Road List
A viewset for viewing and editing Roads.
GET /api/sc/roads/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 466, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/roads/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/roads/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.250§REF§" }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The shogunate improved the communications systems and established ‘a five-road system (gokaido) directly maintained by the government. These roads were intended to serve the bureaucratic and military interests of the shogunate by linking the government’s base at Edo with the provinces’.§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.329.§REF§" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Achaeologists have found \"segments of paved streets and courtyards dating from the eleventh and twelfth centuries.\"§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 148) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Türk state aspired to make the roads safe and gave its backing to the Sogdian diplomats’ trade negotiations.\" §REF§(Marshak 1996, 242)§REF§" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " ‘Each water-based feature fulfilled several functions. Barays provided agricultural and domestic water, and fish and plant foods. Canals channeled water for public sanitation, and transport arteries. Embankments and dikes were usually oriented east-west following the contours and acted both as levees ti control floods and elevated causeways for roads. Moats surrounding temples, monuments, and inhabited areas also fulfilled several functions: they served as sacred boundaries, they were a source of domestic water and food, and they provided fill for foundations to raise the level of the terrain for drainage and protection. Access to domestic water was provided by tanks and basins dug into the water table.’§REF§(Engelhardt 1995, p.25)§REF§ 'In spite of a century of Angkorian research, the study of the great system of highways that tied together the provinces of the Classic Khmer Empire has hardly begun.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 151)§REF§ '[Jayavarman VII] saw to the construction of many other buildings across his empire, including roads with guesthouses every 9.3 miles (15 km) that linked Angkor with viceregal centers such as Phimai.'§REF§(Higham 2012, p. 186)§REF§ 'Highways were built—straight, stone-paved roads running across hundreds of kilometers, raised above the flood level, with stone bridges across rivers and lined with rest houses every 15 kilometers.'§REF§(Vickery 2004b, p. 696)§REF§ 'In the 1200s, if not earlier, a system of raised highways linked Angkor to Phimai and other key towns.'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 230)§REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " ‘Each water-based feature fulfilled several functions. Barays provided agricultural and domestic water, and fish and plant foods. Canals channeled water for public sanitation, and transport arteries. Embankments and dikes were usually oriented east-west following the contours and acted both as levees ti control floods and elevated causeways for roads. Moats surrounding temples, monuments, and inhabited areas also fulfilled several functions: they served as sacred boundaries, they were a source of domestic water and food, and they provided fill for foundations to raise the level of the terrain for drainage and protection. Access to domestic water was provided by tanks and basins dug into the water table.’§REF§(Engelhardt 1995, p.25)§REF§ 'In spite of a century of Angkorian research, the study of the great system of highways that tied together the provinces of the Classic Khmer Empire has hardly begun.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 151)§REF§ '[Jayavarman VII] saw to the construction of many other buildings across his empire, including roads with guesthouses every 9.3 miles (15 km) that linked Angkor with viceregal centers such as Phimai.'§REF§(Higham 2012, p. 186)§REF§ 'Highways were built—straight, stone-paved roads running across hundreds of kilometers, raised above the flood level, with stone bridges across rivers and lined with rest houses every 15 kilometers.'§REF§(Vickery 2004b, p. 696)§REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The core of the Khmer Empire (ninth to fifteenth centuries AD) was controlled from the capital of Angkor through the extensive river network and over 1000km of raised earthen roads fitted with support infrastructure (masonry bridges, 'resthouse' temples, water tanks) (Figure I).\" §REF§(Hendrickson 2010, 481)§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " ‘Each water-based feature fulfilled several functions. Barays provided agricultural and domestic water, and fish and plant foods. Canals channeled water for public sanitation, and transport arteries. Embankments and dikes were usually oriented east-west following the contours and acted both as levees ti control floods and elevated causeways for roads. Moats surrounding temples, monuments, and inhabited areas also fulfilled several functions: they served as sacred boundaries, they were a source of domestic water and food, and they provided fill for foundations to raise the level of the terrain for drainage and protection. Access to domestic water was provided by tanks and basins dug into the water table.’§REF§(Engelhardt 1995, p.25)§REF§ 'In spite of a century of Angkorian research, the study of the great system of highways that tied together the provinces of the Classic Khmer Empire has hardly begun.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 151)§REF§ '[Jayavarman VII] saw to the construction of many other buildings across his empire, including roads with guesthouses every 9.3 miles (15 km) that linked Angkor with viceregal centers such as Phimai.'§REF§(Higham 2012, p. 186)§REF§ 'Highways were built—straight, stone-paved roads running across hundreds of kilometers, raised above the flood level, with stone bridges across rivers and lined with rest houses every 15 kilometers.'§REF§(Vickery 2004b, p. 696)§REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Funan seems to have originated in the Mekong delta area, and around 200 AD under Fanzhan's uncle, Fanshiman, through successive campaigns along the Gulf of Siam, it occupied belts of land of varying length which allowed goods to be transported by road or porterage to the ports on the Indian Ocean side of the peninsula.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, 47)§REF§ Furthermore: \" It is acknowledged that the pre-Angkorian developments during the Funan and Chenla periods influenced the location of early transport and settlement of the later period (see Vickery 1998)\". §REF§(Hendrickson 2007, 9)§REF§" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Funan seems to have originated in the Mekong delta area, and around 200 AD under Fanzhan's uncle, Fanshiman, through successive campaigns along the Gulf of Siam, it occupied belts of land of varying length which allowed goods to be transported by road or porterage to the ports on the Indian Ocean side of the peninsula.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 47)§REF§" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'Funan seems to have originated in the Mekong delta area, and around 200 AD under Fanzhan's uncle, Fanshiman, through successive campaigns along the Gulf of Siam, it occupied belts of land of varying length which allowed goods to be transported by road or porterage to the ports on the Indian Ocean side of the peninsula.'§REF§(Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 47)§REF§ 'Some have hypothesized that Angkor Borei was Naravaranagara, a capital of Funan in the sixth century. According to Michael Vickery, however, Naravaranagara was probably 60 kilometers (40 miles) northeast of Angkor Borei. In any case, Angkor Borei was one of the most impressive sites in early first-millennium Southeast Asia.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 19)§REF§ 'The oldest dated inscriptions from Funan (K.557 and K.600), dated 611, have both been found at Angkor Borei. Another recently discovered inscription is believed to date from about 650. This stele mentions that Rudravarman, Funan’s last known ruler, was living in Angkor Borei.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p.20)§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Phoenician cities conducted overland trade as well as by sea." }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " At least one road, connecting Timbuktu and the port of Kabara on the Niger §REF§N. Levtzion, North-West Africa: From the Maghrib to the Fringes of the Forest, in J.D. Fage and R. Oliver (eds), The Cambridge History of Africa (1975), pp. 142-222§REF§." }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Ibn Battuta (14th century) on the African interior said: \"there is no need to travel by caravan, for the roads are that secure.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 140) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Ibn Battuta (14th century) on the African interior said: \"there is no need to travel by caravan, for the roads are that secure.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 140) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ Maintenance of tracks for trade?" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Ibn Battuta (14th century) on the African interior said: \"there is no need to travel by caravan, for the roads are that secure.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 140) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In Sheng-tsung's early years (984-9) serious attention was given to building roads and bridges to provide easier passage for carts and to improving the courier system, which was essential to the rapid transmission of orders and information. In 1027 a strip of land thirty double paces wide on either side of official highways was ordered to be kept cleared for security purposes.\" §REF§(Twitchett, D.C. and K. Tietze. 1994. The Liao. In Franke, H. and D.C. Twitchett (eds) The Cambridge History of China Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368 pp. 43-153. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P. 95)§REF§" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"To prepare for his arrival, Mas'fid-beg, Arqan-aqa, and other Mongol officials situated along Hule'u's line of march were instructed to prepare. They repaired roads, bridged rivers, and established ferries where there were no bridges. They also had to find and reserve pasturage of the flocks following Hule'u's army.\" §REF§(Buell 2003, 51)§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " c500 CE and after: \"It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished.\" §REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Possible that roads ran through the 12 gateways to Karabalghasun, but this is not confirmed by the sources." }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Not enough data, though it seems to reasonable infer absence." }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Caravans. There must have been established trade routes and possibly roads. \"Although disputes continued to break out with Russia over levies of tribute, refugees, and Russian military expansion southward, Zunghar caravans traveled frequently to Semipalatinsk, Tobolsk, and Yamyshev and became a significant presence in Siberian markets.9 (See Table 8.1.)\" §REF§(Perdue 2005, 306)§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Ibn Battuta (14th century) on the African interior said: \"there is no need to travel by caravan, for the roads are that secure.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 140) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ road from Ghana (city) to Ghiyaru §REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 17)§REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Ibn Battuta (14th century) on the African interior said: \"there is no need to travel by caravan, for the roads are that secure.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 140) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ road from Ghana (city) to Ghiyaru §REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 17)§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Small roads were constructed through Monte Alban, but sources do not suggest there is evidence for a road network linking settlements.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ We asked Gary Feinman about roads in Oaxacan polities and he said: \"It depends on what you mean by roads. There are definite roads/accessways within sites. Blanton defines some at Monte Albán and Linda [Nicholas] and I defined some at El Palmillo. These likely were not paved, but they may have been banked and were cleared. Between sites there are known 16th century trails, which were likely used for a long, long time. Again, they likely were not paved, but there were no beasts of burden.\"§REF§Gary Feinman, personal communication to Peter Turchin and Jenny Reddish, March 2020.§REF§ Coded absent: we do not count accessways within settlements or paths and trails not constructed deliberately as roads." }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Small roads were constructed through Monte Alban, but sources do not suggest there is evidence for a road network linking settlements.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ We asked Gary Feinman about roads in Oaxacan polities and he said: \"It depends on what you mean by roads. There are definite roads/accessways within sites. Blanton defines some at Monte Albán and Linda [Nicholas] and I defined some at El Palmillo. These likely were not paved, but they may have been banked and were cleared. Between sites there are known 16th century trails, which were likely used for a long, long time. Again, they likely were not paved, but there were no beasts of burden.\"§REF§Gary Feinman, personal communication to Peter Turchin and Jenny Reddish, March 2020.§REF§ Coded absent: we do not count accessways within settlements or paths and trails not constructed deliberately as roads." }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Small roads were constructed through Monte Alban, but sources do not suggest there is evidence for a road network linking settlements.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ We asked Gary Feinman about roads in Oaxacan polities and he said: \"It depends on what you mean by roads. There are definite roads/accessways within sites. Blanton defines some at Monte Albán and Linda [Nicholas] and I defined some at El Palmillo. These likely were not paved, but they may have been banked and were cleared. Between sites there are known 16th century trails, which were likely used for a long, long time. Again, they likely were not paved, but there were no beasts of burden.\"§REF§Gary Feinman, personal communication to Peter Turchin and Jenny Reddish, March 2020.§REF§ Coded absent: we do not count accessways within settlements or paths and trails not constructed deliberately as roads." }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Small roads were constructed through Monte Alban, but sources do not suggest there is evidence for a road network linking settlements.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ We asked Gary Feinman about roads in Oaxacan polities and he said: \"It depends on what you mean by roads. There are definite roads/accessways within sites. Blanton defines some at Monte Albán and Linda [Nicholas] and I defined some at El Palmillo. These likely were not paved, but they may have been banked and were cleared. Between sites there are known 16th century trails, which were likely used for a long, long time. Again, they likely were not paved, but there were no beasts of burden.\"§REF§Gary Feinman, personal communication to Peter Turchin and Jenny Reddish, March 2020.§REF§ Coded absent: we do not count accessways within settlements or paths and trails not constructed deliberately as roads." }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Only limited evidence for roads has been found (in earlier phases at Monte Alban), and these appear to have been restricted to within settlements. We asked Gary Feinman about roads in Oaxacan polities and he said: \"It depends on what you mean by roads. There are definite roads/accessways within sites. Blanton defines some at Monte Albán and Linda [Nicholas] and I defined some at El Palmillo. These likely were not paved, but they may have been banked and were cleared. Between sites there are known 16th century trails, which were likely used for a long, long time. Again, they likely were not paved, but there were no beasts of burden.\"§REF§Gary Feinman, personal communication to Peter Turchin and Jenny Reddish, March 2020.§REF§ Coded absent: we do not count accessways within settlements or paths and trails not constructed deliberately as roads." }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Only limited evidence for roads has been found (in earlier phases at Monte Alban), and these appear to have been restricted to within settlements. We asked Gary Feinman about roads in Oaxacan polities and he said: \"It depends on what you mean by roads. There are definite roads/accessways within sites. Blanton defines some at Monte Albán and Linda [Nicholas] and I defined some at El Palmillo. These likely were not paved, but they may have been banked and were cleared. Between sites there are known 16th century trails, which were likely used for a long, long time. Again, they likely were not paved, but there were no beasts of burden.\"§REF§Gary Feinman, personal communication to Peter Turchin and Jenny Reddish, March 2020.§REF§ Coded absent: we do not count accessways within settlements or paths and trails not constructed deliberately as roads." }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " regional and long-distance trade was common,§REF§Grove, David C. (2000) \"The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica.\" In Richard Adams and Murdo MacLeod (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of The Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part I.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg.122-151.§REF§§REF§Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>, 20(1), 1-51.§REF§ and a system of foot paths existed during the Postclassic,§REF§Hassig, Ross. (1985) <i>Trade, tribute, and transportation: The sixteenth-century political economy of the Valley of Mexico.</i> Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg.28-39.§REF§ but no evidence of roads exist in the limited archaeological record of the Early Formative." }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Regional and long-distance trade was common,§REF§Grove, David C. (2000) \"The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica.\" In Richard Adams and Murdo MacLeod (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of The Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part I.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg.122-151.§REF§§REF§Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>, 20(1), 1-51.§REF§ and a system of foot paths existed during the Postclassic,§REF§Hassig, Ross. (1985) <i>Trade, tribute, and transportation: The sixteenth-century political economy of the Valley of Mexico.</i> Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg.28-39.§REF§ but no evidence of roads exist in the limited archaeological record of the Formative." }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " regional and long-distance trade was common,§REF§Grove, David C. (2000) \"The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica.\" In Richard Adams and Murdo MacLeod (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of The Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part I.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg.122-151.§REF§§REF§Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>, 20(1), 1-51.§REF§ and a system of foot paths existed during the Postclassic,§REF§Hassig, Ross. (1985) <i>Trade, tribute, and transportation: The sixteenth-century political economy of the Valley of Mexico.</i> Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg.28-39.§REF§ but no evidence of roads exist in the limited archaeological record of the Early Formative." }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Regional and long-distance trade was common,§REF§Grove, David C. (2000) \"The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica.\" In Richard Adams and Murdo MacLeod (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of The Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part I.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg.122-151.§REF§§REF§Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>, 20(1), 1-51.§REF§ and a system of foot paths existed during the Postclassic,§REF§Hassig, Ross. (1985) <i>Trade, tribute, and transportation: The sixteenth-century political economy of the Valley of Mexico.</i> Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg.28-39.§REF§ but no evidence of roads exist in the limited archaeological record of the Early Formative." }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest there is evidence for the construction of roads during this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ Gary Feinman§REF§Gary Feinman, personal communication to Peter Turchin and Jenny Reddish, March 2020.§REF§ told us that \"Between sites there are known 16th century trails, which were likely used for a long, long time. [..] they likely were not paved, but there were no beasts of burden.\" However, we do not count paths and trails not constructed deliberately as roads." }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest there is evidence for a road system in this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ Gary Feinman§REF§Gary Feinman, personal communication to Peter Turchin and Jenny Reddish, March 2020.§REF§ told us that \"Between sites there are known 16th century trails, which were likely used for a long, long time. [...] they likely were not paved, but there were no beasts of burden.\" However, we do not count paths and trails not constructed deliberately as roads." }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest there is evidence for a road system in this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ Gary Feinman§REF§Gary Feinman, personal communication to Peter Turchin and Jenny Reddish, March 2020.§REF§ told us that \"Between sites there are known 16th century trails, which were likely used for a long, long time. [...] they likely were not paved, but there were no beasts of burden.\" However, we do not count paths and trails not constructed deliberately as roads." }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Icelanders continued to use trails rather than roads: 'The horse was mainly used for transport. (After the exemption that permitted eating of horsemeat, mentioned in the last chapter, was abolished in the 11th century, horses were no longer a source of food.) Carts were almost unknown, however, and Iceland had no roads, except for tracks gradually trodden by the hooves of horses, cattle and sheep. Horses were necessary, both to carry riders and as beasts of burden, and a good horse was always a master's pride and joy.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. 'A Brief History of Iceland\", 13§REF§" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null } ] }