Road List
A viewset for viewing and editing Roads.
GET /api/sc/roads/?format=api
{ "count": 466, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/roads/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The Duranni 'state' was not in a position to maintain infrastructure. It was a very loose institution. What maintenance or road building that was done was at the local level. In areas that were conquered these assets had been maintained by the previous state in areas like the Sind and India. §REF§Noelle, Christine. <i>State and Tribe in Nineteenth-Century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan, 1826-1863. Psychology Press, 1997. section 4 </i>, <i>Dost Muhammed Khan's Occupation of Qandahar and His Administration</i> source is unpaginated.§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There was a main street at Ai Khanoum.§REF§(Holt 1999, 42) Holt, F L. 1999. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria. University of California Press§REF§town roads.§REF§Higham, Charles, Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations, Facts of File,2009 p. 344§REF§ The Persian road network had served as an example of the importance of a large scale transport infrastructure, a network maintained by the Greek successor Kingdoms." }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Questions of King Milinda on Salaka: \"Well laid out are its streets, squares, cross roads, and market places.\"§REF§(Bauer 2010, 180-181) Bauer, S W. 2010. The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W. W. Norton & Company.§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"the former nomadic invaders came into possession of vast territories inhabited by settled agricultural peoples with a culture and traditions dating back many centuries, just as had been the case with the Tokharians ... who created the Kushan Empire. It seems likely that the administrative and government structure created by the Kushans was left largely intact under the Kidarites.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 132) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Purushapura-Bactra Highway. This connected Gandhara \"with important Buddhist cultural and commercial centers in Central Asia in the Kushan Period.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 96) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§ Conningham reinforces this code of present by attesting to the roads within Taxila§REF§Conningham, Robin, pers. comm. Interview with Harvey Whitehouse and Christina Collins, Jan 2017§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Greco-Bactrians had streets." }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Roads improved. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 56-60)§REF§ Commandery governers had bureaus that dealt with roads. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 508)§REF§" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Government administration needed to maintain walls§REF§(Wang 2014, 179) Wang, Haicheng. 2014. Writing and the Ancient State: Early China in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ so highly likely they maintained roadways at least within the core region." }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The cluster of rammed-earth foundations and the remains of public buildings situated more or less at the center of the site are known in the literature as the palace city or palatial area (gongcheng 宫城; Zhongguo 2003). This area was established during phase II, and its most impressive buildings were constructed in phase III. The palace city was about 11 ha and, during phase IV, was enclosed by rammed-earth walls about 2 m wide and surrounded by four large roads (Fig. 4). At least seven earthen platforms, ranging in size from about 300 to 9,600 m2, have been found inside this enclosure.\" §REF§(Shelach and Jaffe 2014, 344-345)§REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Hmong communities mostly relied on footpaths and trails rather than roads: \"The streets of a [village] zigzag up and down, with tiny alleys on both sides. In each alley there are a few families. The alleys are interconnected. The Miao chais are not located along lines of communication but in the deep mountains and valleys accessible only by small paths. Although visible at a distance, they often cannot be reached\".§REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 59§REF§ The various Chinese administrations constructed stone roads,§REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 70§REF§§REF§Graham, David Crockett 1954. “Songs And Stories Of The Ch’Uan Miao\", 1§REF§ but here we are mostly interested in the Hmong themselves." }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Sustainable Land Management: Learning from the Past for the Future edited by Selim Kapur, Hari Eswaran, Winfried E.H.§REF§" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Administration existed to manage roads. \"As early as the Shang period, roads were controlled by a special official, and in the Zhou period, traffic had reached such proportions that regulations were introduced for particularly crowded crossroads and reckless driving was prohibited. ... they are said to have put roads into five categories: pedestrian roads for people and pack animals, roads for handcarts, roads for single carts, roads on which two carts could pass, and main roads wide enough to take three vehicles abreast.\"§REF§(Lindqvist 2009) Lindqvist, Cecilia. 2009. China: Empire of Living Symbols. Da Capo Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "cn_longshan", "long_name": "Longshan", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"There also was an early-period city road system. A survey by the geologist Li Rongquan 李荣权 showed that the small southern gully Xiaonan Gou 小南沟, the large southern gully Danan Gou 大南沟, and southern gully Nan Gou 南沟 were all roads used during the city’s occupation. Due to flooding during subsequent eras, they became gullies (Li Rongquan, pers. comm., Sept. 2003). Therefore, it appears the early-period city road system ran from southeast to northwest in a linear design. The road stretched from the southern royal cemetery, northwest into the city, and ran between the palace area and lower elite residential area. From the northern and southern portions of the palace area it converged with a large road at Xiaonan Gou, after which it crossed through the residential area for commoners to the hypothesized ritual area (Zhongguo et al. 2005b). The road was not entirely straight or as developed as roads in later Chinese cities.\" §REF§(He 2013, 264)§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to a note in one late Ming commonplace book, the network of official roads extended 10,900 li (6,278 km or 3,900 miles) east to west, and 11,750 li (6,768 km or 4,200 miles) north to south. A modern scholar estimates that the total length of official land and water routes in the Ming amounted to 143,700 li (84,200 km or 52,300 miles). §REF§(Brook, 2010, p.30)§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Most of the prefectural armies did not receive military training; they were merely involved in wall and road repair, river dike building, bridge construction, transportation, and other types of hard labor.\"§REF§(Tseng-yü and Wright 2009, 218)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The communications system used by the Tuoba created a kingdom of great commercial and artistic wealth. It was a precursor of the system used by Chinngis and Ogodei.\" §REF§(Avery 2003, 40)§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In 1644 CE \"Dorgon was also sensitive to the need to reopen roads and transportation so that food and money would flow to Beijing.\" §REF§(Lorge 2005, 151)§REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " By the end of the Qing Dynasty, road systems in China were organized and classified into hierarchies. §REF§(Wang 2016, 108)§REF§ The Board of Works was responsible for maintaining all official buildings, granaries, official communication routes, dykes, dams, and irrigation systems. §REF§(Smith 2015, 103)§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"As early as the Shang period, roads were controlled by a special official\"§REF§(Lindqvist 2009) Lindqvist, Cecilia. 2009. China: Empire of Living Symbols. Da Capo Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Szechwan was linked to the capital by a road.§REF§(Wright 1979, 135)§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Around 750 CE, the ancient Chinese road system peaked at 40,000 kilometers\".§REF§( ? 2003, 391) ? in Mokyr, Joel ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, Volume 2. Oxford University Press§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " reference to road building in Jin state.§REF§(Tin-bor Hui 2005, n100 88) Tin-bor Hui, Victoria. 2005. War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Local governments \"needed to keep the local road system and postal system well maintained.\"§REF§(Zhao 2015, 72) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"As early as the Shang period, roads were controlled by a special official, and in the Zhou period, traffic had reached such proportions that regulations were introduced for particularly crowded crossroads and reckless driving was prohibited. ... they are said to have put roads into five categories: pedestrian roads for people and pack animals, roads for handcarts, roads for single carts, roads on which two carts could pass, and main roads wide enough to take three vehicles abreast.\"§REF§(Lindqvist 2009) Lindqvist, Cecilia. 2009. China: Empire of Living Symbols. Da Capo Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In the subsequent Longshan period: \"There also was an early-period city road system. A survey by the geologist Li Rongquan 李荣权 showed that the small southern gully Xiaonan Gou 小南沟, the large southern gully Danan Gou 大南沟, and southern gully Nan Gou 南沟 were all roads used during the city’s occupation.\"§REF§(He 2013, 264)§REF§ However, that \"road was not entirely straight or as developed as roads in later Chinese cities\"§REF§(He 2013, 264)§REF§ so whether it was a beaten trail or a properly maintained \"road\" might be open to question. Given the question marks over the later period, this still earlier period we could infer absent." }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Brook, 2010, p.29-30)§REF§" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": 250, "year_to": 575, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"After A.D. 500, drastic shifts began to occur in Costa Rican Precolumbian cultures. Circular houses became the norm and were indicative of a probable shift in cos- mology or “world view.” New ceramic styles including resist painting proliferated; tomb forms and burial customs changed; cobble-paved roads within and between sites appeared; and metallurgy supplanted jade carving as the principal supplier of political and religious badges of power and authority.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 327-9)§REF§ \"Following the catastrophic environmental crisis of the sixth century the SNSM witnessed extremely rapid population growth and colonization in the northern and western drainage. Terrace systems permitted the construction of small towns on sheer mountain slopes that were linked by a network of steep roads.\"§REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 419)§REF§" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": 576, "year_to": 1050, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"After A.D. 500, drastic shifts began to occur in Costa Rican Precolumbian cultures. Circular houses became the norm and were indicative of a probable shift in cos- mology or “world view.” New ceramic styles including resist painting proliferated; tomb forms and burial customs changed; cobble-paved roads within and between sites appeared; and metallurgy supplanted jade carving as the principal supplier of political and religious badges of power and authority.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 327-9)§REF§ \"Following the catastrophic environmental crisis of the sixth century the SNSM witnessed extremely rapid population growth and colonization in the northern and western drainage. Terrace systems permitted the construction of small towns on sheer mountain slopes that were linked by a network of steep roads.\"§REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 419)§REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The socio-political organization of Tairona culture during the early part of the sixteenth century consisted of relatively independent chiefdoms, each including a priestly class and a hierarchy of chiefs as well as specialists in arts and crafts (e.g., gold workers, semiprecious stone engravers, merchants). This arts and crafts specialization, coupled with intensive exchange of agricultural products, was possible because of the regional ecological diversity found in the SNSM. The diversity encouraged the development of centers of specialization and regions of production for items such as ceramics, lithic artifacts, and agricultural products. At last archaeologists are beginning to understand the ancient system as they reconstruct the web of roads and pathways that connected all of the sites (Oyuela-Caycedo 1987a, 1990; Herrera de Turbay 1985; Kurela 1993; Herrera 2000).\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 423)§REF§ \"Following the catastrophic environmental crisis of the sixth century the SNSM witnessed extremely rapid population growth and colonization in the northern and western drainage. Terrace systems permitted the construction of small towns on sheer mountain slopes that were linked by a network of steep roads.\"§REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 419)§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 14 'Routes of Land Transport' only ‘1’ or 'unimproved trails' were used for land transport, not roads. The Shuar relied on concealed pathways: 'The Jíbaros never live united in villages. Their homes are found scattered in the middle of the forest. These settlements are never permanent; in fact, the savages change their residence frequently, every six years on the average( ). The dwelling is always located near a stream, in the middle of a little cultivated land; no defined road leads to it, and only the Indians are able to recognize the trace of a pathway invisible to strangers in the labryinth of trees and thick underbrush.' §REF§Rivet, Paul 1907. “Jivaro Indians: Geographic, Historical And Ethnographic Research”, 583§REF§ 'As has already been mentioned, Mácas lies deep in the territory of the Jívaros. Everywhere in the forest, indeed hardly a quarter of an hour away from Mácas, lie their large tambos. Narrow paths lead through the dense forest, and, following them, one quite suddenly and without any previous signs of civilization comes upon the open plaza surrounding the house. Each house lies alone by itself, as though lost in the forest, and is usually inhabited by only one family, rarely by several. In approaching, certain precautionary measures must be observed to ensure a friendly reception. The visit is announced from a great distance by shouting, but in the immediate vicinity of the house one marches in absolute silence. This is done in order to demonstrate peaceful intent, since during an attack the Jívaro steals quietly through the forest, but then rushes with a loud war whoop across the open plaza to the house.' §REF§Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians”, 7§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 14 'Routes of Land Transport' only ‘1’ or 'unimproved trails' were used for land transport, not roads. The Shuar relied on concealed pathways: 'The Jíbaros never live united in villages. Their homes are found scattered in the middle of the forest. These settlements are never permanent; in fact, the savages change their residence frequently, every six years on the average( ). The dwelling is always located near a stream, in the middle of a little cultivated land; no defined road leads to it, and only the Indians are able to recognize the trace of a pathway invisible to strangers in the labryinth of trees and thick underbrush.' §REF§Rivet, Paul 1907. “Jivaro Indians: Geographic, Historical And Ethnographic Research”, 583§REF§ 'As has already been mentioned, Mácas lies deep in the territory of the Jívaros. Everywhere in the forest, indeed hardly a quarter of an hour away from Mácas, lie their large tambos. Narrow paths lead through the dense forest, and, following them, one quite suddenly and without any previous signs of civilization comes upon the open plaza surrounding the house. Each house lies alone by itself, as though lost in the forest, and is usually inhabited by only one family, rarely by several. In approaching, certain precautionary measures must be observed to ensure a friendly reception. The visit is announced from a great distance by shouting, but in the immediate vicinity of the house one marches in absolute silence. This is done in order to demonstrate peaceful intent, since during an attack the Jívaro steals quietly through the forest, but then rushes with a loud war whoop across the open plaza to the house.' §REF§Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians”, 7§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Roads improved under al-Kamil. §REF§(Oliver 1977, 35)§REF§ Communications with al-Maqs were improved by the building of roads in 1177 CE.§REF§(Raymond 2001, 97)§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Road network emerged with development of irrigation systems. Excavated soil was piled by the side of ditches, these formed embankments which were used as paths and roads. Generally not paved.§REF§(Partridge 2010)§REF§" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Road network emerged with development of irrigation systems. Excavated soil was piled by the side of ditches, these formed embankments which were used as paths and roads. Generally not paved.§REF§(Partridge 2010)§REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In a traditional society that lacked the concept of public or municipal agencies, as individuals, the members of this ruling class assumed responsibility for what we would consider public concerns. The mamluks were patrons of art, schools, and mosques; builders of roads, bridges, and markets; and overseers of \"public works,\" morality, and charity.\"§REF§(Dols 1977, 152)§REF§§REF§(Oliver 1977, 65)§REF§ In 1322 CE Simon Simeonis described the streets of Cairo as \"narrow, tortuous, dark, rich in recesses, full of dust and other refuse, and unpaved.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 154)§REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Roads \"maintained right up until the end of Mamluk rule\".§REF§(Oliver and Atmore 2001, 21) Oliver R and Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ In 1322 CE Simon Simeonis described the streets of Cairo as \"narrow, tortuous, dark, rich in recesses, full of dust and other refuse, and unpaved.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 154)§REF§ \"In a traditional society that lacked the concept of public or municipal agencies, as individuals, the members of this ruling class assumed responsibility for what we would consider public concerns. The mamluks were patrons of art, schools, and mosques; builders of roads, bridges, and markets; and overseers of \"public works,\" morality, and charity.\"§REF§(Dols 1977, 152)§REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In a traditional society that lacked the concept of public or municipal agencies, as individuals, the members of this ruling class assumed responsibility for what we would consider public concerns. The mamluks were patrons of art, schools, and mosques; builders of roads, bridges, and markets; and overseers of \"public works,\" morality, and charity.\"§REF§(Dols 1977, 152)§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Improvements made by the Egyptians to the north—south route 2000—1780 BCE. Nubian Corridor \"the principal artery between Africa, the lower Nile valley and the Mediterranean world: the navigable channels through the First Cataract were kept clear, a doilkos - a track for hauling boats over land - was constructed parallel to the impassable rapids of the Second Cataract, and a dam was built at Semna to facilitate navigation of the minor rapids of Batn el-Hagar.\"§REF§(Mokhtar ed. 1981, 239)§REF§ Road network emerged with development of irrigation systems. Excavated soil was piled by the side of ditches, these formed embankments which were used as paths and roads. Generally not paved. (An exception was the 11.5 km paved straight road - using flagstones and petrified wood - discovered in the Fayyum, which artefacts date to Old Kingdom).§REF§(Partridge 2010)§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Western coast road.§REF§(<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/history18-20.htm#18th\" rel=\"nofollow\">[12]</a>)§REF§ Royal Road at Amarna. §REF§(Arnold 2003, 37)§REF§ Reliable road through Sinai had to be developed in order to advance by land into Canaan. Connected east Delta (or Avaris, at Perunefer) to Gaza.§REF§(Garcia ed. 2013, 435-436)§REF§ Road network emerged with development of irrigation systems. Excavated soil was piled by the side of ditches, these formed embankments which were used as paths and roads. Generally not paved. (An exception was the 11.5 km paved straight road - using flagstones and petrified wood - discovered in the Fayyum, which artefacts date to Old Kingdom).§REF§(Partridge 2010)§REF§§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 287)§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Western coast road.§REF§(<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/history18-20.htm#18th\" rel=\"nofollow\">[10]</a>)§REF§ Royal Road at Amarna. §REF§(Arnold 2003, 37)§REF§ Reliable road through Sinai had to be developed in order to advance by land into Canaan. Connected east Delta (or Avaris, at Perunefer) to Gaza.§REF§(Garcia ed. 2013, 435-436)§REF§ Road network emerged with development of irrigation systems. Excavated soil was piled by the side of ditches, these formed embankments which were used as paths and roads. Generally not paved. (An exception was the 11.5 km paved straight road - using flagstones and petrified wood - discovered in the Fayyum, which artefacts date to Old Kingdom).§REF§(Partridge 2010)§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Road", "road": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Road network emerged with development of irrigation systems. Excavated soil was piled by the side of ditches, these formed embankments which were used as paths and roads. Generally not paved. An exception was the 11.5 km paved straight road (flagstones and petrified wood) discovered in the Fayyum. Artefacts date it to c2494-2184 BCE. §REF§(Partridge 2010)§REF§" } ] }