Scientific Literature List
A viewset for viewing and editing Scientific Literatures.
GET /api/sc/scientific-literatures/?format=api
{ "count": 482, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/scientific-literatures/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Minaret of Jam contains mathematics of double helix." }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Astronomy. \"Greek equatorial sun-dial, Ai-Khanoum, Afghanistan 3rd-2nd century BC.\"§REF§(Robishaw 2???) Robishaw, A. The Esoteric Codex: Dynamics of the Celestial Spheres. Lulu.com.§REF§" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Astronomy, medicine, mirrors (translated from India). §REF§Daryaee, T. Sasanian Persia, pp. 27-37§REF§ Medical treatises (translated from Romans).§REF§Daryaee, T. Sasanian Persia, pp. 27-37§REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " During the Kushan period there were texts on health, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics.§REF§(Bivar 2009) Bivar, A. D. H. 2009. KUSHAN DYNASTY i. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. Site accessed: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kushan-dynasty-i-history§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Health, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics. The astronomical text Yavanajataka §REF§(Bivar 2009) Bivar, A. D. H. 2009. KUSHAN DYNASTY i. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. Site accessed: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kushan-dynasty-i-history§REF§ \"Tolstov, in his study of the remains of the ancient irrigation works in Chorasmia, noted that it was precisely during the period of antiquity that a school of irrigation engineers and high priests of science emerged at Chorasmia; it remained in existence until the time of Qutayba's campaign against Khwarizm (ancient Chorasmia). The school included experts in mathematics, water engineering, cartography, astronomy and calendrical observations, which were of great importance for an extensive irrigation economy.\"§REF§(Mukhamedjanov 1994, 264) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.§REF§ <i>Part of Chorasmia region is within boundaries of Kushan Empire.</i>" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " present or inferred present for Greco-Bactrians in 200 BCE" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Physician Hua Tuo (c140-208 CE) used anaesthetic during surgery. §REF§(Kerr 2013, 39)§REF§ A director of astrology invented the seismograph in 132 CE§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494)§REF§ - this was Zhang Heng (78-139 CE) and the device was called the Di Dong Yi.§REF§(Yan 2007, 118) Yan, Hong-Sen. 2007. Reconstruction Designs of Lost Ancient Chinese Machinery. Springer Science & Business Media.§REF§ \"...sulfur and saltpeter were recorded in the Pharmacopoeia of the Divine Agriculturist compiled during the Han dynasty.\"§REF§(Lorge 2011, 33)§REF§ Medical prescriptions.§REF§(Knechtges 2010, 118) Knechtges, David R. in Chang, Kang-i Sun. Ownen, Stephen. 2010. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Zhang Heng (78-139 CE) was a polymath cartographer, mathematician, inventor (poet and painter) who was for a time a royal astronomer.§REF§(Yan 2007, 117-118) Yan, Hong-Sen. 2007. Reconstruction Designs of Lost Ancient Chinese Machinery. Springer Science & Business Media.§REF§" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"the Western Jin, at least before 300, was a period of remarkable intellectual, scholarly, and literary activity.\"§REF§(Knechtges 2010, 183) Knechtges, David R. in Chang, Kang-i Sun. Ownen, Stephen. 2010. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Huangfu Mi (215-282 CE) was a physician." }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Unknown. \"normally it is only after writing comes to be used for display that archaeology begins to find traces of it.\"§REF§(Wang 2014, 179) Wang, Haicheng. 2014. Writing and the Ancient State: Early China in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Unknown. \"normally it is only after writing comes to be used for display that archaeology begins to find traces of it. Because administrative documents were almost certainly written on perishable materials like bamboo and papyrus, we will probably never find them.\"§REF§(Wang 2014, 179) Wang, Haicheng. 2014. Writing and the Ancient State: Early China in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The A-Hmao language was first written by the Pollard script in apprx. 1905.§REF§Duffy, John M. (2007). Writing from these roots: literacy in a Hmong-American community. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-3095-4.§REF§" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the fact immediately preceding polities produced scientific literature §REF§(? 1996, 4519) Mathematical Reviews. Volume 96. Volume 1996. American Mathematical Society.§REF§ However, Spring and Autumn polities wrote on perishable materials such as silk§REF§(Cook and Major 1999, viii) Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. eds. 1999. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai'i Press. Honolulu.§REF§, which means that texts are less likely to be preserved" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. 《測圓海鏡》,《益古演段》" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": "e.g.: 1450 CE:《九章算法比类大全》; 1606 CE: Euclid's Elements (幾何原本): translated by Xu Guangqi(徐光啟) and Matteo Ricci(利瑪窦). Xu Guangqi was a Chinese scholar-bureaucrat, agricultural scientist, astronomer, and mathematician in the Ming Dynasty. Matteo Ricci was an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China missions; 1637 CE: Tiangong Kaiwu/The Exploitation of the Works of Nature (天工開物): was a Chinese encyclopedia compiled by Song Yingxing (宋應星). It covered a wide range of technical issues and materials including agriculture, irrigation, hydraulic engineering, milling processes, sericulture, textile technology, salt technology, sugar technology, ceramics technology, transportation, bronze metallurgy, iron metallurgy, coal metallurgy, vitriol metallurgy, sulfur metallurgy, and arsenic, oil technology, papermaking, silver metallurgy, lead metallurgy, copper metallurgy, tin metallurgy, zinc metallurgy, military technology, and etc." }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"By the turn of the eleventh century the four divisions that would later make up the Sung Han-lin Academy (astronomy, calligraphy, painting, and medicine) had already been established.\" §REF§(Hartman 2015, 94)§REF§ \"Complete Essentials from the Military Classics\" (Wujing Zongyao, 1044 CE) \"currently ranks as the first text directly to describe the formula for gunpowder\"§REF§(Lorge 2011, 24)§REF§ \"The first mention of what we would call gunpowder appeared in 808... These mixtures grew out of a very long tradition of alchemical experimentation usually tied to certain schools of Daoism that sought elixirs of immortality or the means to transmute one material into another. While all of our early evidence for alchemical mixtures is tied to Daoists, this may be a historiographical artifact produced by the better preservation of texts tied to that school of though (in all its varieties). There were also medical specialists, among others, interested in the effects of various substances and compounds on materials and bodies.\" §REF§(Lorge 2011, 32)§REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Among literate Chinese." }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Printing houses established for the production of religious material also published journals that discussed current affairs and scientific knowledge.\" This Western influence more common in the Late Qing. §REF§(Woolley 2016, p.135)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. scientific journals sponsored by Western missionaries §REF§(Woolley 2016, 135)§REF§§REF§(Wright 1998, 654)§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Unknown. The Shang wrote on perishable materials, such as bamboo and silk.§REF§(The Shang Dynasty, 1600 to 1050 BCE. Spice Digest, Fall 2007. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf</a>)§REF§ Astronomers identified Mars and some comets.§REF§(Kerr 2013, 20)§REF§ If these facts were written down with information on how other people could identify these astronomical bodies, this would constitute scientific literature." }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Highly literate society." }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Development of printing. \"While the printing of books on a large scale dates only from the 10th century, the process must have originated much earlier, somewhere at the end of the 6th or the beginning of the 7th century.\"§REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 137)§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The first mention of what we would call gunpowder appeared in 808... These mixtures grew out of a very long tradition of alchemical experimentation usually tied to certain schools of Daoism that sought elixirs of immortality or the means to transmute one material into another. While all of our early evidence for alchemical mixtures is tied to Daoists, this may be a historiographical artifact produced by the better preservation of texts tied to that school of though (in all its varieties). There were also medical specialists, among others, interested in the effects of various substances and compounds on materials and bodies.\" §REF§(Lorge 2011, 32)§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Discovery of wrought iron process and invention of multi-tube seed drill, and heavy mouldboard iron plough (could sow 11.3 acres land per day). §REF§(Kerr 2013, 38)§REF§ Mathematicians use negative numbers in multiple author book \"Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.\" §REF§(Kerr 2013, 38)§REF§ Jing Fang (78-37 BCE) said 53 perfect fifths approximate 31 octaves, and suggested moonlight was reflection from the sun.§REF§(Kerr 2013, 39)§REF§ \"...sulfur and saltpeter were recorded in the Pharmacopoeia of the Divine Agriculturist compiled during the Han dynasty.\"§REF§(Lorge 2011, 33)§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Western Zhou mathematician known as Fu Zi Chen applied the coordinate method and the Euclidean distance function in making astronomical observations.\" §REF§(? 1996, 4519) Mathematical Reviews. Volume 96. Volume 1996. American Mathematical Society.§REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Writing may have been invented in the Longshan §REF§(Chang 1999, 64)§REF§, no evidence for earlier writing in earlier times." }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The influence of Islamic medicine on China during the period was also substantial. The Mongols preferred Islamic medicine themselves, and also made it available to their subjects through public clinics.” §REF§(Buell 1993, 69)§REF§ \"Other occupational groups fared better under Khubilai than under the Chinese emperors. Physicians were one such group that benefited from Mongolian rule. As a pragmatist, Khubilai valued medicine and accorded doctors a higher social status. He established branches of the Huang-hui ssu (Imperial Hospitals), staffed primarily by Muslim doctors, in K'ai-p'ing and in north China to care for the court. Mongolian officials consulted Muslim physicians, and thirty-six volumes of Muslim medicinal prescriptions were added to the Imperial Library.\" §REF§(Rossabi, M. 1994. The reign of Khubilai khan. In Franke, H. and D. Twitchett (eds) The Cambridge History of China, volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 710-1368 pp. 414-489. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P. 450-451)§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"None of the native peoples developed a system of writing comparable to that of the Mayas, and much less would the Spaniards encounter a native empire such as that of either the Aztecs or Incas. By 1500 A.D., the most advanced of the indigenous peoples were two Chibcha groups: the Taironas and the Muiscas.\" §REF§(Hudson 2010, 5)§REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " None of the native peoples developed a system of writing comparable to that of the Mayas, and much less would the Spaniards encounter a native empire such as that of either the Aztecs or Incas. By 1500 A.D., the most advanced of the indigenous peoples were two Chibcha groups: the Taironas and the Muiscas.\" §REF§(Hudson 2010, 5)§REF§" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " SCCS variable 149 'Writing and Records' is coded as ‘1’ or ‘None’, not ‘Mnemonic devices’, or ‘Nonwritten records’, or 'True writing, no records', or ‘True writing; records’" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"early writing preserves specialized information that is of a very cursory nature at this point in cultural development.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 64)§REF§ the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE): \"attempting to salvage content from an older script dating back to 3000 B.C.\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"early writing preserves specialized information that is of a very cursory nature at this point in cultural development.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 64)§REF§ the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE): \"attempting to salvage content from an older script dating back to 3000 B.C.\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"early writing preserves specialized information that is of a very cursory nature at this point in cultural development.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 64)§REF§ the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE): \"attempting to salvage content from an older script dating back to 3000 B.C.\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"early writing preserves specialized information that is of a very cursory nature at this point in cultural development.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 64)§REF§ the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE): \"attempting to salvage content from an older script dating back to 3000 B.C.\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"On the contrary, the assertion of continuity with older tradition is combined with the exercise of considerable invention and originality both in materials and iconography, producing some of the most remarkable sculpture in the entire pharaonic corpus. For other spheres of cultural activity there is sometimes an unnerving lacuna in extant material—there are, for example, no literary texts securely dated to this period. For all that, close analysis of such evidence as we do possess confirms that Egyptian society and civilization as a whole were characterized by the same traits as the visual arts. We routinely encounter features with which the student of earlier periods will be completely familiar.\" §REF§(Lloyd 2000, 383)§REF§" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Experimental weapons research, such as advanced pyrotechnics and a \"rocket-powered torpedo\". §REF§(Nicolle 1996, 159-181)§REF§ Hospital established by Sultan Qalaun (1279-1290 CE) \"included not only wards with a regular medical staff, lecture rooms, and laboratories but also an adjoining library of medical, theological, and legal books.\" §REF§(Dols 1977, 177)§REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Experimental weapons research, such as advanced pyrotechnics and a \"rocket-powered torpedo\". §REF§(Nicolle 1996, 159-181)§REF§ Hospital established by Sultan Qalaun (1279-1290 CE) \"included not only wards with a regular medical staff, lecture rooms, and laboratories but also an adjoining library of medical, theological, and legal books.\" §REF§(Dols 1977, 177)§REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Experimental weapons research, such as advanced pyrotechnics and a \"rocket-powered torpedo\". §REF§(Nicolle 1996, 159-181)§REF§ Hospital established by Sultan Qalaun (1279-1290 CE) \"included not only wards with a regular medical staff, lecture rooms, and laboratories but also an adjoining library of medical, theological, and legal books.\" §REF§(Dols 1977, 177)§REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Mathematical, medical, philosophical inquiry preserved on Egyptian papyri. Examples: The Akhmim Wooden Tablet (2000-1950 BC); The Heqanakht Papyri (2000-1950 BC); The Moscow Mathematical Papyrus (1850-1800 BC); The Berlin Papyrus (1800 BC); The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus(1650 BC). §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/egypt02-04enl.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/egypt02-04enl.html</a>)§REF§ Kahun Gynecological papyrus (1825 BCE), the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE), and the Ebers papyrus (1500 BCE) covered \"surgery, healing, skin diseases, stomach ailments, medicines, the head, dentistry, gynecology, and diseases of the extremities\".§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest phonetic hieroglyphic writing was found in the tomb J at the Abytos Cemetary U - on the pottery vessels and small bone/ivory labels§REF§Köhler, E. C. \"Theories of State Formation\". [in:] Wendrich, W. [ed.]. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. pg: 41.§REF§. They are dated to Naqada IIIA. But it should be noticed that already in Naqada I, signs similar to hieroglyphs have been found, especially on the pottery vessels (pot marks). However \"none of these signs hints at the existence of phonograms, phonetic complements or detenninatives\" and \"the absence of an important component of the hieroglyphic writing system does not allow us to designate these signs as \"hieroglyphic writing\"\"§REF§Kahl, J. \"Hieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC: an Analysis of Systems\". Archeo-NiI 11 (2001); 122, 124.§REF§. It can be rather treated as an abstract symbolic system§REF§Meza, A. 2012. ANCIENT EGYPT BEFORE WRITING: From Markings to Hieroglyphs. Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation. pg: 25.§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest phonetic hieroglyphic writing was found in the tomb J at the Abytos Cemetary U - on the pottery vessels and small bone/ivory labels§REF§Köhler, E. C. \"Theories of State Formation\". [in:] Wendrich, W. [ed.]. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. pg: 41.§REF§. They are dated to Naqada IIIA. But it should be noticed that already in Naqada I, signs similar to hieroglyphs have been found, especially on the pottery vessels (pot marks). However \"none of these signs hints at the existence of phonograms, phonetic complements or detenninatives\" and \"the absence of an important component of the hieroglyphic writing system does not allow us to designate these signs as \"hieroglyphic writing\"\"§REF§Kahl, J. \"Hieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC: an Analysis of Systems\". Archeo-NiI 11 (2001); 122, 124.§REF§. It can be rather treated as an abstract symbolic system§REF§Meza, A. 2012. ANCIENT EGYPT BEFORE WRITING: From Markings to Hieroglyphs. Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation. pg: 25.§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Unknown, but scribes and artisans are likely to have written scientific texts. Present in the First Dynasty (following polity). \"by Dynasty 0, writing was used by scribes and artisans of the Egyptian state.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 74)§REF§ previous code: inferred present" }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Medical texts. The scribe Kenhirkhepshef, who worked at Deir el Medina during the reign of Rameses II, had a large library with papyri on medical texts, religious spells, hymns, letters, poetry, household hints, dream interpretations. §REF§(Booth 2011, 301)§REF§ Kahun Gynecological papyrus (1825 BCE), the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE), and the Ebers papyrus (1500 BCE) covered \"surgery, healing, skin diseases, stomach ailments, medicines, the head, dentistry, gynecology, and diseases of the extremities\".§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Medical texts. Kahun Gynecological papyrus (1825 BCE), the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE), and the Ebers papyrus (1500 BCE) covered \"surgery, healing, skin diseases, stomach ailments, medicines, the head, dentistry, gynecology, and diseases of the extremities\".§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " School of medicine at Bubastis. §REF§(Shafer 2005, 11)§REF§ Imhotep, physician, architect, High Priest of Ra.§REF§(Stearns 2001, 29 )§REF§ This could also be inferred from the presence of large-scale constructions such as the Great Pyramid. the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE): \"attempting to salvage content from an older script dating back to 3000 B.C.\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§ \"as early as 3000 BCE official reference standards of length, volume, and weight were being maintained in temples and royal palaces in Egypt\" §REF§(Willard 2008, 2244)§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " School of medicine at Bubastis. §REF§(Shafer 2005, 11)§REF§ Imhotep, physician, architect, High Priest of Ra. §REF§(Stearns 2001, 29 )§REF§ \"as early as 3000 BCE official reference standards of length, volume, and weight were being maintained in temples and royal palaces in Egypt\" §REF§(Willard 2008, 2244)§REF§ the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE): \"attempting to salvage content from an older script dating back to 3000 B.C.\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Scientific_literature", "scientific_literature": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c285-194 BCE) §REF§(Lloyd 2000, 400)§REF§ - Herophilus of Chalcedon (c330-260 BCE) - medicine. §REF§(Lloyd 2000, 400)§REF§" } ] }