Settlement Hierarchy List
A viewset for viewing and editing Settlement Hierarchies.
GET /api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api&page=10
{ "count": 563, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api&page=11", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?format=api&page=9", "results": [ { "id": 451, "polity": { "id": 569, "name": "mx_mexico_1", "long_name": "Early United Mexican States", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "“The four main entities—the Crown, the Church, guilds, and city councils—were based in multistoried, class-heterogeneous towns and cities that mingled manufacturing, residential, retail, and civic spaces. At the centers of towns and cities stood markets and retail establishments alongside churches and royal offices, as established in Felipe II’s 1573 Royal Ordinances on town planning. Wellordered, properly-consuming urban populations functioned under the principle of policía or “good government,” in which individual desires were subordinated to guarantee order, peace, and prosperity (Nuttall 1922; Schuetz 1987; Ortíz Macedo 1997; Kinsbruner 2005; Kagan 2000, pp. 18–44). This order required a steady and cheap supply of food guaranteed by new officials and institutions, such as the fiel ejecutor, who inspected weights and measures, but also alhóndigas (granaries) that stabilized the price and the pósito, a grain reserve designed to abate scarcity and speculation at times of shortages and bad harvests (Ochoa 2000, pp. 20–23, Borah 1958). The parián or arcaded market that housed leading mercantile establishments stood at the town center, and along the adjoining streets and districts stood the workshops of guild members lending their trade’s name to the street on which they were concentrated. Here and there stood pulperías, the indispensible institution that functioned as stores, pawnshops, restaurants, gathering places, and news exchanges, providing a one-stop financial and commercial center akin to a modern convenience store offering lottery tickets, money orders, a version of the modern ATM, and a community bulletin board.”§REF§(Bunker and Macias-Gonzalez 2011: 58) Bunker, Steven B. and Macías-González, Víctor M. 2011. “Consumption and Material Culture from Pre-Contact through the Porfiriato,” in A Companion to Mexican History and Culture, ed. William H. Beezley. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp54–82. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SDIQ5VE7§REF§ : 1. Capital City (Mexico City) :: 2. State capitals ::: 3. Small cities :::: 4. Towns ::::: 5. Villages :::::: 6. Rural land/plots " }, { "id": 452, "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. “There was every reason to regard Prague as a center of political and religious authority. The city’s virtues had been praised since the tenth century and that reputation remained intact extending to the fifteenth century.”§REF§(Fudge 2010: 19) Fudge, Thomas A. 2010. Jan Hus: Religious Reform and Social Revolution in Bohemia. London; New York: I. B. Tauris. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z325C95F§REF§ “An important phenomenon in Czech society in the late Middle Ages were the towns which were now centres of production and commerce. They were divided according to laws and freedoms into royal towns (of which there were 56 at the beginning of the 14th century in the Bohemian crown lands and Silesia), subject towns (60) and smaller towns again (136). Although at the beginning of the 15th century the number of royal towns hardly changed (in Moravia it even decreased), the numbers in the other categories almost doubled. At the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries, Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia had in total 556 town centres, which made for a relatively dense urban network.”§REF§(Pánek and Oldřich 2009: 143) Pánek, Jaroslav and Oldřich, Tůma. 2009. A History of the Czech Lands. University of Chicago Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4NAX9KBJ§REF§ “As for population, that of Prague most likely rose to 35,000 by 1400, and thus joined the largest imperial towns such as Nuremberg, Frankfurt am Main and Cologne. Other Czech royal towns had between one and four thousand inhabitants, with the exceptions of Cheb and Kutná Hora, which were larger. Responsibility for the royal towns was the Vice-Chamberlain’s, who had to levy taxes for the royal chamber. Subject towns for the greater part had less than a thousand inhabitants and were subordinate to an aristocratic or religious authority.”§REF§(Pánek and Oldřich 2009: 144) Pánek, Jaroslav and Oldřich, Tůma. 2009. A History of the Czech Lands. University of Chicago Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4NAX9KBJ§REF§ “Settlements of German farmers in many places spread out into larger surrounding tracts (the areas around Broumov, Trutnov, beneath Ještěd, near Loket, Svitavy, in some parts of the Bohemian-Moravian highlands and south Moravia), and accepted Emphyteusis in large numbers; for them it was the ideal arrangement of villages and their farmlands. The wave of indigenous colonization on the contrary continued rather in the old manner. Its villages were not as extensive and there was a looser arrangement of farmsteads and fields… Since the population was continually growing and larger towns in particular were demanding in consumer terms, attention turned once again to the old, fertile settled territory. From the previous scattering of smaller settlements and isolated farms there emerged in the environs of some large towns a network of populous villages with regularly shaped tillage, which offered better usage of three-field crop rotation. These changes spread in north-western Bohemia (near the towns of Litoměřice and Most) before the mid-13th century (the three-field crop system was best mainly for grain production).”§REF§(Pánek and Oldřich 2009: 105) Pánek, Jaroslav and Oldřich, Tůma. 2009. A History of the Czech Lands. University of Chicago Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4NAX9KBJ§REF§ : 1. Capital and imperial city (Prague) :: 2. Royal towns ::: Subject towns :::: Small towns :::: 4. Villages ::::: 5. Farmsteads " }, { "id": 453, "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "it_lombard_k", "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Christie 1998: 77, 83, 104, 168-169. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§: 1. Cities :: 2. Towns ::: 3. Forts ::: 4. Villages " }, { "id": 454, "polity": { "id": 560, "name": "bo_tiwanaku_2", "long_name": "Late Tiwanaku", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1149 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "“Considering that Tiwanaku itself was the largest site in the valley, covering some 600 ha, these rural settlements have been defined in the following manner: 1. Secondary sites are represented by surface ceramic fragment and lithic artifact scatters over an area that exceeds three hectares. These sites also manifest architectural components, such as worked andesite or sandstone blocks on the surface, as well as one or more mounds. 2. Tertiary sites are characterized by surface artifact scatter over an area between one and approximately three hectares; yet, they lack stone architecture and may or may not exhibit mounds. 3. Quaternary sites are distinguished by artifact scatter over an area of less than a hectare, or by single house mounds within agricultural fields. As shown in Figure 6.18, quaternary sites are generally located in close proximity to the secondary and tertiary sites, with a few exceptions. The visual impression of the pattern, as perceived from the map, is one of a dichotomy. The northern and southern sectors are two separate settlement units. It seems that the Tiwanaku River marked a dividing line between the two sectors. Another important feature of the settlement pattern constitutes the regular spacing that is kept between secondary centers and between secondary and tertiary sites in both sectors of the valley. Statistical analysis (Nearest-Neighbor statistics) of site distribution in the Lower Tiwanaku Valley confirm that secondary sites are regularly distributed and that tertiary and quaternary sites cluster around the secondary installations. While a trend toward randomness can be discerned among tertiary sites, there is definite clustering among quaternary sites (Albarracin-Jordan 1996). Around A.D. 900, Tiwanaku sites became substantially more numerous (Figure 6.19). From a total of 100 sites to 339. Even though the number of secondary sites had not increased, the amount of tertiary and quaternary sites increased drastically.”§REF§(Albarracin-Jordan 1999: 64) Albarracin-Jordan, Juan V. 1999. The Archeaology of Tiwanaku: The Myths, History, and Science of an Ancient Andean Civilization. Bolivia: Impresión P.A.P. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P7MDWPAP§REF§ “Hundreds of Tiwanaku settlements are situated in the state’s heartland. Kolata (1993: Fig. 6.11; 1996b: Fig. 1.7) has divided them into four categories. The first category includes only Tiwanaku, which with its size of c. 6 km2 was by far the area’s largest and most powerful settlement, or primary centre. A group of large sites with monumental public architecture – such as Lukurmata and Pajchiri – constitutes the second category. These sites functioned as the secondary centres of the state, supervising and organising production in their respective regions. Tertiary centres were smaller, local-scale administrative and ritual sites. Fourth category settlements – small habitation sites – were by far the most numerous group. Together, the sites belonging to these four categories formed a complex administrative network encompassing the Tiwanaku heartland.”§REF§(Korpisaari 2006: 64) Korpisaari, Antti. 2006. Death in the Bolivian High Plateau: Burials and Tiwanaku Society. Oxford: BAR Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UPGSC7BF§REF§ : 1. Tiwanaku (capital and largest settlement) :: 2. Secondary sites (area over 3 hectares) ::: 3. Tertiary sites (1-3 hectares with surface artefacts) :::: 4. Quaternary sites (less than 1 hectare, usually agricultural fields) " }, { "id": 455, "polity": { "id": 576, "name": "us_chaco_bonito_3", "long_name": "Chaco Canyon - Late Bonito phase", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1140 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.: 1. Chaco Canyon : “Chaco Canyon is a remote and lonely place in northwest New Mexico that stretches for about 20 miles between high sandstone cliffs… A thousand years ago, people lived in the canyon in 11 ‘great houses’, each one of them big enough to provide homes for an entire village.”§REF§(Vivian and Anderson 2002: 9) Vivian, R. Gwinn and Anderson, Margaret. 2002. Chaco Canyon, Digging for the Past. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/996XW2NW§REF§ “Now protected as Chaco Culture National Historical Park and honored by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, the canyon contains 11 huge stone buildings or great houses, some of them four stories high and containing hundreds of rooms (Figure 10.9). Smaller stone buildings, mounds, large subterranean ceremonial structures (great kivas), roads, rock- cut stairways, and water- control and garden features combine to form a dense, symbolically ordered landscape.”§REF§(Snow et al 2020: 194) Snow, Dean R., Gonlin, Nancy, and Siegel, Peter E. 2020. The Archaeology of Native North America, 2nd ed. London; New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5T4C9IQT§REF§ :: 2. Towns :: “Archaeologists currently believe that about a hundred and fifty Anasazi Great House ‘towns’ were connected to Chaco Canyon by roadways.”§REF§(Stuart 2009: 82) Stuart, David E. 2009. The Ancient Southwest: Chaco Canyon, Bandelier, and Mesa Verde. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4CQDXF9§REF§ ::: 3. Villages ::: “By about A.D. 1100, there had already been some Anasazi village expansion into the country to the west of Santa Fe and eastward from the east slope of the Sangre de Cristos to the Las Vegas area. Here, there were no roadways and Chacoan influence was more tenuous. On the eastern periphery of the Anasazi homeland, villages were generally smaller, jewelry and trade goods fewer, and harvests more modest. Settled village life only lasted several centuries in the hinterlands east of the Pecos River Valley and was never reestablished there until recent times.”§REF§(Stuart 2009: ) Stuart, David E. 2009. The Ancient Southwest: Chaco Canyon, Bandelier, and Mesa Verde. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4CQDXF9§REF§ " }, { "id": 456, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 7, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.: 1. Capital City :: 2. Major cities ::: 3. Industrial towns ::: 4. Large towns. §REF§Volo and Volo 2004: 17. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97.§REF§ ::::: 5. Small towns. §REF§Volo and Volo 2004: 13. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97.§REF§ :::::: 6. Villages. §REF§Volo and Volo 2004: 13. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97.§REF§ ::::::: 7. Plantations. §REF§Volo and Volo 2004: 8. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97.§REF§ " }, { "id": 457, "polity": { "id": 302, "name": "gb_tudor_stuart", "long_name": "England Tudor-Stuart", "start_year": 1486, "end_year": 1689 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.Of England’s 2.2 million people in 1485, less than 10 percent lived in cities. Of these, London was by far the largest (see map 3). It was at once the capital, the legal center, and the primary seaport for trade with Europe... The next largest cities – Norwich in East Anglia, Bristol (a seaport off the huge Bristol Channel at the mouth of the Severn) to the west, Coventry in the south Midlands, and York in the North – had no more than 10,000 people each in 1485. Below them came major county towns like Dorchester or Stafford and cathedral cities like Lincoln or Salisbury with a few thousand inhabitants apiece… Below this level, the country was dotted by numerous market towns ranging in population from a few hundred to one thousand. (map 3)… Abingdon, then in Berkshire, and Richmond in Yorkshire are good examples. Such towns served relatively small rural areas, perhaps 6 to 12 miles in radius…These towns were not very urban: they consisted of only a few streets, a market square, and the surrounding land, which most townsmen farmed to supplement their income from trade. On market days and some holy days their populations would swell. Otherwise we would barely recognize them as towns. Most English men and women lived in the countryside – not in cities or even towns, but in settlements of, perhaps, 50 to 300 people.”§REF§(Bucholz et al 2013: 16-18) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§ : 1. Capital city - London :: 2. Major Cities ::: 3. Market towns :::: 4. Villages ::::: 5. Hamlets " }, { "id": 458, "polity": { "id": 606, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_2", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England II", "start_year": 927, "end_year": 1065 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.: Capital city: Winchester in the former kingdom of Wessex was the centre of royal and administrative power as well as housing the archbishop and cathedrals, three minsters and an episcopal palace.§REF§(Yorke 1995: 320) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§Coins were minted here.§REF§(Keynes 2000: 462) Keynes, Simon. 2000. “England, c. 900–1016.” Chapter. In The New Cambridge Medieval History, edited by Timothy Reuter, 3:456–84. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521364478.019. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7Q6L256F§REF§ :: Major Towns:: Important larger market towns such as London, York, Cambridge, and Ely. They had cathedrals and were the official seat of a diocesan bishop. §REF§(Yorke 1990: 40, 65) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§§REF§(Wright 2015: 34-36) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P§REF§ ::: Port and trading towns::: Trading emporium and market towns and ports such as Dover, Sarre, Southampton, and Ipswich. §REF§(Yorke 1990: 40, 65) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§§REF§(Wright 2015: 34-36) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P§REF§ ::: Villages::: Villages were small and mostly consisted of farmland and a few hall-type buildings. They were generally situated with access to good ploughing land, but some were in lower-status areas such as on the margins of occupied districts or in dry or chalky areas. These may have been used by the Germanic immigrants to establish themselves. §REF§(Higham 2004: 10) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§§REF§(Wright 2015: 25, 31) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P§REF§ :::: Monastic communities:::: Slightly more isolated and small communities based on a monastery with a self-sustaining ‘home-farm’ at its centre. §REF§(Wright 2015) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P§REF§ Double monasteries existed which housed monks and nuns side-by-side in communities ran by an abbess. After a slump in monastic life during the Viking invasions and colonisations of the Anglo-Saxon period, Benedictine monasteries surged in the tenth century. Sixty monasteries were established between 940 – 1066. §REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 35-36) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ " }, { "id": 459, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " “In 1770 the government of Empress Maria Theresa (1717–1780) sought to make an accurate count of the population in the western regions of her realm and to apply a new system of house numbers to “all towns, markets, and villages, even in the most scattered localities.’”§REF§(Judson 2016: 16) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW§REF§: 1. Capital city (Vienna in Austria) :: 2. Regional capital cities (e.g. Prague in Bohemia) ::: 3. Market towns :::: 4. Towns ::::: 5. Villages " }, { "id": 460, "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.§REF§Boyle 1968: 142. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CFW8EE6Q§REF§§REF§Barthold 1968: 152-153. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CHVZMEB§REF§.§REF§Buniyatov 2015: 84. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAEVEJFH§REF§:1. Capital city :: 2. Provincial cities ::: 3. Towns :::: 4. Villages ::::: 5. ‘Hamlets’ (tiny settlements such as a few fisherman’s huts but no village) " }, { "id": 461, "polity": { "id": 561, "name": "us_hohokam_culture", "long_name": "Hohokam Culture", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.: 1. Large Villages :: 2. Small Villages Villages along the canals of the Salt and Gil rivers could cover hundreds of acres with several hundred inhabitants.§REF§“Hohokam Culture (U.S. National Park Service)”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/34YMDDCN§REF§§REF§McGuire 2018: 5-6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9FB2IXT§REF§ " }, { "id": 462, "polity": { "id": 797, "name": "de_empire_1", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty", "start_year": 919, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels. §REF§Wilson 2016: 505-506. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N5M9R9XA§REF§: 1. Imperial Cities ::2. Towns ::: 3. Villages :::: 4. Hamlets ::::: 5. Farmstead" }, { "id": 463, "polity": { "id": 565, "name": "at_habsburg_1", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§(Curtis 2013: 101, 167) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§§REF§(Berenger 1994: 22) Berenger, Jean. 1994. A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1272-1700, trans. C.A. Simpson. London; New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/URCREW37§REF§: 1. Capital city (Vienna or Prague) :: 2. Major cities ::: 3. Towns :::: 4. Villages ::::: 5. Hamlets " }, { "id": 464, "polity": { "id": 351, "name": "am_artaxiad_dyn", "long_name": "Armenian Kingdom", "start_year": -188, "end_year": 6 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Hovannisian 2004: 49. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§§REF§Panossian 2006: 56. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GZLDRKAY§REF§: 1. Capital city :: 2. Provincial Capital ::: 3. City :::: 4. Town ::::: 5. Village :::::: 6. Tacharayin Kaghakner (‘temple cities’ - complexes which “had their own self-sufficient economic base and commercial networks.”§REF§Payaslian 2007: 16. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H8NEU6KD§REF§ " }, { "id": 465, "polity": { "id": 573, "name": "ru_golden_horde", "long_name": "Golden Horde", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1440 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Types of settlements varied between regions as the nomadic Horde conquered and settled in regions which had towns and villages.§REF§Halperin 1987: 35, 36, 77, 84. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.§REF§§REF§Atwood 2004: 36. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.§REF§§REF§Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 150. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8§REF§§REF§Schamiloglu 2018: 19. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4DIB5VCX§REF§: 1. Capital city (Sarai) :: 2. Major cities (Astrakhan, Ükek, Bulğar) ::: 3. Towns :::: 4. Villages ::::: 5. Hamlets :::::: 6. Nomadic camps " }, { "id": 466, "polity": { "id": 360, "name": "ir_saffarid_emp", "long_name": "Saffarid Caliphate", "start_year": 861, "end_year": 1003 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Bosworth 1994: 162. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7W46D62E§REF§: 1. Capital city :: 2. Cities ::: 3. Towns :::: 4. Villages " }, { "id": 467, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.: 1. Capital (Honolulu) :: 2. Towns ::: 3. Villages " }, { "id": 468, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.: 1. Capital cities: Wessex - Winchester; Mercia - Tamworth; Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE); Essex - Colchester; East Anglia- tbc; Kent- tbc; Danelaw- York (from 867); Kingdom of England (from 927) - Winchester. These were the centres of royal and administrative power for each kingdom. :: 2. Major Towns:: Important larger market towns such as London, Cambridge, and Ely. They had cathedrals and were the official seat of a diocesan bishop.§REF§(Yorke 1990: 40, 65) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§§REF§(Wright 2015: 34-36) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P§REF§ ::: 3. Port and trading towns::: Trading emporium and market towns and ports such as Dover, Sarre, Southampton, and Ipswich. §REF§(Yorke 1990: 40, 65) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§§REF§)Wright 2015: 34-36) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P§REF§ ::: 4. Villages::: Villages were mostly situated with access to good ploughing land. Many smaller, more isolated villages were in lower-status areas such as on the margin of occupied districts or in dry or chalky areas. These may have been used by the Germanic immigrants to establish themselves. §REF§(Higham 2004: 10) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§§REF§(Wright 2015: 25, 31) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P§REF§ :::: 5. Hamlets:::: Hamlets were the smallest of settlements, which generally consisted of a few hall-type buildings. §REF§(Higham 2004: 10) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§ Village or hamlet settlements were established close together, usually within 2-5 kilometres of each other.§REF§(Hamerow 2005: 273-274) Hamerow, Helena. 2005. “The Earliest Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms.” Chapter. In The New Cambridge Medieval History, edited by Paul Fouracre, 1:263–88. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521362917.012. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5JNINHPQ§REF§ ::::: 6. Monastic communities::::: Slightly more isolated and small communities based on a monastery with a self-sustaining ‘home-farm’ at its centre.§REF§(Wright 2015: ) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P§REF§ Double monasteries existed which housed monks and nuns side-by-side in communities ran by an abbess. §REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 35) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ " }, { "id": 469, "polity": { "id": 566, "name": "fr_france_napoleonic", "long_name": "Napoleonic France", "start_year": 1816, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§Crook 2002: 134, 146. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/29D9EQQE§REF§: 1. Capital and imperial city (Paris) :: 2. Major cities (Administrative and trading centres such as Bordeaux and Nantes.) ::: 3. Industrial towns (New factory towns such as Decazeville and Roubaix) :::: 4. Small Towns ::::: 5. Villages :::::: 6. Hamlets " }, { "id": 470, "polity": { "id": 572, "name": "at_austro_hungarian_emp", "long_name": "Austro-Hungarian Monarchy", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§Curtis 2013: 101, 167. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92.§REF§§REF§‘Austria-Hungary’. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/47VQW2IL.§REF§§REF§Judson 2016: 402. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW.§REF§: 1. Capital city :: 2. Major cities ::: 3. Towns :::: 4. Villages ::::: 5. Hamlets " }, { "id": 471, "polity": { "id": 786, "name": "gb_british_emp_2", "long_name": "British Empire II", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1968 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 6, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "PROBLEMATIC_DESCRIPTION_FOUND levels._The UK_ : 1. Capital City : London is the imperial capital of the UK and of the British Empire. It was the centre of royal and governmental power. It was by far the most populated settlement in the UK. §REF§( :: 2. Major cities :: Cities such as York, Exeter, Cambridge and Ely in the UK were major centres of urban settlement. They housed a bishop with his seat as a cathedral. They were major points of trade, industry and had the highest number of inhabitants after London. ::: 3. Industrial towns :::: 4. Small towns ::::: 5. Villages :::::: 6. Hamlets _Territories, Domains and Colonies_ British India was divided into: :: 2. Provincial Capitals :: Capital cities in territories outside of the UK. The colonial government operated from this city/settlement. ::: " }, { "id": 472, "polity": { "id": 785, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn_222222", "long_name": "Qasimid Dynasty XXXXXXX", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.§REF§ Hestler 1999: 16-17. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RH82MHZP§REF§: 1. Capital city (Sana’a) :: 2. Smaller cities (Aden, Ta’izz, Hodeida) ::: 3. Villages " }, { "id": 473, "polity": { "id": 579, "name": "gb_england_plantagenet", "long_name": "Plantagenet England", "start_year": 1154, "end_year": 1485 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.: 1. Capital city: London had been the capital city of England since William I declared it in 1066. Its population far surpasses that of any other city or town at around 70,000 people in 1300. §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 20. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ :: 2. Major Towns:: Important larger market towns such as London, York, Cambridge, and Ely. They had cathedrals and were the official seat of a diocesan bishop. The larger towns had a surrounding wall. §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 22. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ ::: 3. Port and trading towns::: Trading emporium and market towns and ports such as Dover, Sarre, Southampton, and Ipswich. §REF§Yorke 1990: 40, 65§REF§§REF§Wright 2015: 34-36§REF§ ::: 4. Villages::: Villages were generally situated with access to good ploughing land. It is often difficult to distinguish what may have been considered a village versus a small town. Villages were varied in layout and organisation – some were carefully planned, others grew up around a farm or village green.§REF§Higham 2004: 10§REF§§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 19, 22. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ " }, { "id": 475, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 8, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": "1. Capital Cities (Столичные города) - Over 500,000 inhabitants.\r\n\r\n2. 'Official' Cities (Официальные города) - 10,000s to 100,000s inhabitants.\r\n\r\n3. 'Statutory' Cities ('Штатные' города)\r\n - Provincial and Military Cities (Губернские и войсковой города) - 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants.\r\n - District Cities (Уездные города) - 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants.\r\n\r\n4. 'Non-Statutory' Cities ('Внештатные' города) - 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants.\r\n\r\n5. 'Extra-Statutory' and 'Without District' Cities (Заштатные и безуездные города) - 5,000 to 20,000 inhabitants.\r\n\r\n6. Intermediary Type (Промежуточный тип)\r\n - Various 'Small Towns' (Различные 'городки') - Below 5,000 inhabitants.\r\n - Slobodas (Слободы) - 2,000 to 10,000 inhabitants.\r\n - Colony Centers (Центр колонии) - 1,000 to 5,000 inhabitants.\r\n\r\n7. Specialized Cities and Urban Settlements (Специализированные города и городские поселения)\r\n - Small Towns (Местечки) - Below 5,000 inhabitants.\r\n - Industrial Settlements (Промышленные поселения при крупных заводах и рудниках) - 3,000 to 10,000 inhabitants.\r\n - Ports and Harbors (Порты и пристани) - 5,000 to 20,000 inhabitants.\r\n - Cities-Fortresses as District Centers (Города-крепости, являющиеся центрами уездов) - 10,000 to 20,000 inhabitants.\r\n\r\n8. Fortifications with Urban Functions (Укрепления, имеющие городские функции)\r\n - Fortresses (Крепости) - A few hundred to a few thousand inhabitants.\r\n - Siberian Ostrogs (Остроги Сибири) - Below 1,000 inhabitants.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n§REF§Белов Алексей Викторович, “Сеть Городов и Городских Поселений Российской Империи При Павле I,” Труды Исторического факультета Санкт-Петербургского университета, no. 11 (2012): 35–44.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3JZDNFD8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3JZDNFD8</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 476, "polity": { "id": 782, "name": "bd_twelve_bhuyans", "long_name": "Twelve Bhuyans", "start_year": 1538, "end_year": 1612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": null, "settlement_hierarchy_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) Capital city<br>(2) TownTowns were often emporiums of trade as well as political centres. What distinguished them from villages, according to Majumdar, was that while they may also have had some agricultural activity, they served a “wide variety of functions, commercial, industrial, political, judicial and military.” But the greatest distinction was the luxury and wealth of the towns and it’s citizens, which the Ramacharita describes as “a city of rows of palaces” and as possessing ‘an immense mass of gems’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> “the archaeological record indicates that urban centres came up as early as the fifth century bce. During the following centuries large towns would develop along major rivers rather than on the exposed sea coast.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJDGEDFZ\">[van_Schendel 2009]</a> (3) VillageMajumdar writes that since the beginning of historical record for Bengal, there have been well-established villages, in which the fields, meadows and woodlands have been organised to serve the population’s needs. They varied in size but people tended to live in compact groups within them They would all generally include livestock. The villages also contained “pits and canals (garta and nala) which might have served the purpose of drainage, barren tracts (ushara), tanks, reservoirs and temples, besides cattle-tracks and ordinary roads and paths.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> (4) Hamlet <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 477, "polity": { "id": 780, "name": "bd_chandra_dyn", "long_name": "Chandra Dynasty", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": null, "settlement_hierarchy_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) Capital city<br>(2) TownTowns were often emporiums of trade as well as political centres. What distinguished them from villages, according to Majumdar, was that while they may also have had some agricultural activity, they served a “wide variety of functions, commercial, industrial, political, judicial and military.” But the greatest distinction was the luxury and wealth of the towns and it’s citizens, which the Ramacharita describes as “a city of rows of palaces” and as possessing ‘an immense mass of gems’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> “the archaeological record indicates that urban centres came up as early as the fifth century bce. During the following centuries large towns would develop along major rivers rather than on the exposed sea coast.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJDGEDFZ\">[van_Schendel 2009]</a> (3) VillageMajumdar writes that since the beginning of historical record for Bengal, there have been well-established villages, in which the fields, meadows and woodlands have been organised to serve the population’s needs. They varied in size but people tended to live in compact groups within them They would all generally include livestock. The villages also contained “pits and canals (garta and nala) which might have served the purpose of drainage, barren tracts (ushara), tanks, reservoirs and temples, besides cattle-tracks and ordinary roads and paths.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> (4)Hamlet", "description": null }, { "id": 478, "polity": { "id": 779, "name": "bd_deva_dyn", "long_name": "Deva Dynasty", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": null, "settlement_hierarchy_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) Capital cityDevapatura<br>(2) Citye.g. the smaller city of Pattikera <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> (3) Town Towns were often emporiums of trade as well as political centres. What distinguished them from villages, according to Majumdar, was that while they may also have had some agricultural activity, they served a “wide variety of functions, commercial, industrial, political, judicial and military.” But the greatest distinction was the luxury and wealth of the towns and it’s citizens, which the Ramacharita describes as “a city of rows of palaces” and as possessing ‘an immense mass of gems’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> “The archaeological record indicates that urban centres came up as early as the fifth century bce. During the following centuries large towns would develop along major rivers rather than on the exposed sea coast.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJDGEDFZ\">[van_Schendel 2009]</a> (4) VillageMajumdar writes that since the beginning of historical record for Bengal, there have been well-established villages, in which the fields, meadows and woodlands have been organised to serve the population’s needs. They varied in size but people tended to live in compact groups within them They would all generally include livestock. The villages also contained “pits and canals (garta and nala) which might have served the purpose of drainage, barren tracts (ushara), tanks, reservoirs and temples, besides cattle-tracks and ordinary roads and paths.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 479, "polity": { "id": 778, "name": "in_east_india_co", "long_name": "British East India Company", "start_year": 1757, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": null, "settlement_hierarchy_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) Capital cityMurshidabad: Writing in 1770, the German priest Fr. Joseph Tieffenthaeler, stated that Marshidabad was about five miles long, stretching from Bamian to Lalbagh along the Ganges River. There were many suburbs divided into towns in the Murshidabad-Qasimbazar complex with beautiful houses and gardens situated along the Ganges River which ran through the expanded city. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G88NTW2D\">[Ray_Sreemani 2020]</a> Calcutta: TBC<br>(2) Market Towns There were several larger market towns in the Bengal region which were famous for selling certain goods, such as Jiaganj (cotton, sugar and grain), Azimganj (where south India merchants used to bulk purchase their items) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G88NTW2D\">[Ray_Sreemani 2020]</a> (3) TownWhat distinguished them from villages, according to Majumdar, was that while they may also have had some agricultural activity, they served a “wide variety of functions, commercial, industrial, political, judicial and military.” But the greatest distinction was the luxury and wealth of the towns and it’s citizens, which the Ramacharita describes as “a city of rows of palaces” and as possessing ‘an immense mass of gems’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> “the archaeological record indicates that urban centres came up as early as the fifth century bce. During the following centuries large towns would develop along major rivers rather than on the exposed sea coast.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJDGEDFZ\">[van_Schendel 2009]</a> (3) VillageMajumdar writes that since the beginning of historical record for Bengal, there have been well-established villages, in which the fields, meadows and woodlands have been organised to serve the population’s needs. They varied in size but people tended to live in compact groups within them They would all generally include livestock. The villages also contained “pits and canals (garta and nala) which might have served the purpose of drainage, barren tracts (ushara), tanks, reservoirs and temples, besides cattle-tracks and ordinary roads and paths.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> (4) Hamlet <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 480, "polity": { "id": 783, "name": "in_gauda_k", "long_name": "Gauda Kingdom", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 625 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": null, "settlement_hierarchy_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) Capital city<br>(2) TownTowns were often emporiums of trade as well as political centres. What distinguished them from villages, according to Majumdar, was that while they may also have had some agricultural activity, they served a “wide variety of functions, commercial, industrial, political, judicial and military.” But the greatest distinction was the luxury and wealth of the towns and it’s citizens.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> And van Schendel confirms that “the archaeological record indicates that urban centres came up as early as the fifth century bce. During the following centuries large towns would develop along major rivers rather than on the exposed sea coast.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJDGEDFZ\">[van_Schendel 2009]</a> (3) VillageMajumdar writes that since the beginning of historical record for Bengal, there have been well-established villages, in which the fields, meadows and woodlands have been organised to serve the population’s needs. They varied in size but people tended to live in compact groups within them They would all generally include livestock. The villages also contained “pits and canals (garta and nala) which might have served the purpose of drainage, barren tracts (ushara), tanks, reservoirs and temples, besides cattle-tracks and ordinary roads and paths.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 481, "polity": { "id": 781, "name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal", "long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal", "start_year": 1717, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": null, "settlement_hierarchy_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) Royal Capital cityMurshidabad<br>(2) Provincial Capital CityMajor cities such as Dhaka, the previous capital, became a provincial capital. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G88NTW2D\">[Ray_Sreemani 2020]</a> (3) TownTowns were often emporiums of trade as well as political centres. What distinguished them from villages, according to Majumdar, was that while they may also have had some agricultural activity, they served a “wide variety of functions, commercial, industrial, political, judicial and military.” But the greatest distinction was the luxury and wealth of the towns and it’s citizens, which the Ramacharita describes as “a city of rows of palaces” and as possessing ‘an immense mass of gems’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> “the archaeological record indicates that urban centres came up as early as the fifth century bce. During the following centuries large towns would develop along major rivers rather than on the exposed sea coast.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJDGEDFZ\">[van_Schendel 2009]</a> (4) VillageMajumdar writes that since the beginning of historical record for Bengal, there have been well-established villages, in which the fields, meadows and woodlands have been organised to serve the population’s needs. They varied in size but people tended to live in compact groups within them They would all generally include livestock. The villages also contained “pits and canals (garta and nala) which might have served the purpose of drainage, barren tracts (ushara), tanks, reservoirs and temples, besides cattle-tracks and ordinary roads and paths.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> (5) Hamlet <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 482, "polity": { "id": 250, "name": "cn_qin_emp", "long_name": "Qin Empire", "start_year": -338, "end_year": -207 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "1. Capital city.<br>2. Commanderie capital.3. Prefecture capital.4. Town.5. Village.<br>Shang Yang divided state into 31 counties (xian) each administered by a centrally-appointed magistrate§REF§(Bodde 1986, 35)§REF§" }, { "id": 483, "polity": { "id": 423, "name": "cn_eastern_zhou_warring_states", "long_name": "Eastern Zhou", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -256 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": "Inferred from contemporary polities.<br>pre-reforms (fifth c bce):<br>1. Capital city<br> 2. town 3. feudal estates (?) 4. village<br>post-reforms (fifth c bce):<br>1. Capital city<br> 2. Commandery capital 3. County 4. town 5. village", "description": null }, { "id": 484, "polity": { "id": 506, "name": "gr_macedonian_emp", "long_name": "Macedonian Empire", "start_year": -330, "end_year": -312 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": "1. Capital - Pella<br>2. Other cities<br>3. Town<br>4. Village<br>5. Tribe (hamlet?)", "description": null }, { "id": 487, "polity": { "id": 709, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1806 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 5, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Lisbon<br>__in Portugal__<br>2. Provincial centers administered by royal government<br>2. Provincial centers administered by local grandes<br>2. Judicially privileged municipalities<br>(inferred from information on administrative hierarchy)\"The kingdom was also divided up into six judicial circuits, each corresponding to a province (comarca) and presided over by a superior magistrate known as a corregedor. In addition, Lisbon and sometimes Santarém had their own corregedores. These magistrates exercised administrative and judicial authority in the king’s name – though their right to enter and hold court in the seigneuries of the great lay and ecclesiastical magnates, and in the territories of the judicially privileged municipalities, was long resisted.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a> 3. Smaller centers (inferred)<br>4. Villages (inferred)<br>__in the colonies__<br>2. Goa\"In 1530 Goa became the permanent seat of the viceroy rather than Cochin, which had been the only possible alternative. In theory the viceroy’s jurisdiction was vast, including all Portuguese possessions and interests east of the Cape of Good Hope and even extending to the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic. However, the huge distances involved and the gradual emergence ofa parallel far-flung network of informal settlements and possessions meant that viceroys in practice controlled only a relatively small core area.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> __in the Estado da India (African and Asian colonies)__<br>3. Other colonies4. Smaller settlements, largely indigenous population5. Pre-existing villages, largely indigenous population\"Despite the elevated population density, the peopling of the Old Conquests was by nature markedly rural: the inhabitants were dispersed in various villages, some of large size, but with a scarcity of real urban centres. Only the capital (Goa City or “Old City”), stood out as a large city in the Goan context.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4DMPBRA7\">[De_Matos_Jarnagin 2011]</a> __in Brazil__<br>3. Other colonial administrative centers4. Ports5. Farms and plantations<br>E.g.: \"For most of the colonial period Portuguese settlement in Brazil remained heavily concentrated along the coastal fringe. [...] Therefore ports played a major role in every captaincy. In most cases, the administrative capital was a port; otherwise a port was invariably sited nearby. Salvador, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Vitória, Santos and Ilhéus all conformed to this pattern. [...] Clustered round the ports of the principal captaincies, and along nearby rivers and coast, was a steadily widening zone of farms and plantations.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 488, "polity": { "id": 337, "name": "ru_moskva_rurik_dyn", "long_name": "Grand Principality of Moscow, Rurikid Dynasty", "start_year": 1480, "end_year": 1613 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": "levels.<br> 1. Capital<br> Moscow 2. Towns<br> Novgorod, Suzdal, Vologda, Ryazan 3. Villages", "description": null }, { "id": 489, "polity": { "id": 710, "name": "tz_tana", "long_name": "Classic Tana", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1498 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 6, "comment": "levels. Inferred from research carried out on the Kenyan coast (outside of this NGA) and Pemba Island (which lies within the NGA). Adding the level of \"capital\" to schemes proposed by Wilson, Kusimba and Fleisher.<br>1. Capital<br>2. Large towns<br>3. Small towns4. Large villages5. Small villages6. Isolated hamlets<br>\"A number of archaeologists have devised village classifications based on their physical features. Wilson’s (1982) study of Kenyan coastal settlements is the most often-cited attempt to address settlement patterns and the relationship between town and country for the Swahili, based on a database of some 400 settlements. He defined five types based on site size and the presence and amounts of stone (coral rag or limestone) architecture; these range in size from one to 15+ hectares, and from dispersed homesteads and hamlets with a single mosque or tomb, to cities with dozens of stone domestic structures, mosques and tombs.<br>\"Kusimba (1999b: 119) has offered a four-part classification of villages: walled villages, closely built villages, dispersed villages and hamlets, focusing on differences in ‘availability of suitable land, space and security’. This typology draws on ethnographic understandings. My own research on Pemba Island used a typology that included fieldhouse, hamlet, village, small town and town (Fleisher 2003: 134–5). These distinctions were made based on both site size and the nature of the deposits, including field houses and hamlets of 1 ha or less, villages of up to 3 ha, and small and larger towns, greater than 5 ha in size. Only small and large towns included stone architecture.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PB22FKSS\">[Fleisher_Wynne-Jones_LaViolette 2017]</a> \"The rise of Tumbatu as its principal town in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries is reflected in the site’s extensive ruins (Map 3, p. xxiv; Horton in press). [...] The geographer Yaqut (writing c. 1220 ce) described Zanzibar as a centre of trade and Tumbatu as the new location of the people and seat of the king of the Zanj (Trimingham 1964).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VRKMQD48\">[Fitton_Wynne-Jones_LaViolette 2017]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 490, "polity": { "id": 314, "name": "ua_kievan_rus", "long_name": "Kievan Rus", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1242 }, "year_from": 1000, "year_to": 1000, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Capital town<br> 2. Subordinate town 3. Village ?<br>Russian annals mention 24 towns in the 9th and 10th centuries, 86 in the 11th century and 206 in the twelfth century.§REF§(Blum 1971, 15-16) Jerome Blum. 1971. Lord and Peasant in Russia. From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. Princeton. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 491, "polity": { "id": 535, "name": "ug_bunyoro_k_2", "long_name": "Bito Dynasty", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Capital2. Seat of bakungu (great chiefs)3. Seat of bakongole (lesser chiefs)4. Lesser towns and/or villages<br>\"In the Nyoro state of the nineteenth century, as reconstructed by John Beattie (1971), all political authority was regarded as belonging to, and allocable by, the king (mukama) alone. Political authority was delegated by the mukama, usually in the form of grants of estates. There was a limited number of great chiefs (bakungu), who ruled over large areas subdivided amongst lesser chiefs (bakongole).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IP7IPA6J\">[Robertshaw 2010, p. 261]</a> It seems reasonable to infer that this was the case in preceding centuries as well, given organisational continuity between the Babito dynasty and its predecessors: Uzoigwe <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBEPG6WE\">[Uzoigwe 1972, p. 247]</a> specifically notes that the Babito \"do not seem to have introduced any fundamental economic changes\" or \"any revolutionary social reorganization\".", "description": null }, { "id": 492, "polity": { "id": 534, "name": "ug_bunyoro_k_1", "long_name": "Cwezi Dynasty", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1699 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Capital2. Seat of bakungu (great chiefs)3. Seat of bakongole (lesser chiefs)4. Lesser towns and/or villages<br>\"In the Nyoro state of the nineteenth century, as reconstructed by John Beattie (1971), all political authority was regarded as belonging to, and allocable by, the king (mukama) alone. Political authority was delegated by the mukama, usually in the form of grants of estates. There was a limited number of great chiefs (bakungu), who ruled over large areas subdivided amongst lesser chiefs (bakongole).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IP7IPA6J\">[Robertshaw 2010, p. 261]</a> It seems reasonable to infer that this was the case in preceding centuries as well, given organisational continuity between the Babito dynasty and its predecessors: Uzoigwe <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBEPG6WE\">[Uzoigwe 1972, p. 247]</a> specifically notes that the Babito \"do not seem to have introduced any fundamental economic changes\" or \"any revolutionaty social reorganization\".", "description": null }, { "id": 493, "polity": { "id": 774, "name": "mw_early_maravi", "long_name": "Early Maravi", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 494, "polity": { "id": 775, "name": "mw_northern_maravi_k", "long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1621 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 5, "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 496, "polity": { "id": 715, "name": "tz_east_africa_ia_1", "long_name": "Early East Africa Iron Age", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 497, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 498, "polity": { "id": 791, "name": "bd_khadga_dyn", "long_name": "Khadga Dynasty", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": null, "settlement_hierarchy_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) Capital city<br>(2) Town Towns were often emporiums of trade as well as political centres. What distinguished them from villages, according to Majumdar, was that while they may also have had some agricultural activity, they served a “wide variety of functions, commercial, industrial, political, judicial and military.” But the greatest distinction was the luxury and wealth of the towns and it’s citizens.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> And van Schendel confirms that “the archaeological record indicates that urban centres came up as early as the fifth century bce. During the following centuries large towns would develop along major rivers rather than on the exposed sea coast.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJDGEDFZ\">[van_Schendel 2009]</a> (3) VillagesMajumdar writes that since the beginning of historical record for Bengal, there have been well-established villages, in which the fields, meadows and woodlands have been organised to serve the population’s needs. They varied in size but people tended to live in compact groups within them They would all generally include livestock. The villages also contained “pits and canals (garta and nala) which might have served the purpose of drainage, barren tracts (ushara), tanks, reservoirs and temples, besides cattle-tracks and ordinary roads and paths.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 499, "polity": { "id": 793, "name": "bd_sena_dyn", "long_name": "Sena Dynasty", "start_year": 1095, "end_year": 1245 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": null, "settlement_hierarchy_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) Capital city<br>(2) TownTowns were often emporiums of trade as well as political centres. What distinguished them from villages, according to Majumdar, was that while they may also have had some agricultural activity, they served a “wide variety of functions, commercial, industrial, political, judicial and military.” But the greatest distinction was the luxury and wealth of the towns and it’s citizens, which the Ramacharita describes as “a city of rows of palaces” and as possessing ‘an immense mass of gems’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> “the archaeological record indicates that urban centres came up as early as the fifth century bce. During the following centuries large towns would develop along major rivers rather than on the exposed sea coast.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJDGEDFZ\">[van_Schendel 2009]</a> (3) VillageMajumdar writes that since the beginning of historical record for Bengal, there have been well-established villages, in which the fields, meadows and woodlands have been organised to serve the population’s needs. They varied in size but people tended to live in compact groups within them They would all generally include livestock. The villages also contained “pits and canals (garta and nala) which might have served the purpose of drainage, barren tracts (ushara), tanks, reservoirs and temples, besides cattle-tracks and ordinary roads and paths.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">[Majumdar 1943]</a> (4) Hamlet <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 500, "polity": { "id": 795, "name": "bd_yadava_varman_dyn", "long_name": "Yadava-Varman Dynasty", "start_year": 1080, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": null, "settlement_hierarchy_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>(1) Capital city“It has been estimated on the basis of the archaeological exploration of the area that the ancient capital covered about 15 square miles, on which are situated some 17 or 18 villages.”§REF§\"Vikramapura\". <i>Banglapedia</i>: <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Vikramapura\">http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Vikramapura</a>§REF§<br>(2) TownTowns were often emporiums of trade as well as political centres. What distinguished them from villages, according to Majumdar, was that while they may also have had some agricultural activity, they served a “wide variety of functions, commercial, industrial, political, judicial and military.” But the greatest distinction was the luxury and wealth of the towns and it’s citizens, which the Ramacharita describes a Pala town as “a city of rows of palaces” and as possessing ‘an immense mass of gems’.”§REF§Majumdar. 1943. The History of Bengal: The Hindu Period. Dacca: The University of Dacca: 642-645. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T</a>§REF§ “the archaeological record indicates that urban centres came up as early as the fifth century bce. During the following centuries large towns would develop along major rivers rather than on the exposed sea coast.”§REF§van Schendel. 2009. A History of Bangladesh. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 20. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJDGEDFZ\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJDGEDFZ</a>§REF§<br>(3) VillagesMajumdar writes that since the beginning of historical record for Bengal, there have been well-established villages, in which the fields, meadows and woodlands have been organised to serve the population’s needs. They varied in size but people tended to live in compact groups within them They would all generally include livestock. The villages also contained “pits and canals (garta and nala) which might have served the purpose of drainage, barren tracts (ushara), tanks, reservoirs and temples, besides cattle-tracks and ordinary roads and paths.”§REF§Majumdar. 1943. The History of Bengal: The Hindu Period. Dacca: The University of Dacca: 642-645. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7ZTPE42T</a>§REF§ . “It has been estimated on the basis of the archaeological exploration of the area that the ancient capital covered about 15 square miles, on which are situated some 17 or 18 villages.”§REF§\"Vikramapura\". <i>Banglapedia</i>: <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Vikramapura\">http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Vikramapura</a>§REF§<br>(4) Hamlet§REF§Furui. 2020. Land and Society in Early South Asia: Eastern India 400–1250 AD. London; New York: Routledge 193. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 501, "polity": { "id": 284, "name": "hu_avar_khaganate", "long_name": "Avar Khaganate", "start_year": 586, "end_year": 822 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Capital<br> \"The Avars were centralized\".§REF§(Liebeschuetz 2015, 441) J H W F Liebeschuetz. 2015. East and West in Late Antiquity: Invasion, Settlement, Ethnogenesis and Conflicts of Religion. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Town \"They lived in networks of small settlements built close together.\"§REF§(Martin 2017, 171) Michael Martin. 2017. City of the Sun: Development and Popular Resistance in the Pre-Modern West. Algora Publishing. New York.§REF§<br> 3. Settlements" }, { "id": 502, "polity": { "id": 210, "name": "et_aksum_emp_2", "long_name": "Axum II", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 599 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": "levels. Population rise throughout this period.<br>1. Capital - city<br> 2. Towns Many specialist workers \"must have been urban dwellers, living in towns and cities that apparently did not need protection by surrounding walls ...\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a> \"Intermediate-sized houses excavated at Matara would indicate that there were also people who belonged to neither the elite nor the peasantry, at least in Aksumite times.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a> Adulis known before the city of Aksum. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 381]</a> 3. Village First century CE. \"Where there used to be only villages, small towns and cities are now developing.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5V2LQXW\">[Anfray 1981, p. 376]</a> 4. Hamlets Towns, villages and isolated hamlets. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WF8KTJRD\">[Uhlig 2017, p. 94]</a> \"In central Tegray the ancient landscape was characterized by a clearly-cut hierarchy in size of the settlements, ranging from the city of Aksum, over 100ha in size, to small compounds less than 1ha in area, and included large and small villages, elite residences, residential compounds, farming hamlets and workshops. Large settlements, ranging from 7ha to over 11ha in area, were located mainly at the base or sometimes on the top of the hills. Isolated elite palaces were often scattered in the open plain. Villages, hamlets and compounds were located on the top or along the slopes of the hills.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WF8KTJRD\">[Uhlig 2017, p. 96]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 503, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Capital - city<br> 2. Towns Many specialist workers \"must have been urban dwellers, living in towns and cities that apparently did not need protection by surrounding walls ...\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a> \"Intermediate-sized houses excavated at Matara would indicate that there were also people who belonged to neither the elite nor the peasantry, at least in Aksumite times.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a> Adulis known before the city of Aksum. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 381]</a> 3. Village First century CE. \"Where there used to be only villages, small towns and cities are now developing.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5V2LQXW\">[Anfray 1981, p. 376]</a> 4. Hamlets Towns, villages and isolated hamlets. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WF8KTJRD\">[Uhlig 2017, p. 94]</a> \"In central Tegray the ancient landscape was characterized by a clearly-cut hierarchy in size of the settlements, ranging from the city of Aksum, over 100ha in size, to small compounds less than 1ha in area, and included large and small villages, elite residences, residential compounds, farming hamlets and workshops. Large settlements, ranging from 7ha to over 11ha in area, were located mainly at the base or sometimes on the top of the hills. Isolated elite palaces were often scattered in the open plain. Villages, hamlets and compounds were located on the top or along the slopes of the hills.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WF8KTJRD\">[Uhlig 2017, p. 96]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 504, "polity": { "id": 379, "name": "mm_bagan", "long_name": "Bagan", "start_year": 1044, "end_year": 1287 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. City<br> 2. Town 3. Village 3. Hamlet \"By the middle of the century references can be found to the head of a hamlet (tuik sukri), the village-president (sangrih), and the tax-assessor (kamkun), each of whom would have been involved in the proper collection of the king's due.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 128) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" } ] }