europe was characterized by rapid, regionally specific changes in social organization which are documented directly in the burial record and indirectly in the settlement evidence ... The increase in social complexity does not seem to have survived the late Hallstatt/early La Tene transition, although the late La Tene Viereckschanzen and relatively rapid appearance of many Late Lat Tene oppida from a dispersed settlement base (Murray forthcoming) indicate that continuity was maintained throughout this time.\"§REF§(Arnold 1995, 51)§REF§<br>relationship between small dispersed settlements and hilltop settlements unclear §REF§(Arnold 1995, 52)§REF§" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. City<br>2. Town3. Village or Gemarkungen settlement4. Hamlet or Farmstead<br>Possible settlement levels §REF§(Damminger in Wood ed. 1998, 61-69)§REF§<br>Estimated size of farmstead populations: 10-25 people.<br>Village<br>Gemarkungen settlement (idealised as 6km2 hexagon, 300-360 people - Lower Rhine area)<br>Towns<br>Cities<br>Clovis victorious over Alamans c506 CE. Region retained own identity and law code. Dux/duces. §REF§(Wood 1994, 161)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 456, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_3", "long_name": "Proto-Carolingian", "start_year": 687, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. City<br>2. Town3. Village or Gemarkungen settlement4. Hamlet or Farmstead<br>Possible settlement levels §REF§(Damminger in Wood ed. 1998, 61-69)§REF§<br>Estimated size of farmstead populations: 10-25 people.<br>Village<br>Gemarkungen settlement (idealised as 6km2 hexagon, 300-360 people - Lower Rhine area)<br>Towns<br>Cities" }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. City<br>2. Town3. Village or Gemarkungen settlement4. Hamlet or Farmstead<br>Possible settlement levels §REF§(Damminger in Wood ed. 1998, 61-69)§REF§<br>Estimated size of farmstead populations: 10-25 people.<br>Village<br>Gemarkungen settlement (idealised as 6km2 hexagon, 300-360 people - Lower Rhine area)<br>Towns<br>Cities<br>Chlother II created sub-kingdom for Dagobert I in 623 CE. This established division between west (Neustria and Burgundy) and East (Austrasia - Dagobert I). §REF§(Wood 1994, 140)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Town (possibly becoming fortified later in time period)<br>Early Iron Age settlements had large towns §REF§(Wells 1999, 45-47)§REF§ which then collapsed 450 - 400 BCE<br>\"Small fortified cities became common in the fourth and third centuries BC.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 16)§REF§<br>\"All oppida are characterized by household units composed of individual houses plus ancillary structures (granary, cellar, pit) centered around a palisaded courtyard. This household cluster evokes, in reduced form, contemporary farms. Thus, the traditional architectural organization was still the structural basis of the later settlements.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 18)§REF§<br>2. Hamlets and villages<br>Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50. §REF§(Wells 1999, 45-47)§REF§<br>3. Farmstead<br>\"Agricultural complexes inhabited by single extended families (up to perhaps fifteen people)\"§REF§(Wells 1999, 57)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Implied degree of urbanisation by the mid-3rd century (actual fortification occurred later?)<br>Urban aristocrats formed and maintained a standing cavalry corps. Cavalry replaced war-chariots by 250 BCE.§REF§(Kruta 2004, 110)§REF§<br>\"the first indigenous coins in temperate Europe were minted during the third century B.C.\"§REF§(Wells 1999, 54)§REF§<br>\"Small fortified cities became common in the fourth and third centuries BC.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 16)§REF§<br>\"All oppida are characterized by household units composed of individual houses plus ancillary structures (granary, cellar, pit) centered around a palisaded courtyard. This household cluster evokes, in reduced form, contemporary farms. Thus, the traditional architectural organization was still the structural basis of the later settlements.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 18)§REF§<br>2. HillfortSW France, Champagne §REF§(Collis 2003, 145)§REF§<br>or<br>2. TownSeveral hundred inhabitants. §REF§(Wells 1999, 57)§REF§<br>3. Hamlets and villagesVast majority of population in temperate Europe. 20-100 people §REF§(Wells 1999, 57)§REF§<br>Hamlets < 50 population §REF§(Wells 1999, 45)§REF§<br>4. Farmstead\"Agricultural complexes inhabited by single extended families (up to perhaps fifteen people)\"§REF§(Wells 1999, 57)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Oppida fortified urban settlement<br>from 150 BCE §REF§(Wells 1999, 49-54)§REF§<br>Made use of strategic locations: communication routes; market places; staging posts; valley entrances; on hills; spurs; plateaus. On plains defences were entirely man-made. §REF§(Kruta 2004, 102)§REF§<br>\"Small fortified cities became common in the fourth and third centuries BC.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 16)§REF§<br>2. HillfortSW France, Champagne §REF§(Collis 2003, 145)§REF§<br>or<br>2. TownSeveral hundred inhabitants. §REF§(Wells 1999, 57)§REF§<br>3. Hamlets and villagesVast majority of population in temperate Europe. 20-100 people §REF§(Wells 1999, 57)§REF§<br>Hamlets < 50 population §REF§(Wells 1999, 45)§REF§<br>4. Farmstead\"Agricultural complexes inhabited by single extended families (up to perhaps fifteen people)\"§REF§(Wells 1999, 57)§REF§" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "fr_valois_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital city<br>Paris may have grown from about 25,000 in 1200 to 210,000 in 1328 CE. §REF§(Percy Jr 1995)§REF§<br>Regional City or colonial city (Kingdom of Navarre c.1200 CE)<br>2. Capital of a principalityFrance c1300 CE 12 cities 20,000-50,000 population§REF§(Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 118)§REF§<br>Marseille, Montpellier, Lyon, and Bordeaux about 30,000.§REF§(Percy Jr 1995)§REF§<br>3. Large Town - with district administrative buildingsFrance c1300 CE 20 cities 10,000-20,000 population§REF§(Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 118)§REF§<br>Avignon about 1300 CE population 5,000-6,000 §REF§(Spufford 2006, 169)§REF§ ballooned to 40,000 ten years after arrival of Pope§REF§(Spufford 2006, 84)§REF§ - 1319 CE.<br>Provins over 10,000 population 1200-1300 CE §REF§(Kibler and Clark 1995, 1446)§REF§<br>4. Small town<br>5. Hamlet90% population lived in rural settlements§REF§(Percy Jr 1995)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Capital city<br>Paris<br>2. Provincial capitalLyon? Rouen?<br>3. Bailliage or Sénéchiaussée townfew cities topped 30,000. §REF§(Potter 2008, 187)§REF§<br>4. Town associated with castle of a Prévôt10,000 was a substantial town. §REF§(Potter 2008, 187)§REF§<br>5. Village<br>6. Hamlet<br>" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "long_name": "British Empire I", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849 }, "year_from": 1780, "year_to": 1849, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Capital (London)<br>2. Large Cities (ie. Delhi)<br>3. Cities<br>4. Large Towns<br>5. Towns<br>6. Villages<br>7. Hamlets<br>\"England, it is to be observed from a civil point of view, is divided int counties or shires, hundreds, or as they are termed in some of the northern counties, wapentakes...cities, tithings, towns or vills, (the last three of which, in a legal sense are synonymous, boroughs, and parishes.\"§REF§(McCulloch 2011 [1837]: 263. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BCM2JGGW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BCM2JGGW</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Towns housing rulers (Omanhene); (2) Villages integrated into the recognized regional power hierarchies, comprising multiple family farms; (3) residential Hamlets and other non-permanent micro-settlements<br>Most authors recognize both towns and villages, the latter growing out of small micro-settlements founded by family groups: 'It is interesting to think that these small nations of the Gold Coast, each consisting of a few towns and villages with a bare handful of population, have been so highly successful in maintaining this well-developed form of self-government. The Akan nations, with all the disadvantages of lack of transferring thought by any means other than speech, and in the absence of any proper medium of communication, have been able to march abreast of the times, adhering to their ancient, but by no means archaic, form of self-government.' §REF§Danquah, J. B. (Joseph Boakye) 1928. “Gold Coast: Akan Laws And Customs And The Akim Abuakwa Constitution”, 16§REF§ 'Most of the towns scattered over the whole of Guinea have grown from villages originally founded and occupied by single family groups. As each family gets larger and the households increase in number, the village community grows, and its general affairs are guided and controlled by the patriarch of the family, who, now headman of the [Page 4] village, is assisted by a council composed of the eldest members of each family group or household, and other fit and proper persons, who are generally old men.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 3p§REF§ 'The Penin of the subsequent settlers exercises similar rights over his own people, and as the household grows larger so is that Penin assisted by a person “sitting behind” him. The founder of the village or his successor is now called Odzikuro (owner of the village), who, in looking after the village affairs, is assisted by the Penin of the new [Page 7] settlers, and thus arises the village council. The different family groups become the village community, and in all public matters the village council, composed of the Penin of each important household, acts, the Odzikuro being president of such council. The members of the village council have a spokesman (Kyiami, a linguist), whose office is hereditary, but is traced in the male line, for a son succeeds as linguist his father, and not his uncle. Land in possession of the founder of the village is family stool property. Land cleared and occupied by subsequent settlers who have joined the founder is the property of the subsequent settlers. Land acquired by the founder and the settlers together is held by the village community, and becomes attached to the stool of the person for the time being head of the village. All the inhabitants of the village have each of them a proportionate share in such lands as common property, without any possession or title to distinct portions. From the moment a tribal community settles down finally upon a definite tract of land, the land begins to be the basis of society in place of kinship. The Odzikuro, with the village council, has the control of such land, but each person has the right to cultivate any portion of it, and having done so or settled on it, he may not be removed by any single individual unless the council so decrees.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 6§REF§ 'Suppose the original founder of the village to be a junior member of the family, whose elder brother was the family stoolholder; there still will be seasons when he and those under him would have to take part in observing the annual custom of the family stool, and participate in the family festival. And where there are several subordinate branches of a similar nature, the stoolholder of the original family acquires a greater importance and influence, and is termed Ohene - a term which has been rendered indifferently in English, king, caboceer, head chief, chief, and even headman. The Ohene will now have under him ( a) his family: comprising (i.) members under his immediate control, and (ii.) subordinate family groups that have branched off from the parent family; ( b) settlers: (i.) family groups in the same village as the Ohene, and (ii.) family groups sprung from the aforesaid and living in other places. In addition to individual persons enjoying his protection, there may be among his retinue a whole family or village community, to or for whom money loans have been given. These swell the retinue of the Ohene, and are included in his own bodyguard (Gyasi), a portion of the fighting men of the village community. Like the others, the headman of the protected family or community attends the annual festival of the Ohene, and to the tribunal of the Ohene these vassals have the right to appeal. Moreover, the oath of the stool of the Ohene is binding on them. The whole community is now likened to a body of which the Ohene supports the head, and the next in authority to him the foot. The Ohene of the oldest ancestry and most powerful becomes by election or tacit consent of the other Ahenefu of the district or country Omanhene, that is, a king. In reference to his own particular jurisdiction he is Ohene, and as such he may not interfere in the domestic [Page 9] affairs of any other fellow-ohene, so far as they do not injuriously affect the district as a whole.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 8p§REF§ According to Sarbah, Fante communities enjoyed a greated degree of autonomy than other Akan settlements: 'According to some ancient writers, there are two forms of government at the Gold Coast, namely, Monarchical and Republican. The districts of Axim, Ahanta, Fanti, and others were, previous to the year 1700, considered to be commonwealths; whereas Commenda, at that time a very populous district, Effutu or Fetu, Asebu, and Accra, were of the first kind. Henry Meredith, whose work was published in 1811, describes the governments along the coast as partaking of various forms. At Appolonia it was monarchical and absolute; in Ahanta it was a kind of aristocracy; but in the Fanti country, and extending to Accra, it was composed of a strange number of forms; for in some places the government was vested in particular persons, whilst in others it was in the hands of the community. What struck him as strange in the Fanti districts was that they frequently changed their form of government on certain occasions by uniting together under particular persons for their general safety, giving implicit [Page 26] obedience to their leaders; but as soon as the object of their union was attained, they reverted to their independent units. What is undoubtedly true is, that for very many years the Fanti town and village communities have enjoyed independence in a greater degree than any other tribes on the Gold Coast. In Appolonia one finds that so much authority was vested in the Omanhene that writers frequently thought his power was absolute. But on examining the constitutions of these places, they will be found to be sprung from the same root; the monarchical form of government so mentioned is what is common in Wassaw and other inland districts, and the republican is simply the constitution of some of the sea-coast towns close to European settlements and forts. These coast towns are communities whose government is based on the system already described; the president is Ohene, and his office is elective. Each town is divided into several parts, for fighting purposes, called companies (Asafu). One of these companies acts as the Gyasi to the Ohene. The Tufuhene is responsible for the good order of all the fighting men; the orders of the Ohene and his council are communicated to them by the Tufuhene.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 25p§REF§ Spatial proximity to colonial forts was associated with significant cultural changes: 'Pursuing the same object, they claimed tribute on the takings of the fishermen at Axim, Elmina, and Mowre, who were forbidden under severe penalties from holding any communication whatever and from trading with any other Europeans. Moreover, they attempted to exercise in these coast towns jurisdiction over all civil and criminal matters, and assumed the power of life and death. In spite, however, of these oppressive measures, they were compelled to, and did pay, every year to the local rulers and their people, the rents for their forts and other establishments; nor could they wholly deter the people from trading or otherwise dealing with other European traders, against whom the Dutch now took extreme measures as enemies and interlopers.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 72§REF§ 'The government of the sea-coast communities is a variation of the general system which has been described. This variation has been caused by frequent intercourse with European traders and the accumulation of wealth by means of lucrative trade. Ancient travellers who wrote described only what they saw in the coast towns. From these men one learns that, over two centuries ago, at seedtime farmers marked out for farming their plots of land, situate usually on rising grounds near the towns and villages. The next step was to obtain the permission of the Ohene or his officers in charge of the land, after permission had been granted, to pay the usual rent. The head of the family, assisted by his wives, children, and any slaves he might possess, prepared the ground for sowing. When the day of sowing arrived, the farm belonging to the village, or town chief, was first sown by all the people, and the others followed in due course. † This custom has continued to modern times with slight modifications. A few years ago the sum of half a crown was paid to landowners on asking for a plot of land to farm on for one season, but within the last two years this sum has been raised to ten shillings; in some instances, such as for land near the large towns, as much as a pound has been paid.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 24§REF§" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. According to Ethnographic Atlas variable 31 'Mean Size of Local Communities', the Ashanti possess 'Towns of 5,000-50,000 (one or more)', meaning that they are likely to have a settlement hierarchy as follows: (1) Town (administrative buildings, storehouse)) (2) Village (shrine) (3) Hamlet (residential only). This remains to be confirmed. SCCS variable 157 'Scale 9-Political Integration' is coded as '3 levels above community'<br>(1) the Capital with its central administrative and political functions;(2) regional Towns housing the leaders of divisions of the Ashanti Union;(3) Villages integrated into the recognized regional power hierarchies, comprising multiple family farms;(4) residential Hamlets and other non-permanent micro-settlements<br>A reviewer of Arhin's work comments on some general features of the territorial hierarchy: 'the Asante people formed a typical African kingdom, headed by a paramount ruler called “king” who, from his central village or town, administered the community in groups of villages with their own administrative and political organizations that owed absolute allegiance to the king, sometimes miles away. In every such African kingdom there was a princely city, special in every sense-the home of the paramount ruler of the state, the centre of government, and the residence of members of the royal family, religious leaders, courtiers, members of the extended-family system, servants, and slaves. Its economic, political, and cultural characteristics flowed down to the villages that made up the state [...] Every village consisted of free-born citizens, servants, and slaves. Individuals were like the fingers of a hand, all working together for the betterment of the village and, through the council of elders and the king's representative or chief, paying tribute to and serving their lord and master' §REF§Arhin, Kwame 1983. “Peasants In 19Th-Century Asante”, 478§REF§ Arhin's own work confirms this: 'An Asante state consisted of divisions ( amansin), which in turn consisted of villages ( nkuro) and hamlets ( nkuraa). The hamlet was of no political significance, since, like the hunting lodge ( nnanso), it was a temporary settlement. The village, inhabited by members of localised matrilineages of three or more of the dispersed Akan matriclans ( mmusua) (Rattray 1929: 67), was headed by an individual called the owner of the village ( odekro).' §REF§Arhin, Kwame 1983. “Peasants In 19Th-Century Asante”, 473§REF§ Villages can accordingly be differentiated from Hamlets by virtue of their integration into regional lineage structures: 'A village proper is distinguished from less permanent settlements as much by social complexity as by sheer size. Nearly all established villages are occupied by a number of distinct matrilineal groups, perhaps as many as five or six. [...] The establishment of a core of women in a village, who have children there, and whose daughters there give birth to other daughters who will continue the matrilineage, marks that settlement's existence as an independent and viable unit. Marriage, birth and death, as much as sheer numbers, mark the distinction between a well-established village and a settlement of less certain status.' §REF§McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 25§REF§ Hamlets could develop into more complex villages: 'an akuraa might, in favourable circumstances, develop into a village proper ( okrom), with its own name and chief or odekuro and a clearly defined position in the kingdom's political and military framework. This change in status usually occurred gradually and only after the place became the primary residence of many of those using it.' §REF§McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 25§REF§" }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " 1-2, 5 levels. Crete is divided into regional city-states which controlled a well defined region. The settlement hierarchy within these states is simple. It was centered upon the city where all the government, public and religious buildings were located and villages and hamlets scatted throughout its rural countryside. City-states were independent of their neighbors and there was a political unity among the urban centre and the rural settlements. §REF§Willetts, R. F. 1965. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 56-75§REF§ §REF§Lembesi, A. 1987. \"Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 166-72.§REF§" }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 1-2, 5 Crete is divided into regional city-states and state-confederations which controlled a well-defined region. In Classical period, there seem to have been about 35-40 city states of which most survived up to the early 2nd century BCE as is shown by the treaty signed by Eumenes II with 30 individual Cretan states in 183 BCE. §REF§Sanders, I. F. 1982. <i>Roman Crete. An Archaeological Survey and Gazetteer of Late Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine Crete</i>, Warminister, 11.§REF§ The settlement hierarchy within city-states is centered upon the city (its population usually is less that 1,000 souls and in very few cases arrives at 2,500-5,000 souls) where all the government, public and religious buildings were located, and villages and hamlets scatted throughout its rural countryside. State-confederations, located mostly on mountainous regions, are formed by villages and hamlets centered upon an important regional sanctuary. City-states and state-confederations were independent of their neighbors. §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 188-92.§REF§" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 1-3 Written sources (excavated testimonies are very meager) suggest the existence of 29 towns the largest of which were Khandax (the modern Heraklion), Gortys (south central Crete) and Kydonia (west Crete) the population of which is speculated to 12,000 inhabitants. §REF§Παπαδόπουλος, Ι.Β. 1948. <i>Η Κρήτη υπό τους Σαρακηνούς (824-961)</i>, Athens, 37; Christides, B. <i>The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam</i>, Athens, 97-8; 106-08.§REF§ Small villages and hamlets were scattered in the hinterland. Almost nothing is known about the situation of the towns of Crete and about the urban and country population." }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " The settlement patterns appears to be more dispersed than before and their is no evidence for a site hierarchy§REF§e.g. Hayden, B. J. 2004. \"Vrokastro and the settlement pattern of the LM IIIA-Geometric periods,\" in Day, L. P., Mook, M. S., and Muhly, J. D. (eds), <i>Crete Beyond the Palaces: Proceedings of the Crete 2000 Conference</i> (Prehistory Monographs 10), Philadelphia, 240.§REF§ By the end of Late Minoan IIIB most settlements had suffered destruction or abandonment. During the next period, 1200-1000 BCE, settlement patterns changed and followed marked regional tranjectories. §REF§Borgna, E. 2003. \"Regional settlement patterns in Crete at the end of LBA,\" <i>SMEA</i> 45, 153-83.§REF§ §REF§Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G., Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds), <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (BSA Studies 20), London, 76-7§REF§ §REF§Nowicki, K. 2000. <i>Defensible Sites in Crete c. 1200-800 B.C. (LM IIIB/IIIC Through Early Geometric)</i> (<i>Aegeaum</i> 21), Liège.§REF§ In the area of west and central Crete many sites experienced growth and retrieval (e.g. Chania, Knossos, Phaistos, and Kastelli Pediada). The growth of these sites has encouraged some scholars to assert the arrival of newcomers. The process of nucleation around certain lowland settlements surrounded by arable lands and costal sites provided with harbors is in contrast to the limited regional occupation. This pattern highlight the significant changes in economic, social and ideological aspects of local societies. The foundation of new inland sites (Sybrita and Gortyna) and the diffusion of defensible sites, although less numerous that these in east Crete, suggest complex settlement patterns able to deal with diversified environmental resources. In the area of east Crete the consequence of the LM IIIB crisis were more disruptive. Many plain and costal sites were abandoned and new settlements were founded on strategic locations at night altitudes. The population growth and the increased in size of the upland settlements lead to a stable occupation and even to the emergence of some major sites (e.g. Kavousi-Vronda and Karphi)." }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "gr_crete_geometric", "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Excavation data and survey information is very limited (especially for the 10th and 9th centuries BCE). §REF§For an overall picture on settlement hierarchies during this period see Borgne, E. 2003. \"regional settlement patterns, exchange systems and sources of power in Crete at the end of the Late Bronze age: establishing a connection,\" <i>SMEA</i> 45, 153-83§REF§ §REF§Hayden, B. J. 2004. <i>Reports on the Vrokastro Area, east Crete. Volume 2: The Settlement History of the Vrokastro Area and Related Studies</i> (University Museum Monograph 119), 137-66§REF§ §REF§Haggis, D. C. 2005. <i>KAVOUSI I. The Archaeological Survey of the Kavousi Region</i> (Prehistory Monographs 16), 81-5§REF§ A large settlement was the center of a sparsely populated territory. Each regional landscape was organized for maximum exploitation of local resources and maximum security. This large center might represent the first synoecism of local population which will led to the emergence, during the late 8th and early 7th centuries BCE, of small city-states. Interdependence and economic and social cooperation between sites is assumed because of topographic isolation and shared water supplies, agricultural land, and pasture. §REF§Haggis, D. C. 2005. <i>KAVOUSI I. The Archaeological Survey of the Kavousi Region</i> (Prehistory Monographs 16), 83.§REF§" }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 1-2, 5 Crete is divided into regional city-states and states-confederations which controlled a well-defined region. In the early Hellenistic period, there seem to have been about 35-40 city states of which most survived up to the early 2nd century BCE as is shown by the treaty signed by Eumenes II with 30 individual Cretan states in 183 BCE. §REF§Sanders, I. F. 1982. <i>Roman Crete. An Archaeological Survey and Gazetteer of Late Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine Crete</i>, Warminister, 11.§REF§ The settlement hierarchy within city-states is centered upon the city where all the government, public and religious buildings were located, and villages and hamlets scatted throughout its rural countryside. State-confederations, located mostly on mountainous regions, are formed by villages and hamlets centered upon an important regional sanctuary. Knossos, Gortyna, and Kydonia were cited by Strabo as the most powerful city-states. §REF§Strabo, <i>Geography</i>, 10.476.§REF§ Between 260-240 BCE the power of Knossos seems to have been dominant. §REF§Willetts, R. F. 1965. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 153-54.§REF§ Knossos and Gortyn were the principal political centers of the island until the Roman conquest." }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Knossos was the main political, administrative and economic centre of the island. The analysis of the Linear B texts found in the palace and archaeological data shows that Knossos controlled a series of second-order (e.g. Kydonia and Phaistos) and third-order (e.g. Tylissos) centers. §REF§Bennet, J. 1988. \"Outside in the distance: problems in understanding the economic geography of Mycenaean palatial territories,\" in Olivier, J.-P. and Palaima, T. G. (eds), Text, Tablets and Scribes. Studies in Mycenaean Epigraphy and Economy Offered to Emmett L. Bennett, Jr. (Minos Suppl. 10), Salamanga, 19-42§REF§ §REF§Bennet, J. 1990. \"Knossos in context: comparative perspectives on the Linear B administration of LM II-III Crete,\" American Journal of Archaeology 94, 193-211.§REF§ Villages, hamlets and farmhouses were scattered in the hinterland especially during the Late Minoan IIIA period. §REF§Driessen, J. 2001. \"History and hierarchy. Preliminary observations on the settlement pattern of Minoan Crete,\" in Branigan, K. (ed.), Urbanism in the Aegean Bronze Age (SSAA 4), Sheffield, 64.§REF§The area of east Crete may have been independent of the Knossian control perhaps organized into a separate polity or group of polities. §REF§Bennet, J. 1987. \"The wild country east of Dikte: the problem of east Crete in the LM III period,\" in Killen, J. T., Melena, J. L., and Olivier, J.-P. (eds), Studies in Mycenaean and Classical Greek presented to John Chadwick (Minos 20-22), Salamanga, 77-88.§REF§" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " Settlement hierarchies are difficult to reconstruct because of limited archaeological exploration and poor preservation of the record; archaeological interest has been mostly focused on the Bronze Age past of the island while the small size of the Neolithic sites and their establishment in low-land, riverine locations subject to complex natural and human-cased concealing processes obscure most aspects of the Neolithic landscape. The only known site dated to the Earlier Neolithic period (7000-5300 BCE) was that of Knossos. Domestic units, simple in construction and layout, tend to crowd together and all testimonies shows that people, although lived as separate households, constituted themselves communally. §REF§Halstead, P. 1995. \"From sharing to hoarding: the Neolithgic foundations of Aegean Bronze Age society,\" in Laffineur, R. and Niemeier, W.-D. (eds), <i>Politeia. Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age</i> (Aegaeum 12), Liège, 16-17§REF§ §REF§Tomkins, P. 2010. \"Neolithic antecedents,\" in Cline, E. H. (ed.), T<i>he Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC)</i>, Oxford, 36-7.§REF§ Knossos however was not the only Early Neolithic site; indirect hints points to the existence of sites, albeit still undiscovered, to favorable niches in low-land and riverine locations and/or in easily reached areas of the north coast of the island (Gerani Cave in Rethimnon district, Tylissos in Heraklion district, and Malia and the Mirabello Bay in Lasithi district). §REF§Tomkins, P. 2008. \"Time, space and the reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), <i>Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context</i>, Sheffiled, 27-33, fig. 3.1.§REF§ During the Late Neolithic period (ca. 5300-4500 BCE) Knossos expand to become a large village. Residences are now more clearly partitioned into separate domestic units and this new spatial arrangement suggests \"an encroachment on what had previously been a communal space of production and consumption\". §REF§Tomkins, P. 2010. \"Neolithic antecedents,\" in Cline, E. H. (ed.), <i>The Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC)</i>, Oxford, 37.§REF§ The size of the houses suggest that they were used by extended households rather by a single nuclear family. Other sites appeared/continue to be inhabited in many regions of the island: Gerani Cave in the Rethimnon district, Tylissos, Katsabas, Galeni-Roukani, and Mesara area in Heraklion district, and Malia, Sphongaras, Kalo Chorio, Kavousi and Magasas in Lasithi district. §REF§Tomkins, P. 2008. \"Time, space and the reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), <i>Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context</i>, Sheffiled, 33-5, fig. 3.1.§REF§ The Final Neolithic period (ca. 4500-3000 BCE) mark a significant expansion in settlement by the occupation of most areas of high agricultural productivity, defensible sites, and the colonization of more marginal areas. §REF§Branigan, K. 1999. \"Late Neolithic colonization of the uplands of eastern Crete,\" in Halstead, P. (ed.), <i>Neolithic Society in Greece</i> (SSAA 2), Sheffiled, 57-65§REF§ §REF§Tomkins, P. 2008. \"Time, space and the reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), <i>Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context</i>, Sheffiled, 33-5, fig. 3.1.§REF§ The extent of the Knossian settlement stayed broadly within the limits reached during the Late Neolithic period. Another important settlement was established on the hill of Phaistos, in the Mesara area. §REF§Watrous, L. V. and Hadzi-Vallianou, D. 2004. \"Initial growth in social complexity (Late Neolithic-Early Minoan I),\" in Watrous, L. V., Hadzi-Vallianou, and Blitzer, H. (eds), <i>The Plain of Phaistos. Cycles of Social Complexity in the Mesara Region of Crete</i>, Los Angeles, 221§REF§ §REF§Todaro, S. and Di Tonto, S. 2008. \"The Neolithic settlement of Phaistos revisited: evidence for ceremonial activity on the eve of the Bronze Age,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), <i>Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context</i>, Sheffiled, 177-90.§REF§ The occupation of defensible sites may not be the respond to an exogenous and/or hostile movement of population. As Tomkins suggested this \"may reflect intensifying local competition within and/or between sites, manifest in a developing sense of territoriality and resource circumscription, perhaps caused or exacerbated by a major shift towards greater climatic uncertainty that may occur around this time.\" §REF§Tomkins, P. 2008. \"Time, space and the reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), <i>Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context</i>, Sheffiled, 38.§REF§ The increase in the number of sites, especially in marginal regions, has often been thought to reflect demographic expansion. Although some form of population growth might have occurred, it should be noted that most of these sties are small and short-lived. The colonization of marginal areas reflects \"a variety of push and pull factors. In the face of more aggressive acquisitive strategies by more successful households, some households in large lowland villages may eventually, have chosen to take their chance with migration and economic diversification.\" §REF§Tomkins, P. 2008. \"Time, space and the reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), <i>Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context</i>, Sheffiled, 39.§REF§ Understanding the relationship between these various sites (small and large village-sized settlements, hamlets, farms and field houses) is still a matter of scholarly inquiry. The preserved testimonies points to marked differences to the access of sources of wealth and social power (agricultural surplus and high-value/exotic ideas, finished products and raw materials)." }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 62, "name": "gr_crete_new_palace", "long_name": "New Palace Crete", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Excavated testimonies supplemented with information from systematic survey projects provide a sound starting point for the reconstruction of settlement hierarchies during the New Palace period. §REF§See the various contributions in Branigan, K. (ed.), <i>Urbanism in the Aegean Bronze Age</i> (SSAA 4), Sheffield. See also Cherry, J. F. 1986. “Polities and palaces: some problems in the Minoan state formation,” in Renfrew, C. and Cherry, J. F. (eds), <i>Peer-Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change</i>, Cambridge, 19-45§REF§ §REF§Driessen, J., and Macdonald, C.F. 1997. <i>The Troubled Island. Minoan Crete Before and After the Santorini Eruption</i> (<i>Aegaeum</i> 17), Liège§REF§ §REF§Bevan, A. 2010. \"Political Geography and Palatial Crete,\" <i>Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology</i> 23, 27-54§REF§ According to the most widely accepted narrative Crete was divided into regional polities controlled by political fractions residing in monumental complexes, generally known as \"palaces\", built at the center of large urban centers. These large towns -their extend is 25 ha or more- were the \"capitals\" of the regional quasi-polities dominating the political landscape of Crete. Small towns, their size varies from 10 to 4 ha, were scattered in the hinterland. They were provided with substantial central buildings which in their architectural layout emulate these of the capital towns. Villages, hamlets and farmhouses were in the periphery of these towns and even in remote and marginal areas." }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 61, "name": "gr_crete_old_palace", "long_name": "Old Palace Crete", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Excavated testimonies supplemented with information from systematic survey projects provide a sound starting point for the reconstruction of settlement hierarchies during the Protopalatial period. §REF§See the various contributions in Branigan, K. (ed.), <i>Urbanism in the Aegean Bronze Age</i> (SSAA 4), Sheffield. See also Cherry, J. F. 1986. “Polities and palaces: some problems in the Minoan state formation,” in Renfrew, C. and Cherry, J. F. (eds), <i>Peer-Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change,</i> Cambridge, 19-45§REF§ §REF§Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G., Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds), <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (<i>BSA</i> Studies 20), London, 61-83.§REF§ According to the most widely accepted narrative Crete was divided into regional polities controlled by political fractions residing in monumental court-centered building compounds, generally known as \"palaces\", built in large urban centers. These cities, their extend varies from 60 ha (Malia and probably Phaistos) to 56 ha (Knossos), were the \"capitals\" of the regional quasi-polities dominating the political scape of Crete. §REF§There is no information for the extent of Petras during the Old Palace period. The size of the Neopalatial town was about 2.5 ha.§REF§ Small towns, their size varies from 3 to 5 ha., were scattered in the hinterland. Villages, hamlets and farmhouses were in the periphery of these towns and even in remote and marginal areas.<br>Intensively surveyed Old Palace regions provide important evidence on regional site hierarchies. In the Malia region, the survey has detected three concentric circles of villages and hamlets around the palatial centre. §REF§Muller, S. 1997. \"L' organization d'un territory minoen,\" <i>Dossiers d'Archéologie</i> 222, 52.§REF§ In the Western Mesara plain, Phaistos (60 ha.) was surrounded by eight village-sized sites, including the towns of Kommos, Kalamaki, and Hagia Triada. §REF§Watrous, L., Hadzi-Vallianou, D., and Blitzer, H. 2004. <i>The Plain of Phaistos. Cycles of Social Complexity in the Mesara Region of Crete</i> (<i>Monumenta Archaeologica</i> 23), Los Angeles, 278-81.§REF§Outside these centers there were 27 hamlets, 15 farmsteads, and 11 very small sites. Settlements patterns points to the rise in occupational specialization and social diversity. Several of the larger Middle Minoan IB-II sites (1900-1800 BCE) have specialized functions; Kommos was a port, Kamares a regional place of cult, and Paterikes a pottery centre. A site close to Hagia Triada was a stone quarry. Other sites possessed elite cyclopean residencies. The large number of villages and hamlet-sized sites suggest an increased population and intensive land use. In most settlements the main productive activities were farming and stock-breeding, others led the industries and quite a few were of commercial character owing to their harbors. The road network appears extensive and presumably therefore it facilitated contacts and the transport of goods from the inland. Many harbours in small windward bays linked peripheral centres with the Aegean islands and the Levant.<br>In contrast to these regions controlled by palace-centered institutions, there are areas which failed to provide evidence for a developed hierarchy. §REF§Driessen, J. 2001. \"History and hierarchy. Preliminary observations on the settlement pattern of Minoan Crete,\" in Branigan, K. (ed.), <i>Urbanism in the Aegean Bronze Age</i> (SSAA 4), Sheffield, 61.§REF§ In the Pediada plain, the wealthiest region of the island after the Mesara, varied and intensive archaeological research has failed to detect the socio-political developments that could have led to the rise of palace-centred polities such as those which emerged in the neighboring areas of Knossos, Malia and Phaistos. §REF§Rethemiotakis, G and Christakis, K. S. 2011. \"landscapes of power in Protopalatial Crete: new evidence from Galatas, Pediada,\" SMEA 53, 195-218.§REF§ On the contrary, independent groups, sharing common cultural idiosyncrasies, were active in the Pediada during the early Protopalatial period. The common cultural horizon does not, of course, necessarily indicate that these centres also shared an identical socio-political organization. Each urban centre in the Pediada should be assessed within its own specific setting. Local ruling groups, indeed, might have followed their own political, social, economic and ceremonial strategies. Competition among the major centres of power over material and social resources - especially considering the fact that they operated within the same regional setting - would inevitably promote an unstable political landscape. Competition was probably intense in areas close to the territorial borders of various sub-zones. The case of the Pediada demonstrates the complexity of the Protopalatial political landscape, which cannot be reduced to simplistic models of socio-political development. Local groups can and do differ quite widely in their socio-economic choices and attitudes, breaking away from what we see as the cultural ‘mainstream’." }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " 1-4 The Knossian state was disintegrated in independent regional entities (quasi-polities) centered upon a large town. §REF§Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G., Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds), <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (BSA Studies 20), London, 76.§REF§. The size of these towns varies from 4 to 54 ha. Some were densely occupied while habitation in others was more dispersed, suggesting a trend toward a ruralization of the urban setting. Data points to a four-tiered hierarchy: the large town is surrounded by villages, hamlets, and farmhouses. The most important centers were Kydonia (Chania), in west Crete and Hagia Triada, in south-central Crete. §REF§La Rosa, V. 2010. \"Ayia Triada,\" in Cline, E. H. (ed.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC)</i>, Oxford, 495-508§REF§ §REF§Vlazaki-Andreadaki, M. 2010. \"Khania (Kydonia),\" in Cline, E. H. (ed.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC)</i>, Oxford, 518-28§REF§ §REF§Kanta, A. 2001. \"Cretan refuge settlements: problems and historical implications within the wider context of the eastern Mediterranean towards the end of the Bronze Age,\" in Karageorgis, V. and Morris, C. E. (eds), <i>Defensive Settlements of the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean after c. 1200 B.C.</i>, Nicosia, 13-21.§REF§ The reference to a <i>wanax</i> (king) in the inscription painted on the shoulder of some inscribed stirrup jars, produced in the area of west Crete, prompting the speculation for the presence of a \"palatial\" authority. §REF§Andreadaki-Vlazaki, M. and Hallager, E. 2007. \"New and unpublished Linear A and Linear B inscriptions from Khania,\" <i>Proceeding of the Danish Institute at Athens</i> V, 7-22.§REF§ By the end of Late Minoan IIIB most settlements had suffered destruction or abandonment." }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": -3000, "year_to": -2200, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. <b>3100-2200 BCE</b>: Small nucleated villages and isolated hamlets coexisted throughout the island, especially in lowland and coastal areas. §REF§e.g. Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G.,Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds) <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (<i>BSA</i> Studies 20), London, 70-2.§REF§ The size of these sites is about 2 ha aside Knossos where a settlement of 5 ha already existed since the Final Neolithic period. §REF§Tomkins, P. 2008. \"Time, space and the reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), <i>Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context</i>, Sheffiled, 35§REF§ §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 150.§REF§ This settled scape is characterized by a considerable degree of regionalism which is expressed in material culture and social practices. §REF§Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G.,Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds) <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (<i>BSA</i> Studies 20), London, 70§REF§ §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 150.§REF§ From the Early Minoan II onwards (2700-2200 BCE), the importance of coastal sites considerably increased while many inland sites seems to be abandoned. Monumental constructions appeared for the first time at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos, Tylissos, and Palaikastro. Many sites were destroyed or burned at the end of the period and this has been interpreted as the outcome of conflict between different social groups aspiring to political and economic power. §REF§Warren, P. M. 1987. \"The genesis of the Minoan palace,\" in Hägg, R. and Marinatos, N. (eds), <i>The Function of the Minoan Palaces. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 10-16 June 1984</i> (<i>SkrAth</i> 4o, 35), Stockholm, 245-248.§REF§ <b>2200-1900 BCE</b>: Settlement hierarchy change: nucleated villages seems less important and there is a new emphasis on mountain zones. Knossos, Malia and Phaistos increased considerably and become centers of a significant importance. The central monumental construction suggest the presence of a authority controlling the surrounding hinterland. §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 114-76.§REF§ These large centers and their supporting surrounding regions each form complex social, political and economic landscapes, in which larger regional-scale integrations could occur. §REF§Manning, S. W. 2008. \"5: Protopalatial Crete. 5A: Formation of the palaces,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 108.§REF§" }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": -2200, "year_to": -1900, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. <b>3100-2200 BCE</b>: Small nucleated villages and isolated hamlets coexisted throughout the island, especially in lowland and coastal areas. §REF§e.g. Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G.,Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds) <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (<i>BSA</i> Studies 20), London, 70-2.§REF§ The size of these sites is about 2 ha aside Knossos where a settlement of 5 ha already existed since the Final Neolithic period. §REF§Tomkins, P. 2008. \"Time, space and the reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), <i>Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context</i>, Sheffiled, 35§REF§ §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 150.§REF§ This settled scape is characterized by a considerable degree of regionalism which is expressed in material culture and social practices. §REF§Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G.,Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds) <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (<i>BSA</i> Studies 20), London, 70§REF§ §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 150.§REF§ From the Early Minoan II onwards (2700-2200 BCE), the importance of coastal sites considerably increased while many inland sites seems to be abandoned. Monumental constructions appeared for the first time at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos, Tylissos, and Palaikastro. Many sites were destroyed or burned at the end of the period and this has been interpreted as the outcome of conflict between different social groups aspiring to political and economic power. §REF§Warren, P. M. 1987. \"The genesis of the Minoan palace,\" in Hägg, R. and Marinatos, N. (eds), <i>The Function of the Minoan Palaces. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 10-16 June 1984</i> (<i>SkrAth</i> 4o, 35), Stockholm, 245-248.§REF§ <b>2200-1900 BCE</b>: Settlement hierarchy change: nucleated villages seems less important and there is a new emphasis on mountain zones. Knossos, Malia and Phaistos increased considerably and become centers of a significant importance. The central monumental construction suggest the presence of a authority controlling the surrounding hinterland. §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 114-76.§REF§ These large centers and their supporting surrounding regions each form complex social, political and economic landscapes, in which larger regional-scale integrations could occur. §REF§Manning, S. W. 2008. \"5: Protopalatial Crete. 5A: Formation of the palaces,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 108.§REF§" } ] }