Religious Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Religious Levels.
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{ "count": 446, "next": null, "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/religious-levels/?format=api&page=8", "results": [ { "id": 403, "polity": { "id": 775, "name": "mw_northern_maravi_k", "long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1621 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>\"A common feature were the 'spirit wives', women living in permanent celibacy and set apart from the cult of the godhead. One of their tasks was to transmit to those concerned mesages of communal interest which they received in dreams. [...] [T]hey were held in high esteem, their office being considered the highest in the cult hierarchy. They acted as overseers of the female initiation rites, and they are said to have been [...] confidantes of local rulers. The spirit wives were members of the Banda clan and thus were associated with the prestate period in Malawi. This is emphasized in oral traditions cited by Ntara, according to which the Chewa at first had no chiefs but spirit wives, suggesting that they embodied a form of regional jural authority before the emergence of centralized state systems.<br>\"A final feature to be considered is the apparent universality of a priesthood at the great shrines, which consisted of members of the Mbewe clan. These Mbewe were also of pre-Maravi stock, and their presence at the great shrines functioned as an additional factor which bound these shrines together into some form of common organization. The central cult object was conceived of as a snake, called tunga, which was associated both with the shrine hut and with the sacred pool, another invariable feature of each cult complex. The snake spirit was visibly represented by the senior Mbewe official, who was himself known as tunga and who acted as the spirit wife's ritual consort.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/A88E23E4\">[Schoeffeleers 1992]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 404, "polity": { "id": 313, "name": "ru_novgorod_land", "long_name": "Novgorod Land", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>Novgorod was converted to Christianity sometime before 989 CE when they received their first bishop.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 473) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>The following data is based on Kievan Rus:<br>1. Bishop<br> Capital town had a bishop (only open to monks), who had an \"entourage.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 437) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Priest Priests§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 438) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 3. Deacons 4. Towns had priests and deacons.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 437) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Woman who prepares the Eucharist bread.<br> Healer<br> Hospitals<br> Hostels<br> Refuges for wayfarers." }, { "id": 405, "polity": { "id": 206, "name": "dz_numidia", "long_name": "Numidia", "start_year": -220, "end_year": -46 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>\"The Numidian court also adopted elements of Phoenician religion: for example, the occurrence in the Numidian royal family of the names Adherbal (a purely Phoenician name) and Mastanabal (a hybrid form, combining Numidian and Phoenician components) advertises its devotion to the Phoenician god Baal.\"§REF§(Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. King<br> King may have been deified after death.§REF§(Law 1978, 177) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. 3." }, { "id": 406, "polity": { "id": 542, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy", "long_name": "Yemen - Ottoman period", "start_year": 1873, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>(3) Eminent Legal Scholars ('Ulema) (2) Legal Scholars (such as Qadi, Mufti etc.) (1) Local Preachers and Ceremonial Specialists<br>The primary specialists were Islamic legal scholars: 'Islam is the major force that unifies Yemenis across social, sexual, and regional boundaries. Yet most adherents of the different schools of Islam reside in distinct sections of the country, and this fact has certain political implications. Zaydis, who belong to the Shia subsect of Islam, are located in the northern and eastern parts of Yemen, whereas Shafis, orthodox Sunnis, live in the southern and coastal regions. Location in the highlands apparently enables Zaydis more successfully to repel invasions than Shafis in the lower lying areas. A smaller Shia subsect, the Ismaili, and also the remnants of an ancient Jewish community, may still be found in certain parts of Yemen. As Muslims, Yemenis aspire to fulfill the five tenets of Islam: affirmation of the Islamic creed, prayer, fasting, charity, and pilgrimage. In the Shafi areas of Yemen, the tombs of certain holy men are visited by believers for their special healing and other powers.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ 'Yemeni society is hierarchically organized on the basis of birth status and occupation. Until relative political stability was achieved in the late 1970s, birth and occupational statuses were legitimized as ascribed social categories. The elimination of practical barriers that restrict power and privilege?especially through marriage and education?to certain members of the society has only just begun. Under the system of ranked social categories, members of respectable groupings recognized their own noble descent and considered themselves the protectors of servants, former slaves, artisans, and certain farmers, all of whom were thought of as ?deficient,? either because they provided a service or craft?such as bloodletting, butchery, or barbering?that involved contact with polluting substances, or because their origins were discredited as ignoble. The tribal code of protection was also extended to elites at the top of the social scale, especially to sayyids, the reputed descendants of the Prophet, who originally came to Yemen to serve as mediators between tribes and who are respected for their religious expertise. Another social category, that of legal scholars, also inherits high status in the ranking order. Scholars, along with shuyukh (sing. shaykh ), who are tribal leaders, typically serve as village administrators. The majority of Yemenis use various equivalent or substitute terms to identify themselves within the social hierarchy, including qaba\\??\\il in the northern highlands to connote tribal membership, ra\\??\\iyah in the south to mean ?cultivators,? and \\??\\arab along the coast to signify respectable ancestry. Former slaves continue to act as agents and domestics in the households of former masters, but the most menial jobs (e.g., removing human waste from the street) are reserved for Yemenis who are alleged descendants of Ethiopians of the pre-Islamic era. In addition, Yemen relies on a range of foreigners from the East and West for professional, technical, and custodial services.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ Sayyids remained dominant in Yemeni Islamic scholarship: 'Being of sayyid status, even in contemporary Yemeni society, still validates (but does not necessarily guarantee) one's access to religious learning. Men gather at the mosque for prayers and sermons on the Sabbath, which in Yemen occurs on Friday. Strict segregation of the sexes usually does not permit women to worship in public.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ Other ceremonial specialists included local preachers and men responsible for circumcising children: 'Despite the imposition of modernity, Yemenis remain proud of their architectural and oral-poetry traditions. Houses and mosques found in different regions of the country reflect unique stylistic and functional variations. Highlanders construct multistoried buildings from smooth, layered mud, mud brick, or cut stone. Dwellings in San\\??\\a are particularly impressive with their decorative colored-glass windows. In the rural highlands, houses constructed atop terraced embankments were fortresses against enemy tribes. In cities along the coastal plain, the former elegance of houses and mosques can be seen in their elaborate doors and facades. Rural towns in the Tihama usually include a walled compound that contains mud and thatched-roof huts identical to those found in Africa, on the other side of the Red Sea. The interiors of Tihama houses may be highly ornamented. Buildings constructed of cinder blocks are routinely replacing the huts. Competitive poetry duels performed at weddings by men of tribal status are highly valued. In the past, celebrations for circumcision (required of all Muslim males) were particularly elaborate, but now government officials discourage postinfancy circumcisions, thereby undermining the importance of ceremonial specialists.' §REF§Walters, Delores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ The Imamate sought to strengthen the position of scholars vis-à-vis tribal shaykhs: 'Imamic government was of a religious character, sharing power with and at times dominating, but never entirely restructuring or supplanting, rural political, military and legal structures. Its rule rested on an uneasy pact with northern leaders and groups. The allegiance of the prominent shaikhs was rewarded by alliance and simultaneously controlled by a system of holding (and educating) young hostages from their families. During the reign of Imam Yahya, the developing administration of the Imamic state moved to institutionalize status differences. The cadre of the Imamic administration proclaimed themselves the bearers of the civilizing tradition of Islamic learning and law. Under the Imamate Islamic shari'ah was to conquer divisive tribal custom and the ulema (the scholars) would rule and not merely serve the shaikhs.' §REF§Mundy, Martha 1995. \"Domestic Government: Kinship, Community and Polity in North Yemen\", 13§REF§" }, { "id": 407, "polity": { "id": 402, "name": "in_paramara_dyn", "long_name": "Paramara Dynasty", "start_year": 974, "end_year": 1235 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Purohita<br>\"The Mahapurohita or Purohita (Chief Priest) was generally the ruler's adviser in religious matters. Well-versed in the Atharvana lore, he was expected to ward off all the evils by means of rites and incantations. He also supervised the studies of the Brahmana students.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZT5677P4\">[Pratipal 1970, p. 213]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 408, "polity": { "id": 773, "name": "mw_pre_maravi", "long_name": "Pre-Maravi", "start_year": 1151, "end_year": 1399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>\"A common feature were the 'spirit wives', women living in permanent celibacy and set apart from the cult of the godhead. One of their tasks was to transmit to those concerned mesages of communal interest which they received in dreams. [...] [T]hey were held in high esteem, their office being considered the highest in the cult hierarchy. They acted as overseers of the female initiation rites, and they are said to have been [...] confidantes of local rulers. The spirit wives were members of the Banda clan and thus were associated with the prestate period in Malawi. This is emphasized in oral traditions cited by Ntara, according to which the Chewa at first had no chiefs but spirit wives, suggesting that they embodied a form of regional jural authority before the emergence of centralized state systems. \"A final feature to be considered is the apparent universality of a priesthood at the great shrines, which consisted of members of the Mbewe clan. These Mbewe were also of pre-Maravi stock, and their presence at the great shrines functioned as an additional factor which bound these shrines together into some form of common organization. The central cult object was conceived of as a snake, called tunga, which was associated both with the shrine hut and with the sacred pool, another invariable feature of each cult complex. The snake spirit was visibly represented by the senior Mbewe official, who was himself known as tunga and who acted as the spirit wife's ritual consort.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/A88E23E4\">[Schoeffeleers 1992]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 409, "polity": { "id": 293, "name": "ua_russian_principate", "long_name": "Russian Principate", "start_year": 1133, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Bishop<br> Capital town had a bishop (only open to monks), who had an \"entourage.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 437) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Priest Priests§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 438) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 3. Deacons 4. Towns had priests and deacons.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 437) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Woman who prepares the Eucharist bread.<br> Healer<br> Hospitals<br> Hostels<br> Refuges for wayfarers.<br>\"In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity, and proceeded to have baptized the entire population.\"§REF§(Martin 2017, 158-159) Michael Martin. 2017. City of the Sun: Development and Popular Resistance in the Pre-Modern West. Algora Publishing. New York.§REF§<br>Monks, nuns and secular clergy. \"The foundation of monasteries in remote places was a development that only took off by the end of the 14th century.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 437) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Monasteries and convents run by an abbot (igumen) or abbess (igumen'ia).§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 437) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 410, "polity": { "id": 412, "name": "in_sharqi_dyn", "long_name": "Sharqi", "start_year": 1394, "end_year": 1479 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": "levels. Islam lacks a formal clerical hierarchy.", "description": null }, { "id": 411, "polity": { "id": 237, "name": "ml_songhai_1", "long_name": "Songhai Empire", "start_year": 1376, "end_year": 1493 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 0, "religious_level_to": 0, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>After 1493 CE Askiya Muhammad Toure made Islam the official state religion\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§" }, { "id": 412, "polity": { "id": 259, "name": "cn_southern_qi_dyn", "long_name": "Southern Qi State", "start_year": 479, "end_year": 502 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>Buddhist cave temples: \"Of the copious artistic heritage of the Southern Dynasties, only a few gilt bronzes remain, and those Buddhist images executed in perishable materials (wood, lacquer, clay) are no longer extant. Moreover, in contrast to the north, the southern coastal areas do not hold many cave temples, largely because the terrain is less mountainous. Only two sites were carved out of rock during the Southern Qi dynasty, both dated to the late fifth century.\"§REF§(Howard 2006, 261) Angela Falco Howard. From the Han to the Southern Song. Angela Falco Howard. Li Song. Wu Hung. Yang Hong. 2006. Chinese Sculpure. Yale University and Foreign Languages Press.§REF§<br>Buddhist monks.§REF§(Xudong 2010, 1158) Hou Xudong. The Buddhist pantheon. John Lagerwey. Lu Pengzhi. ed. 2010. Early Chinese Religion. Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD). Volume One. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"Due to the support of these influential Buddhists, Buddhism enjoyed an exponential growth in the era of 424-453. In the succeeding dynasty of Southern Qi, Prince Jing Ling (son of Emperor Wu, r. 454-464) and Heir-Apparent Wen Hui, both Buddhist devotees, regularly invited eminent monks to give public lectures.\"§REF§(Yu 2000, 423) David C Yu. 2000. History of Chinese Daoism, Volume 1. University Press of America.§REF§<br>Daoism: \"Meng Jingyi, a native of P'ing Chang (in northeastern Sichuan), was a celebrated debator between Buddhism and Daoism in the Southern Qi dynasty: He once debated with Prince Jing Ling who headed a group of Buddhist months in a Buddho-Daoist debate. He composed the Zhengyi lun (Discourse on the Unity of Doctrines) for the purpose of reconciliation ...\"§REF§(Yu 2000, 423) David C Yu. 2000. History of Chinese Daoism, Volume 1. University Press of America.§REF§" }, { "id": 413, "polity": { "id": 380, "name": "th_sukhotai", "long_name": "Sukhotai", "start_year": 1238, "end_year": 1419 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Buddhism. At least 2 levels? Monks in monasteries.§REF§(Mishra 2010, 38) Patit Paban Mishra. 2010. The History of Thailand. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.§REF§ \"Theravada Buddhism was also used as a political ideology to express the political unity of the state.\"§REF§(Shoocongdej 2007, 386) Rasmi Shoocongdej. The Impact of Colonialism and Nationalism in the Archaeology of Thailand. Philip L. Kohl. Mara Kozelsky. Nachman Ben-Yehuda. eds. 2007. Selective Remembrances. Archaeology in the Construction, Commemoration, and Consecration of National Pasts. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>Successor polity suggests that the king in the Sukhothai period was not a level, at least for Buddhism but he may have played a leading role in the traditional pagan religion?<br> \"Conversely, kings of the Ayudhya period were seen as divine god kings. Not only were they Buddhist kings who ruled according to dharma, but they were also devaraja or god-kings whose sacred power was associated with the Hindu gos Indra and Vishnu. The administrative system changed from the father-son model of the Sukhothai era to an administration based on divine right that owed its origin to Cambodian and Hindu influences. The concept of divine kingship meant that the king was like a semi-god worshipped by the people. The king was master, and the rest, including bureaucrats, were his servants. The Ayudhyan bureaucracy consisted of a complex hierarchical administrative system of ranked and titled officials, all of whom had varying amounts of sakdina (assumed landholding by rank) (Phumisak 1957). From the Ayudhya period to the reign of King Rama IV in the Bangkok period, royal bureaucrats, freemen, and slaves would have to prostrate themselves in front of the king.\"§REF§(Bowornwathana 2011, 31) Bidhya Bowornwathana. History and Political Context of Public Administration in Thailand. Evan M Berman. ed. 2011. Public Administration in Southeast Asia. Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Macao. CRC Press. Taylor & Francis Group.§REF§<br> \"The Mons, Khmers, Indians, and Sri Lankans had close cultural contact with Sukhothai. The Sri Lankan variety of Buddhism (Theravada Buddhism) became predominant in Sukhothai. Rama Khamheng invited monks from Sri Lanka to come to Sukhothai to free existing Khmer-dominated Buddhism. The monks of Sukhothai went to Sri Lanka to learn about Buddhits cannons. Nakon Sri Tammarat became an important center of Sri Lankan Theravada philosophy. It had close religious ties with Sri Lanka, with which contact was established through Nakon Sri Tammarat. In continuity with the indigenous tradition of worshipping spirits, Rama Khamheng continued to make offerings to Phaya Khaphung, the phi-tewada or spirit deity located on a hill south of Sukhothai, even after adopting Theravada Buddhism. His inscription of 1292 mention the link between the prosperity of Sukhothai and respect for Phaya Khaphung. Thus two religious traditions were merged.\"§REF§(Mishra 2010, 37-38) Patit Paban Mishra. 2010. The History of Thailand. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.§REF§" }, { "id": 414, "polity": { "id": 217, "name": "dz_tahert", "long_name": "Tahert", "start_year": 761, "end_year": 909 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Imam, Caliph<br> \"The Ibadi imamate of Tahart was a kind of theocracy.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2014) Ira M Lapidus. 2014. A History of Islamic Societies. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"Only the Kharijites were not embarrassed by these considerations and the head of the Rustamid dynasty, which ruled the western part of Algeria, called himself 'Caliph', but only in the sense of the Prophet's deputy, of course, as leader of the faithful.\"§REF§( ? 1963, 125) ?. 1963. The Islamic Quarterly, Volumes 7-10. Islamic Cultural Centre.§REF§<br> 2. 3." }, { "id": 415, "polity": { "id": 271, "name": "ua_skythian_k_3", "long_name": "Third Scythian Kingdom", "start_year": -429, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>Royal clan or lineage. \"It originated from the tribe of the 'Royal Scythians', but pretended to rule the whole of Scythia. ... The ideological background of this was provided by the notion of the divine origin of the royal power and the royal clan itself. The Scythian king was not a deity in the Frazerian sense of the term, but rather a divine king, a direct descendant of the gods who received his power from their hands (Rostovtzev 1913). A false oath to the deities of the royal hearth (i.e., lineage) was punishable by death. Herodotus (IV, 71, 72) has left us a detailed description of the funerals of Scythian kings, in which he emphasizes their spectacular character, the offering of human sacrifices, and the practice of placing precious articles into the tombs of deceased royalty. His account is supported by archaeological data.\"§REF§(Khazanov 1978, 437) Anatolii M Khazanov. The Early State Among the Scythians. H J M Claessen. Peter Skalnik. ed. 1978. The Early State. Mouton Publishers. The Hague.§REF§" }, { "id": 416, "polity": { "id": 230, "name": "dz_tlemcen", "long_name": "Tlemcen", "start_year": 1235, "end_year": 1554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": "levels.<br>Islamic religion.", "description": null }, { "id": 417, "polity": { "id": 375, "name": "cn_viet_baiyu_k", "long_name": "Viet Baiyu Kingdom", "start_year": -332, "end_year": -109 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>Generic Baiyue reference: \"As the Bai Yue worshipped their ancestors and their dead heroes, the safety of their dead was related to the safety of their tribe, of the living. And so the tremendous effort of raising these coffins so high can be understood.\"§REF§(Walker, Shipley, Malloy, Kailin 1993, 203) Caroline Walker. Robert Shipley. Ruth Lor Malloy. Fu Kailin. 1993. On Leaving Bai Di Cheng: The Culture of China's Yangzi Gorges. NC Press Limited. Toronto.§REF§<br>Generic Baiyue reference: \"Their custom of crag burial spread even to southeast Asia. Their descendants lived in Sichuan, Guangdong, Fujian, Hunan, Yunnan, and Guizhou provinces, and so similar crag burials have been found there. ... None of this is agreed upon by all of the experts. We await their further study of the beliefs and customs of the Bai Yue people.\"§REF§(Walker, Shipley, Malloy, Kailin 203) Caroline Walker. Robert Shipley. Ruth Lor Malloy. Fu Kailin. 1993. On Leaving Bai Di Cheng: The Culture of China's Yangzi Gorges. NC Press Limited. Toronto.§REF§<br>Generic Baiyue reference: \"Legend has it that one of the earliest deities to be awarded imperial recognition was the Dragon Mother of Yuecheng. By the Jin dynasty the legend of the elixir hunter Ge Hong on Luofu Mountain to the east of Guangzhou was added.\"§REF§(Faure 2007, 18) David Faure. 2007. Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China. Stanford University Press. Stanford.§REF§" }, { "id": 418, "polity": { "id": 240, "name": "ma_wattasid_dyn", "long_name": "Wattasid", "start_year": 1465, "end_year": 1554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>Islamic clerics.", "description": null }, { "id": 419, "polity": { "id": 291, "name": "cn_xixia", "long_name": "Xixia", "start_year": 1032, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>Practiced Tantric Buddhism as opposed to the Chinese Mahayana Buddhism.§REF§(Steele 2015, 245) Tracey Steele. Xi Xia. Steven L Danver. 2015. Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br>Probably practiced ancestor worship.§REF§(Steele 2015, 245) Tracey Steele. Xi Xia. Steven L Danver. 2015. Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br>\"Tibetan Buddhism began to spread from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau northward to Xixia (called Mi-nyag in Tibetan), exerting great influence on Xixia culture. Buddhism was the most important religious belief of the Xixia people. Xixia had a special administrative agency in charge of Buddhist affairs and monks. There were a large number of monks in Xixia at that time.\"§REF§(? 2006, 401) ?. 2006. China Tibetology. Issues 6-11. Office for the Journal China Tibetology§REF§" }, { "id": 420, "polity": { "id": 408, "name": "in_yadava_dyn", "long_name": "Yadava Dynasty", "start_year": 1190, "end_year": 1318 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>_Hinduism_<br>There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism §REF§<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556\">http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556</a>§REF§. However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. §REF§G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4§REF§), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels.<br>_Jainism_<br>NOTE: I have found two equally authoritative sources on Jain hierarchy:<br>(1) §REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319§REF§<br> 1. Arihants (ones who have conquered their inner enemies)<br> 2. Siddhas (Liberated Ones)<br> 3. Acharyas (who head the Order)<br> 4. Upadhyays (who teach the message)<br> 5. Sadhus (Monks/Seekers)<br>(2) §REF§M. Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka (2006), pp. 269-276§REF§<br> 1. Guru (teacher)<br> 2. Monks<br> 2. Male figure (not specified by author whether a monk) in charge of nuns<br> 3. Pravartini or ganini (aides to the male figure in charge of nuns)<br> 4. Nuns" }, { "id": 421, "polity": { "id": 227, "name": "et_zagwe", "long_name": "Zagwe", "start_year": 1137, "end_year": 1269 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "levels. At least three possible more associated with Christian church.'<br>1. Priest king<br> Historian Abu Salih (Abu I-Karim) said that the Zagwe claimed to be Israelites from the family of Moses and Aaron, that they possessed the Ark of the Covenant and were priests.§REF§(Bausi 2017, 109) Alessandro Bausi. The Zagwe. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing.§REF§<br> 2.<br> Bishops.§REF§(Munro-Hay 2002, 22) Stuart Munro-Hay. 2002. Ethiopia, the Unknown Land: A Cultural and Historical Guide. I B Tauris. London.§REF§ 3. Other church positions." }, { "id": 422, "polity": { "id": 222, "name": "tn_zirid_dyn", "long_name": "Zirids", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1148 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": "levels.<br>\"Later in his reign, al-Muizz recognized the spiritual leadership of the Abbasid caliph, further dissolving the dynasty's ties with the Fatimids.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SWB4JINE\">[Perkins 2016, p. 275]</a> \"the Sunni Zirids cultivated the Maliki religious leadership and lavished attention on traditionally Sunni mosques.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SWB4JINE\">[Perkins 2016, p. 275]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 423, "polity": { "id": 586, "name": "gb_england_norman", "long_name": "Norman England", "start_year": 1066, "end_year": 1153 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 6, "comment": "Level 1: Archbishop (head of the church in the realm, controls large dioceses, oversees bishops):\r\n\r\nExample: Archbishop of Canterbury, Archbishop of York.\r\n\r\nLevel 2: Bishop (regional church leader, governs dioceses, oversees cathedrals and priests):\r\n\r\nExamples: Bishops of Winchester, Durham, Norwich.\r\n\r\nLevel 3: Abbot/Abbess (head of a major monastery or abbey, oversees monastic communities):\r\n\r\nExamples: Abbots of Westminster, Glastonbury.\r\n\r\nLevel 4: Dean/Canon (senior cleric in cathedrals, assists the bishop, manages cathedral chapters):\r\n\r\nExamples: Canons of Durham Cathedral.\r\n\r\nLevel 5: Parish Priest (local religious leader, performs sacraments, administers the parish):\r\n\r\nExamples: Parish priests serving rural and urban churches.\r\n\r\nLevel 6: Monk/Nun (members of monastic communities, focus on prayer, study, and local charity):\r\n\r\nExamples: Monks of St. Albans Abbey. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MXKV3EU2\">[webpage_Home | Domesday Book]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/43XN46TR\">[Barlow 1979]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 424, "polity": { "id": 798, "name": "de_east_francia", "long_name": "East Francia", "start_year": 842, "end_year": 919 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": "Level 1: The Pope<br>\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Pope in Rome, as the supreme authority of the Catholic Church, influenced religious practices in East Francia.\r\n\r\nLevel 2: Archbishops<br>\r\n\r\n\r\nLeaders of archdioceses, the highest-ranking ecclesiastical figures within East Francia.\r\n\r\nLevel 3: Bishops<br>\r\n\r\n\r\nLeaders of dioceses, responsible for overseeing the clergy and managing church lands.\r\n\r\nLevel 4: Abbots and Priors<br>\r\n\r\n\r\nHeads of monasteries and abbeys, such as Fulda, Reichenau, and St. Gall.\r\n\r\nLevel 5: Parish Priests<br>\r\n\r\nLocal clergy serving individual parishes. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GI5MI52S\">[Riché 1993]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MPWQTI9N\">[Wickham 2010]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 426, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": "Sheikh-ul-Islam: The highest religious authority<br>\r\n\r\nMuftis: Regional jurists interpreting Islamic law<br>\r\n\r\nQadis: Judges enforcing Sharia law in courts<br>\r\n\r\nImams: Leaders of local prayers<br>\r\n\r\nMullahs and Madrasa Teachers: Educators responsible for teaching Islamic principles <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E353GTJ9\">[Zilfi 1988]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 427, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>There was significant religious reform in the Old Babylonian period. Where Enlil in Nippur was once the king of the Gods, the Amorites encouraged a wide spectrum of gods in the pantheon, of level importance. Many gods formed relationships with specific cities e.g. Nabu in Borsippa, Nergal in Kutha and Shamash in Sippar. Marduk of Babylon became the head of gods. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7DRZQS5Q\">[Liverani_Tabatabai 2014, p. 249]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 428, "polity": { "id": 465, "name": "uz_khwarasm_1", "long_name": "Ancient Khwarazm", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>\"The cults of Khorezm are also evidenced by figurines of the horse and camel.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P7IJPJXK\">[Kuz'mina 2007, p. 238]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 429, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>Beyond differences in mortuary treatment between adults and sub-adults, \"there is no evidence for Neolithic social differences or ranking in the archaeological record\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M4E9T7IR\">[Johansen 2014, pp. 1-28]</a> .<br>However, there were communal rituals. Presumably these rituals were lead by an individual, e.g. an elder.<br>\"Ashmounds marked the locations of important Neolithic places (e.g. settlements and camps) as well as commemorating and memorializing communal ritual; their permanence and scale further suggest that these highly visible structures were intended to mark the landscape for generations (Allchin, 1963; Boivin, 2004; Johansen, 2004; Paddayya, 2001). The centrality and high visibility of many ashmounds within Neolithic settlements and camps suggests that the ritual practices that created these features were open, public, and socially integrative, transmitting socio-symbolically charged information concerning community integration and social reproduction (Boivin, 2004; Johansen, 2004). The repetitive ritual practices that created these monuments employed a valued and almost certainly sacralized substance (dung) collected from an animal with profound symbolic, economic, and political importance to Neolithic agro-pastoral communities. Ashmound ritual also appears to have produced very specific sets of social claims to places such as seasonal and permanent settlements, adjacent pasturage, water sources, and critically to community cattle herds whose daily movements and seasonal transhumance navigated established and contested spaces within a dynamic Neolithic social landscape. In doing so, ashmound production clearly and legibly socialized places, materializing social relations at community and regional scales of practice. Ashmound production was, then, both ritual and political activity, affirming and reinforcing social relationships by inscribing them in monumental places with a highly visible and legible political materiality within the Neolithic landscape.\"", "description": null }, { "id": 430, "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "iq_early_dynastic", "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels", "description": null }, { "id": 431, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "Legalism took precedence over rites in this period = no state cult?", "description": null }, { "id": 432, "polity": { "id": 503, "name": "ir_neo_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam I", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>A Priesthood was known to be present, but the degree of hierarchy is unknown. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S6GDFAI8\">[Potts 1999, p. 273]</a> \"During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, 'the great mother of the gods to the Elamites' and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEK3VXZM\">[Nashat_Nashat_Beck 2003, p. 14]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 433, "polity": { "id": 504, "name": "ir_neo_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam II", "start_year": -743, "end_year": -647 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>A Priesthood was known to be present, but the degree of hierarchy is unknown. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S6GDFAI8\">[Potts 1999, p. 273]</a> \"During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, 'the great mother of the gods to the Elamites' and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZEK3VXZM\">[Nashat_Nashat_Beck 2003, p. 14]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 434, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "The following refers to Ancient Hawaiki, not Hawaii. The former is the ancestral Polynesian homeland, in the first millennium BCE. It's not entirely clear how much of their ancestral heritage the earliest Hawaiians might have retained. Expert guidance needed. \"As best we can infer, in ancient Hawaiki the *ariki played a role that was part secular leader, part priest. He had the responsibility for conducting most if not all of the sacred rituals of the group, including supplications to the ancestors.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NIIVVPB6\">[Kirch 2012, p. 45]</a> NB Hawaiki is the Ancestral Polynesian homeland, not the earliest period of human occupation of Hawaii. Several centuries may have separated the two.", "description": null }, { "id": 435, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "There seems to have been a fusion of Greek polytheism and Buddhist practices in at least some areas of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. There is no good evidence on whether this was made into a formalized practice, or on the structure of religious practice.<br>\"Menander or Milinda (165-145 BC) ... was converted to Buddhism by Nagarjuna. The dialogue that took place between the two is recorded [in] the book Milinda Panha.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QDQ94DVQ\">[Chand 2013]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 436, "polity": { "id": 138, "name": "jp_jomon_1", "long_name": "Japan - Incipient Jomon", "start_year": -13600, "end_year": -9200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>There is almost no data on religion in the Incipient Jomon: clay figurines are rare, and burials unknown §REF§(Habu 2004, 160-161, 175)§REF§." }, { "id": 437, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>At Jenne-jeno no evidence of \"social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.§REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§" }, { "id": 438, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>At Jenne-jeno no evidence of \"social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.§REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§" }, { "id": 439, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>At Jenne-jeno no evidence of \"social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.§REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§" }, { "id": 440, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>At Jenne-jeno no evidence of \"social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.§REF§(Reader 1998, 230)§REF§<br>\"The continued practice of urn burial at Jenne-jeno through the fourteenth century tells us that many of the site's occupants did not convert to Islam.\"§REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 441, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels. No archaeological evidence for this.", "description": null }, { "id": 442, "polity": { "id": 280, "name": "hu_hun_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of the Huns", "start_year": 376, "end_year": 469 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels. No data.<br>\"The sacred rule of the shanjui was perfectly inserted into the main features of the universe. Heaven and Earth were described as powers giving birth, and Sun and Moon as powers promoting life. A jasper seal symbolized the authority of the shanjui.\"§REF§KUMEKOV B.E HISTORY OF STATES ON THE TERRITORY OF KAZAKHSTAN <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.scientificfund.kz/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D43:history-of-states-on-the-territory-of-kazakhstan%26catid%3D5:2%26Itemid%3D27\">http://www.scientificfund.kz/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D43:history-of-states-on-the-territory-of-kazakhstan%26catid%3D5:2%26Itemid%3D27</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 443, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Ethnohistoric records written by the Spanish after 1520 describe the presence of full-time priests, or bigaña, during this period. §REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383. p376§REF§ The bigaña were ranked beneath the uija-táo (or great seer) and above the ueza-eche, huetete colanij (sacrifice or diviner).§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People. New York. p350§REF§ However, it is by no means clear that the same system existed several centuries prior." }, { "id": 444, "polity": { "id": 88, "name": "in_post_mauryan_k", "long_name": "Post-Mauryan Kingdoms", "start_year": -205, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>Buddhist monasteries. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AVB94HR2\">[Shimada 2012, pp. 118-119]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 445, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels. There is not any direct evidence concerning the religious complexity. There were found remains of many temples as well as houses which also might have been used in rituals, but there is impossible to establish any hierarchic levels of ritual activity or places and shows religious centre dedicated for few villages or for whole region.", "description": null }, { "id": 446, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels. Differences between religious hierarchy and political hierarchy is possible unknowable. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2RVPKFP2\">[Cook 2016]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 447, "polity": { "id": 359, "name": "ye_ziyad_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen Ziyadid Dynasty", "start_year": 822, "end_year": 1037 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>\"In 1007 a Yu'firid prince of the Ismaili persuasion, 'Abdullah ibn Qahtan, suceeded to the rule of Sanaa, and even made a successful foray against that stronghold of Sunnism, the Ziyad state in the Tihama, now in its decline.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\">[Stookey 1978, p. 57]</a> \"By the late ninth century the Fatimids were conducting a ramified international underground movement centered in Iraq. It was out of the question to move directly against the base of Abbasid power, and planning focused upon the provinces - successively Syria, Yemen, and the Maghreb - where conditions appeared propitious for a secessionist state. ... In 880 two remarkable individuals were chosen to lead the movement in Yemen, both being first converted from the 'twelver' sect of Shi'ism.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\">[Stookey 1978, p. 52]</a> \"For a century and a half no central power of consequence existed in the Yemen inland from the Tihama. Most of the local rulers invoked the Abbasid caliph in the Friday prayers; they repressed overt manifestations of Ismaili sentiment, but offered no persuaive ideological alternative.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3\">[Stookey 1978, p. 57]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 448, "polity": null, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>\"In certain circumstances, commercial organizations and missionary societies could embody and uphold Imperial authority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GN9A6S32\">[Burroughs_Porter_Louis 1999]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 449, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>_ Buddhist _<br>_ Shinto_", "description": null } ] }