Scientific Literature List
A viewset for viewing and editing Scientific Literatures.
GET /api/sc/scientific-literatures/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 482, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/scientific-literatures/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/scientific-literatures/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. Tibb-i-Firuzshahi (medicine book) by Firuz Shah. §REF§Qureshi, I. H. (1971). The administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (p. 93). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 182.§REF§" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " SCCS variable 149 'Writing and Records' lists no mnemonic devices or nonwritten records or 'True writing, no writing' We need to ascertain what Shira means by 'secular literature'." }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "in_gupta_emp", "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita assumed the present form by the end of the 2nd century AD and were reputed works in the Gupta period. [...] Navanitakam is another work on medicine composed in the Gupta period. It gives formulae and prescriptions for the practitioner.\"§REF§(Khosla 1982, 148) Sarla Khosla. 1982. <i>Gupta Civilization</i>. New Delhi: Intellectual Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Works on mathematics§REF§Suryanath U. Kamath, A concise history of Karnataka (1980), p. 139§REF§" }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Under Hoysalas works on mathematics§REF§Suryanath U. Kamath, A concise history of Karnataka (1980), p. 139§REF§" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 417, "name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn", "long_name": "Kannauj - Varman Dynasty", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 780 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from presence of court physician.§REF§(Mishra 1977, 138) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The official in charge of agriculture \"compiled meteorological statistics and used a rain gauge.\"§REF§(McClellan III and Dorn 2015, 164) McClellan III, James E. Dorn, Harold. 2015. Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. JHU Press.§REF§ Astronomers were present.§REF§(McClellan III and Dorn 2015, 164) McClellan III, James E. Dorn, Harold. 2015. Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. JHU Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences. §REF§<a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://asianhistory.about.com/od/india/p/akbarthegreatbio.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">Link</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mathematics, medicine §REF§Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), p. 127§REF§" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 385, "name": "in_sunga_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Sunga Empire", "start_year": -187, "end_year": -65 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"More by good luck than by design and by prominence, a few other texts have come down from the period between the empires. There are, to be sure, such texts of the Śuṅga/Kāṇva and the early Kushana periods, including the older parts of Arthaśāstra (which has additions up to the first century CE), early medicine (Caraka, Suśruta), some early astronomical texts (Yavanajātaka of Sphujidhvaja, ed. Pingree 1978, Paulīṣa, Romaka, etc.), the Bhāratīya Nāṭyaṣāstra (in part, first century CE), and some early Sanskrit poetry such as Aśvaghoṣa’s Buddhacarita and Saundarānanda, Bhāsa’s dramas, etc.\"§REF§(Witzel 2006, 482) Michael Witzel. 2006. 'Brahmanical Reactions to Foreign Influences and to Social and Religious Change' in <i>Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE</i>, edited by Patrick Olivelle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Gupta-Vakataka period: \"The epoch-making discovery of the decimal system of notation with the place value of zero, which was to simplify the arithmetical processes all over the world, was made by the Hindus during our age. They had a lead over their contemporaries in the fields of algebra and arithmetic. Their progress in astronomy was also remarkable. The discovery that the earth rotates round its axis was made by Aryabhata in the 5th century. The length of his solar year is nearer its true duration than that postulated by Ptolemy.\"§REF§(Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 6-8) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.§REF§ Gupta-Vakataka period: \"The six systems of Hindu philosophy assumed their classical form in our age.\"§REF§(Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 6-8) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.§REF§" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Works on Physics, Mathematics and Applied Science, such as Mechanical Technology survive from the period. One of the outstanding examples is the Kitab al-Hiyal (Book of ingenious devices), detailing over 100 devices ranging from self filling lamps and fountains to a primitive gas mask. §REF§Young, M. J. L., John Derek Latham, and Robert Bertram Serjeant, eds. Religion, learning and science in the 'abbasid period pp. 248-288§REF§ \"The brothers Jafar, Ahmad, and Hasan ibn Musa from Merv, known as the “Sons of Musa” (Banu Musa). In ninth-century Baghdad they dominated the scientific scene under Caliph Mamun and his successors. Besides their work in geometry and astronomy, Ahmad wrote a pioneering work in practical mechanics, Book of Ingenious Devices.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ Ahmad al-Farghani (c.797-860 CE). \"An astronomer who hailed from the Ferghana Valley in present-day Uzbekistan. Farghani’s The Elements was among the earliest works on astronomy to be written in Arabic.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " With the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258 CE \"the culture, science and learning for which Baghdad had been known for centuries simply disappeared in a period of a week.\"§REF§(DeVries 2014, 209) DeVries, Kelly in Morton, N. John, S. eds. 2014. Crusading and Warfare in the Middle Ages: Realities and Representations. Essays in Honour of John France. Ashgate Publishing Ltd.§REF§" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Akkadian administrators were accustomed to mathematical models for agricultural management and production, for example, a standard ratio of how much land could be plowed by one team.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 18) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " A hoard of cuneiform tablets were found at Tell Harmal, ancient Shaduppum, including texts with zoological, botanical, mathematical and geographical terms. §REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.80§REF§" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 342, "name": "iq_babylonia_2", "long_name": "Kassite Babylonia", "start_year": -1595, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"A growing body of literature, composed now in Akkadian instead of Sumerian, accumulated through the later second and first millennia. These included new versions of earlier stories, such as Ishtar in the Netherworld, and new stories, such as Enuma elish and The Story of Erra, as well as new compositions in old and new genres of religious literature and other branches of literary composition such as disputations, fables, and love poems, and the time-honored Sumerian lexical texts, now translated and greatly expanded and developed. Epic poems about historical monarchs began to appear, including fictive “autobiographies.” On the practical side, there was a growing body of “scientific” literature: compilations of omen and divination observations, treatments for illnesses, recipes and other treatises, as well as mathematical tables and exercises.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 291) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 481, "name": "iq_bazi_dyn", "long_name": "Bazi Dynasty", "start_year": -1005, "end_year": -986 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"A growing body of literature, composed now in Akkadian instead of Sumerian, accumulated through the later second and first millennia. These included new versions of earlier stories, such as Ishtar in the Netherworld, and new stories, such as Enuma elish and The Story of Erra, as well as new compositions in old and new genres of religious literature and other branches of literary composition such as disputations, fables, and love poems, and the time-honored Sumerian lexical texts, now translated and greatly expanded and developed. Epic poems about historical monarchs began to appear, including fictive “autobiographies.” On the practical side, there was a growing body of “scientific” literature: compilations of omen and divination observations, treatments for illnesses, recipes and other treatises, as well as mathematical tables and exercises.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 291) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 482, "name": "iq_dynasty_e", "long_name": "Dynasty of E", "start_year": -979, "end_year": -732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Documentary sources also become very scarce.\"§REF§(Beaulieu 2017, 7Beaulieu, Paul-Alain. 2017. A History of Babylon, 2200 BC - AD 75. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5T3ZBRQT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5T3ZBRQT</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "iq_early_dynastic", "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 480, "name": "iq_isin_dynasty2", "long_name": "Second Dynasty of Isin", "start_year": -1153, "end_year": -1027 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"A growing body of literature, composed now in Akkadian instead of Sumerian, accumulated through the later second and first millennia. These included new versions of earlier stories, such as Ishtar in the Netherworld, and new stories, such as Enuma elish and The Story of Erra, as well as new compositions in old and new genres of religious literature and other branches of literary composition such as disputations, fables, and love poems, and the time-honored Sumerian lexical texts, now translated and greatly expanded and developed. Epic poems about historical monarchs began to appear, including fictive “autobiographies.” On the practical side, there was a growing body of “scientific” literature: compilations of omen and divination observations, treatments for illnesses, recipes and other treatises, as well as mathematical tables and exercises.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 291) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 478, "name": "iq_isin_larsa", "long_name": "Isin-Larsa", "start_year": -2004, "end_year": -1763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The structure was also applied to texts of a ‘scientific’ nature, such as medicine.\"§REF§(Liverani 2014, 205) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Library contained mythic, religious, scientific and literary works. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 86)§REF§" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 346, "name": "iq_neo_babylonian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Babylonian Empire", "start_year": -626, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences §REF§Huehnergard, J. and Woods, C. 2008. Akkadian and Eblaite in Woodard, R.D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.84§REF§" }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "There are lack of evidences suggesting that the writing system has been already invented." }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 474, "name": "iq_uruk", "long_name": "Uruk", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Nissen et al. 1993, 30§REF§" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Greeks practised medicine at the royal courts of Darius I and Artaxerxes II.§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[28]</a>)§REF§ Darius the Great \"dispatched Estilakis and a delegation to India to report on the regional facilities for construction of a dam. The latter presented a report, equal in quality to those prepared by modern day geography and hydrology experts.\"§REF§(Angelakis, Mays and Koutsoyiannis 2012, 94) Angelakis A N, Mays L W, Koutsoyiannis, D. 2012.Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Uzun Hasan patronised religious structures, encouraged religious endowments and students, including Tajik sayyids, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad (d. 632), and patronised the arts and sciences\".§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 487, "name": "ir_susiana_archaic", "long_name": "Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions' needs.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ Liverani says the so-called \"urban revolution\" of the Uruk phase occurred 3800-3000 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mathematics developed during this period. \"there can be little doubt that the Mesopotamians knew and used the Pythagorean theorem. This is confirmed by a problem from a tablet found at Susa a couple of hundred miles from Babylon, belonging to the Old Babylonian period. It is one of the oldest examples of the use of the theorem in the history of mathematics.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 165) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§ \"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included the development and use of a binary weight system, which had a major influence on the fraction systems of the whole Mesopotamia; a massive number of administrative and business documents; major architectural works; the development and management of a gigantic system of underground canals (Qanat) for irrigation, an Iranian invention that turned the arid land into an agricultural land\" §REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§ -- which period?" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Hospital built in Baghdad became centre for medical research and scholarship. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.287§REF§ Mathematicians: \"Abūl Wafā' Būzjānī (d. 998) and Omar Khayyám (d. 1122) who conveyed, in so-called conversazioni, their knowledge to architects and artisans committed to building and decorating the religious and secular buildings.\" §REF§(more official source required <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://al-qanaa.blogspot.co.uk/2009/01/buyid-architecture-in-esfahan.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>)§REF§ \"al-Daula financed considerable scientific, medical, and Islamic religious research.\" §REF§(Ring, Watson and Schellinger 2014, 644) Ring, Trudy. Watson, Noelle. Schellinger, Paul. 2014. Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge.§REF§" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 507, "name": "ir_elymais_2", "long_name": "Elymais II", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"philosophy flourished in Hellenistic Babylonia, and Greek metaphysicians, astronomers, naturalists, historians, geographers, and physicians worked there.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 8-9) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§ <i>- Hellenistic Susa likely had the same 'high culture' to a lesser degree</i>" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 486, "name": "ir_susiana_formative", "long_name": "Formative Period", "start_year": -7200, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions' needs.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ Liverani says the so-called \"urban revolution\" of the Uruk phase occurred 3800-3000 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. \"a translation from Arabic into Persian of a zoological text on the usefulness of organs and other body parts of animals (Manāfeʿ-e ḥayawān) ordered by Ḡāzān Khan\" §REF§Stefano Carboni, 'IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration</a>§REF§ Hulegu built an astronomical observatory for polymath Nasir al-Din Tusi.§REF§(Morgan 2015, 66) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 488, "name": "ir_susiana_a", "long_name": "Susiana A", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions' needs.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ Liverani says the so-called \"urban revolution\" of the Uruk phase occurred 3800-3000 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 489, "name": "ir_susiana_b", "long_name": "Susiana B", "start_year": -5700, "end_year": -5100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions' needs.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 491, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_2", "long_name": "Susiana - Late Ubaid", "start_year": -4700, "end_year": -4300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions' needs.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 490, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_1", "long_name": "Susiana - Early Ubaid", "start_year": -5100, "end_year": -4700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions' needs.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Credit for the discovery and use of the monsoon as an aid to navigation in the Indian Ocean is given to a merchant named Hippalus about the year 100 B.C.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, 43-44) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§ Astronomy, primarily for calendar.§REF§(Hopkins 2008) Chris Hopkins. 2008. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.parthia.com/parthia_science.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.parthia.com/parthia_science.htm</a>§REF§ \"We know that varied schools of philosophy flourished in Hellenistic Babylonia, and Greek metaphysicians, astronomers, naturalists, historians, geographers, and physicians worked there. The Parthian court made considerable use of such trained and able men for building its bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 8-9) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Credit for the discovery and use of the monsoon as an aid to navigation in the Indian Ocean is given to a merchant named Hippalus about the year 100 B.C.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, 43-44) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§ Astronomy, primarily for calendar.§REF§(Hopkins 2008) Chris Hopkins. 2008. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.parthia.com/parthia_science.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.parthia.com/parthia_science.htm</a>§REF§ \"We know that varied schools of philosophy flourished in Hellenistic Babylonia, and Greek metaphysicians, astronomers, naturalists, historians, geographers, and physicians worked there. The Parthian court made considerable use of such trained and able men for building its bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 8-9) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 485, "name": "ir_susiana_pre_ceramic", "long_name": "Pre-Ceramic Period", "start_year": -7800, "end_year": -7200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions' needs.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ Liverani says the so-called \"urban revolution\" of the Uruk phase occurred 3800-3000 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In 1851, the first modern institution of higher education was founded. Dar ul-Funun, a polytechic institute, was founded by Amir Kabir, the Prime Minister from 1848 to 1851, better known as Iran's first reformer, to educate students in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences.\"§REF§(Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne.§REF§" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. Shakyh Baha’al-Din al-Amili \"wrote on a diverse variety of topics, including scientific works such as treatises on mathematics, numerology and astrolabes; traditional Islamic sciences such as tafsir and hadith\". §REF§1. Sholeh A. Quinn, ‘Iran under Safavid Rule’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 222.§REF§" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Iranian interest in Indian philosophy and science during the Sasanian period is demonstrated by translations into Middle Persian of Indian works on mathematics, astronomy and medicine, and of belles-lettres and didactic texts\".§REF§(Khromov 1996, 94-95) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ <i>in volume more in later Sassanid period than the first</i> Court doctors, including Indian doctors, suggest Indian medical works likely translated.§REF§(Khromov 1996, 95) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ However, most scientific literature translated was from Syriac and Greek.§REF§(Khromov 1996, 95) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ \"astrologers and the various kinds of medical specialists\".§REF§(Eisenstadt 1969, 71) Eisenstadt, Shmuel Noah. 1969. The Political Systems of Empires. Transaction Publishers.§REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Astronomy, medicine, mirrors (translated from India).§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 27-37)§REF§ Medical treatises (translated from Romans).§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 27-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ \"Iranian interest in Indian philosophy and science during the Sasanian period is demonstrated by translations into Middle Persian of Indian works on mathematics, astronomy and medicine, and of belles-lettres and didactic texts\".§REF§(Khromov 1996, 94-95) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ Court doctors, including Indian doctors, suggest Indian medical works likely translated.§REF§(Khromov 1996, 95) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ However, most scientific literature translated was from Syriac and Greek.§REF§(Khromov 1996, 95) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\" \"Babylonian astronomy, astrology, mathematics, and medicine were studied and developed by Greek inhabitants of the region [of Babylonia], and Babylonian astrology flooded the western world.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 4) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§ Mathematics and astronomy were written in cuneiform (even when most literature was written in Greek).§REF§Joannes, F. 2004. The Age of Empires: Mesopotamia in the first millennium BC. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p254.§REF§" }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Farid al-Din Attar (1145-1221 CE): \"Pharmacist and Sufi poet from Nishapur.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ Zayn al-Din Jurjani (1040-1136 CE): \"Author in Gurganj of a massive compendium of medical knowledge, the Khwarazm Shah’s Treasure, which focused on the needs of the practicing doctor.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ Omar Khayyam (1048-1131 CE): Mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, engineer, and poet from Nishapur\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ Abu al-Rahman al-Khazini (d. c.1130 CE): \"Astronomer and polymath whose Book of the Balance of Wisdom, written in Merv, has been called 'the most comprehensive work on [weighing] in the Middle Ages, from any cultural area.'\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ e.g. The Aḡrāż al-ṭebb, \"one of the first medical treatises in Persian literature\" §REF§Daniela Meneghini 'SALJUQS v. SALJUQID LITERATURE' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v</a>§REF§ Science and mathematics genius Omar Khayyam (1048-1131 CE) who was also a poet.§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§" } ] }