Religious Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Religious Levels.
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{ "count": 446, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/religious-levels/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Islam has no true hierarchy.<br>" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Sivaism, Vishnuism, Jainism, Buddhism - and their different schools \"penetrated Central Asia\" from India where there was Zoroastrianism, Greek divinities, pre-Zoroastrian cults, and ancient Iranian religions of the horseriding nomads.§REF§(Harmatta et al. 1994, 321) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ Kushan rulers had \"a liberal and tolerant attitude to all religions.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 81) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§ \"The Kushan rulers patronized religious cults to assert their legitimacy in power of the conquered sedentary societies\".§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§ \"religious cults appeared on the coins - the dynastic symbol - to indicate religious devotion of a particular king. A variety of gods and cults were documented on Kushan coins - the Sumerian goddess Nana on her lion, Persian gods Oado and Atash, Indian cults of Buddha and Shiva. Zoroastrian fire worship left many remains.\"§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§<br>_Sivaism_<br>1. King<br>\"it seems that originally the divine patron of the Kushan dynasty was the ancient Iranian moon god. In view of the close connection between Siva and the moon, dynastic religious ideas may have also suggested to Vima [Kadphises] the choice of Siva as his divine patron.\"§REF§(Harmatta et al. 1994, 312) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>2.<br>Syncretic religious cult which \"apparently combined Greek, Iranian and non-Sivaite Indian elements.\" §REF§(Harmatta et al. 1994, 322) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>_Dynastic protector religion_<br>1. King<br>2. Bakanapati (temple-keeper)§REF§B. N. Mukherjee, 'The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire' (Calcutta, 1988), pp. 335-6/338§REF§<br>\"a network of imperial temples dedicated to the divine protectors of the dynasty, where statues of the royal ancestors were also erected\".§REF§(Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ \"The main source of their legitimacy was no doubt the divinity of claim to their kingdom. Rulers of Kushans were called 'Son of God' or the 'Son of Heaven' ... the worship of heaven, prevailed in many tribes of the steppe. Kushan probably, like other tribes, claim the legitimacy of the chief deity of the sky.\"§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§<br>Inscription in the Rabatak temple lists gods 'from whom the king as obtained kingship.' Five are Zoroastrian but two are not.§REF§(Grenet 2012, 17) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ Muzhdwan \"is portrayed as a Yuezhi rider with a typical Scythian hooded cap, and it seems reasonable to suppose that Kanishka took this personal protector from his own stock of family gods.\"§REF§(Grenet 2012, 17) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ Terracotta figurines of horsemen with pointy caps are found at Kushan-Bactrian sites and usually assigned to category of 'rider gods' or 'heroized ancestors.'§REF§(Grenet 2012, 18) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ Umma was a goddess (\"not to be confused with the Indian goddess Uma who is shown on some later coins\") whose Iranian name means 'highest' or 'supreme'. The Rabatak inscription said she was \"welcoming in her presence all the other gods named here.\" Scythians had a goddess called Tabiti (Herodotus) who might fit her description as a \"bestower of power\".§REF§(Grenet 2012, 18) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§ A terracotta of Umma found in a former Yuezhi territory showed her with \"strikingly Yuezhi facial features.\"§REF§(Grenet 2012, 18) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§<br>\"The family temple (Devakula Sanskrit) of the Kushan royal family was where protective deity or deities should be worshiped ... The deification of the ruler which was so prevalent in the Roman and Hellenistic world as well as among the Iranians was thus introduced into India and left a mark on the future development of Hindu kingship.\"§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§<br>_Vishnuism_<br>1.<br>2.<br>_Jainism_<br>1.<br>2.<br>_Zoroastrianism_<br>1.<br>2.3.4.<br>\"the pantheon shown on Kushan coins belongs almost entrely to the Zoroastrian religion - which was the religion of the local populatn of Bactria at least from the Achaemenian period - though the iconographic types were mostly borrowed from Greece and India.\"§REF§(Grenet 2012, 17) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.§REF§<br>_Buddhism_<br>1.<br>2.3.4.<br>Kanishka I (128-150 CE): \"Several traditions indicate that Kanishka sponsored the fourth Buddhist Council meeting at Jalandhar, which gave birth to Mahayana Buddhism.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 83) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§<br>Mahayana Buddhism introduced new deities - bodhisattvas - \"to help others cross the ocean of suffering\". Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvaras would help people in trouble and responded to donations. Other bodhisattvas included Maitreya and Amitabha who had paradises for Buddhists not yet able to reach nirvana. \"The Mahayana vision of future lives was no doubt much more attractive to the pragmatically inclined. Rebirth into a beautiful heaven was much more desirable than reaching nirvana. For merchants, making donations was a much more satisfying and practical approach than self-denial. The gifts given in the name of the Buddha or bodhisattvas became the property of Buddhist monasteries.\"§REF§(Liu 2010, 53) Liu, Xinru. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"They were influenced by Buddhism to some extent but none of them actually converted to Buddhism. They patronized the Buddhist establishment and gave full respect to the Buddhist community and Buddhist religion, but continued to worship a large number of Iranian, Mesopotamian, and even some Indian deities.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 88-89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§<br>_Hinduism_<br>1.<br>2.<br>\"When the Kushans entered South Asia, they encountered both Brahmanism and Buddhism, and cults of both religions appeared on Kushan coins.\"§REF§Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.§REF§<br>_Christianity_<br>1.<br>2.<br>\"Later Armenian sources refer to the success of Iranian Christianity, spreading to the Kushan Empire and even into India, where it still survives (in Kerala).\"§REF§(Ball 2016, 140) Ball, Warwick. 2016. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Buddhism" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from previous polity.<br>1. Emperor2. Priests or ritual assistants" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>There was a religion or cult centered around royalty. At least two levels if the king did not do everything.<br>1. King2. Priest or assistant/High priest <i>inferred</i>3. Low priest <i>inferred</i><br>\"The scale of the palace-temples and the existence of the palace-temple district from the very beginning of the site suggest that Yanshi Shangcheng was planned and built as an elite religious/political structure from the start.\" §REF§(Campbell 2014, 75)§REF§<br>\"Exemplified by Zhengzhou and Anyang, each city was composed of a centrally situated ceremonial and administrative enclave occupied primarily by royalty, priests and a few selected craftsmen... (Wheatley 1971: 30-47).\"§REF§(Liu and Chen 2012, 295) Liu, Li. Chen, Xingcan. 2012. The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Local Shamans or Diviners<br>Communal rituals were guided by village shamans or diviners: 'In religion, most Miao practice ancestor worship and believe in a wide variety of spirits. They have shamans who may exorcise malevolent spirits or recall the soul of a sick patient, and animal sacrifice is widespread (see shamanism; soul loss).' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao</a>§REF§ 'Most religious ritual is performed or guided by various part-time specialists who act as priests, diviners, or shamans for the local community or for kin groups. Most of them are males. They engage in ordinary work, and only the most important religious activities require them to don special items of dress and decoration to mark them from others. There are no written texts for learning the chants, songs, dances, and rituals: they are memorized. If called by a family, specialists receive a small payment (often in foodstuffs) for their assistance. Shamans play a key role at funerals and postburial rites. They are also involved in analysis and healing of illness: some are skilled in herbal medicine as well as ritual procedures. Shamans also provide explanations of the possible causes of misfortune and can provide protective amulets. Ceremonies on behalf of the village community or a gathering of kin from several villages are conducted by skilled male elders who function as priests, following ritual procedures, administering the necessary animal and food sacrifices, and chanting the songs and myths without going into trance or communicating directly with the supernaturals and spirits. Some ceremonies are led by the male head of household on behalf of his immediate family.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ 'The eleventh part is performed in front of the main house. A bamboo mat is spread on the ground and on it are placed the caps and clothes of the members of the lower generation. Behind the mat there is a bench, on which are placed a bowl of wine and a piece of water-buffalo meat. The sorcerer-priest stands outside the entrance, wearing a wide rain hat on his head and carrying a bamboo cage on his back, in which are clothes and other articles. Wielding a wooden rod, he utters an incantation, telling of the source of the kuei of pigs. After the incantation he goes directly into the house and partakes of the wine and meat on the bench.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 199§REF§ There were male and female shamans, although men were preferred in the case of serious illness or death: '(1) Spiritual Media. The names for spiritual media in An-shun are the same in the Miao-I language as in the Chinese. The men are known as Kwei-shin or Tuan-kung; the women, Mi-la or Mi-pu. Their duty is to sacrifice to the spirits to invoke their aid and to provide a medium between the spiritual and the human worlds. As such they are respected by the people. All ancestor worship and funeral events have to be presided over by the Kwei-shih. Every Miao-I center has one or two Kwei-shih, who learned their trade since childhood. Among the Chung-chia people the magic charms used for such spiritual purposes are marked with Chinese characters as phonetic symbols and written down as a scripture to be transmitted from master to disciple. The Kwei-shih, who are farmers by trade, take up mediumship as a side line to supplement their income from remunerations gained from its practice. In case of sickness the Miao-I believe the evil spirits are causing trouble, and it is the duty of the Mi-la to chase them away in order to cure the sick person. Often she is invited to the house to do her work. Sometimes in public gatherings the Mi-la is surrounded by people inquiring from her as to the best method of driving away spirits. Evidently the Mi-la is less able than the Kwei-shih, for in case of very serious illness or in the performance of funeral rites the man medium is always preferred.' §REF§Chen, Guojun, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Religious Beliefs Of The Miao And I Tribes In An-Shun Kweichow”, 3§REF§ Non-shamans generally also had some knowledge of healing practices: 'Aside from the shaman's extensive knowledge, ordinary persons also have some knowledge of plants and other materials that have healing properties. The Chinese invert this by claiming that Miao women engage in magical poisoning, but all evidence suggests this is a Han myth rather than Miao practice. Divination and exorcism of ghosts and evil spirits are also a part of healing.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ Christian missionaries also attracted followers: 'Since the reign of Kwang-hsu /1875-1907/ in the Ch'ing Dynasty, foreign Protestant and Catholic missionaries had come to Kweichow to rent houses for dispensing medicine and preaching the gospel. The Miao-I people were attracted by their kind and dignified bearings and many were subsequently converted. These preachers bought property where their congregation was the largest and established schools with teachers instructing the people in the gospel. Today Shih-men-k'an at Wei-ning is the southwest headquarters of the Christian missions. There many Hua Miao become sincere believers and followers. The missionaries have also introduced a romanized form of Miao language based on the English alphabet, which the Hua Miao learn as the “Miao language.”' §REF§Che-lin, Wu, Chen Kuo-chün, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Studies Of Miao-I Societies In Kweichow”, 15§REF§ The material is coded for Hmong shamanism rather than Christian converts." }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Religious leaders or shamans dealt directly with devotees to the <i>bidlang</i>, or ancestral pantheon." }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from previous polities.<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Ministry of Rites<br>3. Ritual specialists" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from previous polities.<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Ministry of Rites<br>3. Ritual specialists" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from previous polities.<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Ministry of Rites<br>3. Ritual specialists" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from previous polities.<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Ministry of Rites<br>3. Ritual specialists" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "_State cult_<br>1. King<br>King's title \"Son of Heaven\" gave him sole right to perform sacrifices and rituals related to agriculture and seasons.§REF§(Kerr 2013, 22)§REF§<br>Claimed descent from Hougi: \"he who rules the millet.\" §REF§(Cotterall 1995, 35)§REF§<br>Sacrifices could only be made by male family members.§REF§(Kerr 2013, 22)§REF§2. Ritual specialist3. ?<br>_Ancestor worship_<br>Peasants worshipped their own gods.§REF§(Kerr 2013, 22)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor\"Under persistent pressure from Chinese literati, the Mongolian rulers acqui- esced in carrying out Confucian rites, such as the suburban offerings to heaven, but they did not usually attend them in person. One may surmise that the imperial family felt more comfortable with the Buddhist rituals introduced by the 'Phags-pa Lama. The imperial family attended in person the Buddhist celebratory processions and plays in the first month of the New Year at which Chinese, Muslim, and Tangut musicians entertained.' The ruling Mongols also continued to practice shamanist rituals and apparently saw no conflict of interest in deriving legitimacy from more than one ideological—religious tradition.\" §REF§(Endicott-West 1994, 609)§REF§<br>2. Ministry of Rites<br>\"In terms of political and economic authority, the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Rites was far more narrowly defined than that of either the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of Revenue. Court ceremonies, music, assemblies, and sacrifices came under its aegis, as did such matters as granting posthumous titles, provisioning the imperial kitchen, and manufacturing the imperial seals. The authority of the Ministry of Rites did, however, extend beyond the limited sphere of court etiquette into the realm of sumptuary regulations, marriage rites, mourning rites, and burial rites, all of which affected commoners to a certain degree. In addition, the ministry upheld the rights of the different ethnic groups in Yiian China to practice their own particular rituals and not to have to conform to Chinese standards. Uighurs, for example, were directed to conduct their mourning in accordance with their own regulations; if they were to ignore their own mourning customs and follow instead Chinese practices, they would be subject to confiscation of their property. The Ministry of Rites was also charged with administering the state schools and regulating religious establishments.\" §REF§(Endicott-West 1994, 589-590)§REF§<br>3. Ritual specialistsImams, shamans, Buddhist monks, Taoist priests, etc. \"In matters of religion, Khubilai was all-inclusive. He patronized, or at least sanctioned, every religious group in his realm, from Daoism and Buddhists to Christians and Muslims. ... He added imperial Chinese ceremonies to his government's practice, and built the most ritually correct Chinese city ever constructed for his capital at Dadu (modern Beijing).\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 79)§REF§" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. <span style=\"color:blue\">[1-2] levels at the time of Conquest? Local priests and polity-wide priest? AD</span><span style=\"color:green\">Ana: The only religious leader documented is the naoma, also known as máma. He preformed rituals and was the source of knowledge of the community. Apprentices f this labour where children chosen, but their is no evidence that shows how they were involved in rituals and religious performances. </span>“Los caciques de la Sierra Nevada también tuvieron jerarquías de poder; sabemos que las ciudades estaban divididas en barrios, cada uno al mando de un cacique y todos ellos dependientes de un señor principal, que no existe evidencia de una unión entre los diversos grupos, lo que trajo la derrota y el aniquilamiento total de la cultura después de casi un siglo de resistencia al español. (…)De los Taironas tenemos noticias de categorías de jerarquía social; caciques mayores dominaban a otros secundarios y existieron subalternos en la autoridad civil, llamados <capitanes> y <mandadores>, por los españoles.” / Sierra Nevada’s chiefs also had power hierarchies; we know that cities were divided in neighbourhoods, each ruled by a chief and all of them under a head lord, there is no evidence of a union among the different groups and this might be the cause of the defeat and annihilation of their culture after a century of resistance against the Spanish (…) From the Taironas we have some news of their social hierarchy; greater chiefs ruled over others, apart from subordinated civil authorities, called <captains> and <carriers> by the Spanish. §REF§Chávez, A et al. (1995) Los Indios de Colombia. Mapfre: Cayambe, Ecuador: p. 83§REF§“Dentro de su organización social había separación de funciones religiosas y administrativas por lo que tenían dos tipos de líderes: los religiosos conocidos como naomas -sacerdotes y guías espirituales- y los administrativos -caciques y capitanes-. Aunque los sacerdotes, tenían influencia y participación en los concejos, no estaban investidos de reales poderes administrativos, los caciques por su parte eran los llamados a la administración y a la justicia, y no tenían investidura religiosa.” /Inside their social structure, they use to have two types of leaders, because of the gap between the religious and administrative function: the religious were known as the naomas- priests and spiritual guides- and the management-chiefs and captains-. Even though the priests had influence and participation in the consensus, they were not embellished in royal management power, on the other hand, the chiefs were called to the managing and justice, and did not had any religious implication. §REF§Triana, M Quintana, B (2011) Cultura Tayrona: Aproximaciones a la Conquista, In: Manifestaciones Artísticas en Colombia Prehispánica. PDF p. 3§REF§\"The chronicles make frequent reference to naomas and mohanes, of whom there could be several in each town. The two words are often used interchangeably, and these people are usually considered to be priests and ritual specialists,the possible ancestors of the present-day Kogi and Ika mamas (Dussán de Reichel 2000: 88; for a contrary view see Bischof 1971; 1982-83: 88). In this connection, there is an interesting mention in the Relación de Tayrona (1571) to a town with two caciques; the principal one was called Mamanauma (Oyuela- Caycedo 1998: 52). The mohanes are undoubtedly priests (see Castellanos 1955, 2: 596), but the status of the naomas is less clear. Juan de Castellanos, writing in 1601, notes that naomas could hold political office and that they outranked ordinary caciques: “fifteen caciques, great señores, are subject to the command of the naoma called, it is said, Marocando” (Castellanos 1955, 2: 340). The same author also mentions a personage called Betoma, “whom they recognized as a Naoma and who held command over all the caciques” (ibid.: 548). The political power of sixteenth-century naomas is not in doubt, but their priestly role remains ambiguous.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 302)§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Higher Shaman<br>2. Lower Shaman.<br>\"The relationship between the shaman supplying the magical power and the person receiving it is not a relationship between equals. The power-giver is referred to in these tribes as the 'higher' shaman, and the recipient as the 'lower.' The 'higher' and 'lower' designations refer to actual authority and control exercised by the giver of power over the recipient. The higher shaman, it is believed, can magically take back the power which he has conferred, regardless of the distance separating the two shamans (see pp. 165-66). He may take back this power because of a personal offense, or because he has been bribed to do so by an enemy of the lower shaman. Such occurrences are frequently reported, and there are a number of former shamans who testify that they lost their power in this manner.\"§REF§Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121§REF§<br>\"A sudden loss of shamanistic power is believed to result in serious illness and often in death. The lower shaman, therefore, tends to fear his higher associate and attempts to keep on good terms with him. With this purpose in mind, he sends tribute in the form of substantial gifts of material valuables (kuit) at regular intervals. Such kuit includes shotguns, hunting dogs, blowguns, curare, feather headbands (tawaspä), and Western-manufactured shirts and trousers. He particularly hopes that these gifts will offset any bribes that may be offered to the higher shaman.\"§REF§Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121p§REF§<br>\"A secondary incentive for sending tribute is the need of the lower shaman to replenish his supply of magical darts [Page 122] every few years. His power, in the form of these spirit servants, is gradually used up through curing, bewitching, or dispensing it. He expects, therefore, to have to replenish his supply by visiting his higher associate. The lower shaman may look forward to help from the higher man only if he has been faithful in the submission of goods.\"§REF§Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121-22§REF§<br>\"Tribute between shamans flows from the south, since, of course, the most powerful shamans are in the north. The tribute follows the lines of the shaman hierarchies up into the Canelos tribe. These hierarchies do not converge upon a single Canelos shaman, however, because there are a number of banks of about equal power in the tribe. In other words, this is basically a system of plural and parallel hierarchies culminating in the same region, but not in the same individual.\"§REF§Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 122§REF§<br>\"The hierarchical situation is further complicated by the fact that a given shaman frequently obtains magical power from several higher associates. He does this so that his power cannot be completely taken away from him at the whim of a single higher shaman. This tendency seems to prevent the hierarchies from being used as chains of authority. Since a shaman is thus often directly subordinate to several others, considerable intertwining of hierarchical relationships occurs (see Figure 3).\"§REF§Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 122§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Higher Shaman<br>2. Lower Shaman.<br>\"The relationship between the shaman supplying the magical power and the person receiving it is not a relationship between equals. The power-giver is referred to in these tribes as the 'higher' shaman, and the recipient as the 'lower.' The 'higher' and 'lower' designations refer to actual authority and control exercised by the giver of power over the recipient. The higher shaman, it is believed, can magically take back the power which he has conferred, regardless of the distance separating the two shamans (see pp. 165-66). He may take back this power because of a personal offense, or because he has been bribed to do so by an enemy of the lower shaman. Such occurrences are frequently reported, and there are a number of former shamans who testify that they lost their power in this manner.\"§REF§Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121§REF§<br>\"A sudden loss of shamanistic power is believed to result in serious illness and often in death. The lower shaman, therefore, tends to fear his higher associate and attempts to keep on good terms with him. With this purpose in mind, he sends tribute in the form of substantial gifts of material valuables (kuit) at regular intervals. Such kuit includes shotguns, hunting dogs, blowguns, curare, feather headbands (tawaspä), and Western-manufactured shirts and trousers. He particularly hopes that these gifts will offset any bribes that may be offered to the higher shaman.\"§REF§Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121p§REF§<br>\"A secondary incentive for sending tribute is the need of the lower shaman to replenish his supply of magical darts [Page 122] every few years. His power, in the form of these spirit servants, is gradually used up through curing, bewitching, or dispensing it. He expects, therefore, to have to replenish his supply by visiting his higher associate. The lower shaman may look forward to help from the higher man only if he has been faithful in the submission of goods.\"§REF§Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 121-22§REF§<br>\"Tribute between shamans flows from the south, since, of course, the most powerful shamans are in the north. The tribute follows the lines of the shaman hierarchies up into the Canelos tribe. These hierarchies do not converge upon a single Canelos shaman, however, because there are a number of banks of about equal power in the tribe. In other words, this is basically a system of plural and parallel hierarchies culminating in the same region, but not in the same individual.\"§REF§Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 122§REF§<br>\"The hierarchical situation is further complicated by the fact that a given shaman frequently obtains magical power from several higher associates. He does this so that his power cannot be completely taken away from him at the whim of a single higher shaman. This tendency seems to prevent the hierarchies from being used as chains of authority. Since a shaman is thus often directly subordinate to several others, considerable intertwining of hierarchical relationships occurs.\"§REF§Harner, Michael J. 1973. “Jívaro: People Of The Sacred Waterfalls”, 122§REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "EWA: unknown<br>_ Abydos cult centre _<br>Abydos was the most significant cult centre. Kings of the 1st Dynasty were buried in the royal cemetery in the Umm el-Qa'ab area. There were funerary enclosures and a mortuary cult that supported an ideology of divine kingship. In the funerary enclosures priests and other personnel practiced king-cults. §REF§(Bard 2000, 64-69)§REF§<br>1. King.<br>2. Priests<br>3. Other<br>_Town cult complex_<br>In the 1st Dynasty there were probably cult temple compounds within towns which \"served a different function from those associated with the funerary complexes, which were located outside the towns.\"§REF§(Bard 2000, 78)§REF§<br>1.<br>2.<br>3.<br>" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br><i>Three coded for Saite Period. Any reason why the temples of this time should be less than three?</i><br>1. Priest in temple.<br>\"During the next six decades, indigenous kings ruled Egypt; this period is traditionally divided into three dynasties (Twenty-eighth to Thirtieth, 404-343 BC). A major characteristic of the period, and within it of the kings of the Thirtieth dynasty, is the amount in temple-building, which stands in contrast to the Persian period.\" §REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17)§REF§<br>Example from Saite Period:<br>1. Chief Priest of Amun<br>2. Protector of the Priests of Amun of Teudjoi3. Priests<br>Differentiation between priests:\"Sizeable salary differentials existed amongst the priesthood in many temples. This is clear from papyri such as those from the Twelfth Dynasty royal mortuary temple at Lahun. Over a millennium later the Demotic papyri relating to Teudjoi again allow us a glimpse of the financial rewards available for priests at a regional temple of the Late Period. Revenue from temple lands was divided at 20 percent for each of the four phyles (of 20 priests), and the remaining 20 percent was assigned to the ‘‘Priest of Amun’’ and ‘‘Priest of the Ennead,’’ positions held by the same person in this instance (Vittmann 1998: 159, 490).\" §REF§(Spencer 2010, 268)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. Sultan<br>2. Ulama - religious scholars §REF§(Dols 1977, 153)§REF§3. Imams<br>???<br><br>Under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. All Mamluk sultans performed a ritual demonstration of manumission at an inaugural ceremony. Manumission was performed at about 18 years old, following the Mamluk's training. §REF§(Oliver 1977, 39-67)§REF§<br>\"Under the Mamluks the state appointed judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy. Never did the state attempt to define the content of religious teaching. Thus, the \"Mamluks extended the Saljuq-Iranian pattern of organized religious life to Syria and Egypt.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 249)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "1. Pharaoh<br>\"Janssen (1979: 509) has remarked that the depiction of the Pharaoh in every temple in the land as the real high priest 'was no only an expression of a dogmatic theory, but also of the actual economic reality. The temples together with all their property were at the disposal of the Pharaoh.\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 503) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>\"the temples served as state institutions; they were organized via the administrative machinery and were subject to frequent state intervention.\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 504) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>2. Overseer of the Temples and Prophets of All the Gods <i>New Kingdom</i>3. High priest <i>New Kingdom</i>4. God's servant <i>New Kingdom</i>5. Wab priest <i>New Kingdom</i><br>5. Scroll carrier <i>New Kingdom</i><br>\"The temples also had their own labour force, many of them renting land at a rate of 30 per cent of the crop.\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 503) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BCE) \"describes three categories for a physician based on rank.\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§<br>1. Great of the Palace Doctors<br>\"For a 'saw' the highest position attainable would have been 'Great of the Palace Doctors.'\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§ \"Not only was the physician responsible for treating the pharaoh but he was also responsible for the medical care of the country.\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§<br>2. saw\"'The Guardian.' A 'saw' was generally educated and trained within the temple palace schools.\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§<br>3. wabw\"'The Pure' or 'Those who are ceremonially pure'\"§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§<br>4. wr-swnw\"Senior doctors\".§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§<br>5. imy-r-swnw\"Doctors\".§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§6. swnw\"Junior doctors\".§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§ \"Doctor of the People\".§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§<br>4?. smsw-swnw\"Registrar\".§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§<br>4?. shd-swnw\"Consultant\".§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§<br>4?. (example they give appears to be the name of an individual from 5th Dynasty, Sekhetnankh)\"specialist in a given field\".§REF§(Marios, Hanna, Alsiegh, Mohammadali and Tubbs 2011) Loukas, Marios. Hanna, Michael. Alsaiegh, Nada. Mohammadali, M Shoja. Tubbs, R Shane. 20 April 2011. Clinical anatomy as practiced by ancient Egyptians. May 2011. Clinical Anatomy. Volume 24. Issue 4. pp 409-415. Wiley.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "Brier and Hobbs (2008, 72)- Diagram \"Government organization at the time of the New Kingdom.\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 72) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>1. Pharaoh (not included in diagram)<br>2. Overseer of the Temples and Prophets of all the Gods\"a government official who functioned not as a priest but as the civil overlord of an institution that controlled great national wealth. So entwined were Egypt's civil and religious affairs, however, that, in addition to his civil post, a vizier often held the position of overseer of the temples. Ranked directly below the overseer stood high priests ...\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 74-75) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>3. High Priests of each god\"the chief priest was designated as the 'first god's servant'.\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 75) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§ \"at Karnak, a second, third or even fourth god's servant served under him.\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 75) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>4. Second god's servant <i>are these servants at the same or at different levels i.e. does the second command the third etc.?</i>5. Scroll carriercleric who \"maintained and read the sacred texts of the temple.\"<br>5. Wab priestsmaintained idols and instruments. had to be circumcised. shave whole body every two days, bathe twice a day and twice a night, weather non-animal clothing, avoid pork, fish and beans, they worked shifts of one month followed by three months of rest.§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 75-76) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§ \"Wab priests ... were organized into squadrons of ten or so, and served under the command of a 'god's father.' All were male, but women could serve as priestesses who sang and danced for a god.\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 76) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>4. Third god's servant5. Scroll carrier<br>5. Wab priests<br>4. Fourth god's servant5. Scroll carrier<br>5. Wab priests<br>1. King<br>\"In the temple, the sun-god's daily journey through the heavens was symbolically enacted by means of rituals and hymns, the principal aim of which was to maintain the created order of the universe. The king played a crucial role in this daily ritual; he was the main officiant, the sun priest, who had an intimate knowledge of all aspects of the sun-god's daily course.\"§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 266)§REF§<br>\"Although the seat of government during most of the New Kingdom was the northern capital, Memphis, the 18th-Dynasty kings had originated from Thebes, and this city remained the most important religious centre of the country. Its local god, Amun ('the hidden one'), had become associated with the sun-god Ra and as Amun-Ra King of the Gods was worshipped in every major temple in Egypt, including Memphis.\"§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 267)§REF§<br>_ Cult of Amun, Thebes _<br>2. God's father or Amun§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 300)§REF§<br>2. God's wife of Amun §REF§(Bryan 2000, 210)§REF§<br>3. Steward of the estate of Amun\" administered the land owned by the temple.§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 300)§REF§<br><br>3. Overseer of priests. §REF§(Bryan 2000, 230)§REF§ same as? High Priest of Amun§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 301)§REF§<br>4. Second Priest of Amun §REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 300)§REF§§REF§(Bryan 2000, 261)§REF§<br>5. Third Priest of Amun §REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 300)§REF§§REF§(Bryan 2000, 261)§REF§<br>6. Fourth Priest of Amun §REF§(Bryan 2000, 261)§REF§7. Scribes and other workers?<br>_ Cult of Osiris, Abydos _<br>2.<br>3.<br>4.<br>5.<br>_ Cult centres _<br>1.<br><br>2.<br>3.<br>EWA: 1 Pharaoh, [2 High Priest of Amon], 3 High Priest/Temple Steward, 4 Lector-priests, God's servants. God's fathers. 5 Wab priests.<br>Pharaoh (1). Divine Adoratrice (?). Overseer of Priests of Upper and Lower Egypt (2). High Priest/Temple Steward (3). God's servants. God's fathers. Lector-priests (4, 4-5 or 4-6). Wab priests (5, 5-6 or 5-7). Non-priestly workers.<br>" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "Brier and Hobbs (2008, 72)- Diagram \"Government organization at the time of the New Kingdom.\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 72) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>1. Pharaoh (not included in diagram)<br>2. Overseer of the Temples and Prophets of all the Gods\"a government official who functioned not as a priest but as the civil overlord of an institution that controlled great national wealth. So entwined were Egypt's civil and religious affairs, however, that, in addition to his civil post, a vizier often held the position of overseer of the temples. Ranked directly below the overseer stood high priests ...\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 74-75) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>3. High Priests of each god\"the chief priest was designated as the 'first god's servant'.\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 75) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§ \"at Karnak, a second, third or even fourth god's servant served under him.\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 75) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>4. Second god's servant <i>are these servants at the same or at different levels i.e. does the second command the third etc.?</i>5. Scroll carriercleric who \"maintained and read the sacred texts of the temple.\"<br>5. Wab priestsmaintained idols and instruments. had to be circumcised. shave whole body every two days, bathe twice a day and twice a night, weather non-animal clothing, avoid pork, fish and beans, they worked shifts of one month followed by three months of rest.§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 75-76) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§ \"Wab priests ... were organized into squadrons of ten or so, and served under the command of a 'god's father.' All were male, but women could serve as priestesses who sang and danced for a god.\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 76) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>4. Third god's servant5. Scroll carrier<br>5. Wab priests<br>4. Fourth god's servant5. Scroll carrier<br>5. Wab priests<br>1. King<br>\"In the temple, the sun-god's daily journey through the heavens was symbolically enacted by means of rituals and hymns, the principal aim of which was to maintain the created order of the universe. The king played a crucial role in this daily ritual; he was the main officiant, the sun priest, who had an intimate knowledge of all aspects of the sun-god's daily course.\"§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 266)§REF§<br>\"Although the seat of government during most of the New Kingdom was the northern capital, Memphis, the 18th-Dynasty kings had originated from Thebes, and this city remained the most important religious centre of the country. Its local god, Amun ('the hidden one'), had become associated with the sun-god Ra and as Amun-Ra King of the Gods was worshipped in every major temple in Egypt, including Memphis.\"§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 267)§REF§<br>_ Cult of Amun, Thebes _<br>2. God's father or Amun§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 300)§REF§<br>2. God's wife of Amun §REF§(Bryan 2000, 210)§REF§<br>3. Steward of the estate of Amun\" administered the land owned by the temple.§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 300)§REF§<br><br>3. Overseer of priests. §REF§(Bryan 2000, 230)§REF§ same as? High Priest of Amun§REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 301)§REF§<br>4. Second Priest of Amun §REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 300)§REF§§REF§(Bryan 2000, 261)§REF§<br>5. Third Priest of Amun §REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 300)§REF§§REF§(Bryan 2000, 261)§REF§<br>6. Fourth Priest of Amun §REF§(Bryan 2000, 261)§REF§7. Scribes and other workers?<br>_ Cult of Osiris, Abydos _<br>2.<br>3.<br>4.<br>5.<br>_ Amarna Period _<br><br>2.<br>3.<br>4.<br>_ Cult centres _<br>2.<br>3.<br>4.<br>EWA: 1 Pharaoh, 2 High Priest/Temple Steward, 3 Lector-priests, God's servants. God's fathers. 4 Wab priests.<br>Pharaoh (1). Divine Adoratrice (?). Overseer of Priests of Upper and Lower Egypt (2). High Priest/Temple Steward (3). God's servants. God's fathers. Lector-priests (4, 4-5 or 4-6). Wab priests (5, 5-6 or 5-7). Non-priestly workers.<br>" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " Coding same as Abbasid Caliphate.<br>1. Caliph as head of the Sunni Muslim umma.<br>2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the muslim world.<br>In theory the Caliphate and governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) and aesthetics (Sufis) increasingly attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths were not clearly hierarchical and all were equal before Allah. §REF§Lapidus, History of Islamic Society p. 82,p. 215§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 10, "religious_level_to": 10, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Pope<br>2. King<br>3. Crown-Cardinal<br>3. Archbishop: Archbishop of Toledo, Archbishop of Burgos, Archbishop of Seville (\"fourth highest ranking in Castilian see succession\"), Archbishop of Santiago. §REF§(Rawlings 2005, 457-468) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. \"Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach.\" <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History.</i> 455-472. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN</a>§REF§<br>3. Senior Royal Chaplain (traditionally held by the Archbishop of Santiago) §REF§(Rawlings 2005, 457) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. \"Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach.\" <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History.</i> 455-472. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN</a>§REF§<br>3. Grand Almoner §REF§(Rawlings 2005, 457) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. \"Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach.\" <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History.</i> 455-472. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN</a>§REF§<br>3. Grand Inquisitor (either a bishop or archbishop)<br>4. Bishop: In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.” §REF§(Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. <i>The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH</a>§REF§§REF§(Rawlings 2005, 457) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. \"Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach.\" <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History.</i> 455-472. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN</a>§REF§<br>5. Royal Confessor: \"Those religious who had previously served as royal preachers or confessors, as provincials and generals of their orders, as university professors and as theological advisors (calificadores) to the inquisition all became major contenders for promotion to the Castilian episcopal bench.\" §REF§(Rawlings 2005, 461) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. \"Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach.\" <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History.</i> 455-472. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN</a>§REF§<br>5. Royal Preachers: \"Those religious who had previously served as royal preachers or confessors, as provincials and generals of their orders, as university professors and as theological advisors (calificadores) to the inquisition all became major contenders for promotion to the Castilian episcopal bench.\" §REF§(Rawlings 2005, 461) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. \"Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach.\" <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History.</i> 455-472. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN</a>§REF§<br>6. Lesser Royal Chaplains §REF§(Rawlings 2005, 457) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. \"Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach.\" <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History.</i> 455-472. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN</a>§REF§<br>7. Abbot §REF§(Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. <i>The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH</a>§REF§. In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.” §REF§(Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. <i>The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH</a>§REF§<br>8. Parish Priest: In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.” §REF§(Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. <i>The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH</a>§REF§<br>9. Deacon<br>9. Prior<br>10. Friar§REF§(Rawlings 2005, 460) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. \"Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach.\" <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History.</i> 455-472. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN</a>§REF§<br>10. Monk§REF§(Payne 1973, 377) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. <i>A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 2</i>, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm</a> <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z6EHG6PP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z6EHG6PP</a>§REF§<br>10. Nun§REF§(Payne 1973, 363) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. <i>A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 2</i>, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm</a> <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z6EHG6PP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z6EHG6PP</a>§REF§<br>10. Overseas Missionaries §REF§(Rawlings 2005, 462) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. \"Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach.\" <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History.</i> 455-472. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN</a>§REF§<br><ul><li>“Until 1559 the crown had little direct influence on the church in the Netherlands.” §REF§(Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. <i>The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH</a>§REF§</li><li>“The church in the Italian kingdoms continued to operate in the canonical way, which is to say that cathedral chapters nominated bishops to the pope.” §REF§(Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. <i>The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH</a>§REF§</li></ul>" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Mediums, Diviners, and Healers as well as other Ritual Specialists<br>'Ritual practices were conducted by their own specialists. They included spirit mediums, breadfruit summoners, fish summoners, healers, masters of spells, masters of sorcery, builders, navigators, diviners, and most importantly the masters of magic and ritual relating to war and politics. Their knowledge was private property passed down to their children and junior lineage mates.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§ 'Major ceremonies were those associated with death, communicating with good souls of the dead, summoning breadfruit, and making food presentations to chiefs. Ritual was also associated with divination, curing, warfare, political meetings, house building, and courtship.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§ Mediums communicated with the dead: 'In traditional belief, spirit beings were widely distributed in the sky, under the sea, and on land. The important places among spirit lands in the sky were: a region under the dome of Heaven, home of the gods who could take human form; a region in the south from which came all the plant and marine life that gave people food; and a region named 'Achaw' or 'Kachaw,' abode of the ancestors of many Chuukese clans and particularly of the clans associated with the chiefship and the special bodies of magical lore from which chiefly power derived. Spirits could accomplish their intentions at will and were thus the source of all that was MANAMAN (mana), such as efficacious spells, medicines, and rituals. Good souls of the dead were consulted through mediums. The Chuukese also invoked in spells the spirits inhabiting the dome of Heaven, presided over by 'Great Spirit,' and the spirits associated with particular crafts and major bodies of lore.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§ Diviners, Healers, and Mediums were involved in the treatment of illness: 'Sickness was believed to result from the 'bite' of a malevolent spirit, or of any other spirit one had offended or that was controlled by a ritual specialist one had offended or by a sorcerer. Sickness might also result from soul loss. In all but the latter case, treatment involved the use of medicines to be applied externally, to be drunk, or to be inhaled. For soul loss, a spirit medium was consulted to help find and restore the soul. Divination was used as a diagnostic aid in cases of severe or prolonged illness. Massage was used to treat bruises, local infections, and muscle ailments.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§ Diviners accepted payments from apprentices in exchange for secret knowledge: 'There are systems of knowledge which are subject to special rules of their own. [Page 56] For example, to learn knot divination a pupil must pay the diviner ( sowupwe) even if the latter is his own father or mother’s brother. An jitag (a sort of lawyer, general, diplomat and orator all rolled into one, who occupies the most prestigeful position in Trukese society) is alleged never to teach his own children as much as he teaches his sister’s children. This contention does not, however, appear to be supported by the genealogical connections of the past jitag of Romonum Island. Despite special rules governing specific forms of incorporeal property, their over-all organization is analogous to that of corporeal property and does not require a new conceptual framework to make them intelligible.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 55§REF§ Spirit mediums were an exception to this rule, as their expertise did not rely on knowledge per se: 'All religious practitioners as well as craftsmen and magicians are owners of the knowledge necessary to exercise their specialties. The Trukese make no distinction between them and other skilled personnel. There is one important exception to this rule, the spirit medium ( wäättwa or wään ëny). His (or her) position is not based on knowledge so much as on having been possessed by a spirit. This spirit is in no way classed as the medium’s property, nor can it be inherited automatically by a son or lineage mate. The position of a spirit medium, therefore, is different from that of a property holder, except as he uses his abilities to diagnose illness.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 55§REF§ The Chuuk islands experienced a higher degree of regional ceremonial integration prior to the 18th century (see above under 'preceding quasi-polity'). Whatever information is available on this would have to be covered in an additional data sheet." }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Mediums, Diviners, and Healers as well as other Ritual Specialists<br>'Ritual practices were conducted by their own specialists. They included spirit mediums, breadfruit summoners, fish summoners, healers, masters of spells, masters of sorcery, builders, navigators, diviners, and most importantly the masters of magic and ritual relating to war and politics. Their knowledge was private property passed down to their children and junior lineage mates.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§ 'Major ceremonies were those associated with death, communicating with good souls of the dead, summoning breadfruit, and making food presentations to chiefs. Ritual was also associated with divination, curing, warfare, political meetings, house building, and courtship.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§ Mediums communicated with the dead: 'In traditional belief, spirit beings were widely distributed in the sky, under the sea, and on land. The important places among spirit lands in the sky were: a region under the dome of Heaven, home of the gods who could take human form; a region in the south from which came all the plant and marine life that gave people food; and a region named 'Achaw' or 'Kachaw,' abode of the ancestors of many Chuukese clans and particularly of the clans associated with the chiefship and the special bodies of magical lore from which chiefly power derived. Spirits could accomplish their intentions at will and were thus the source of all that was MANAMAN (mana), such as efficacious spells, medicines, and rituals. Good souls of the dead were consulted through mediums. The Chuukese also invoked in spells the spirits inhabiting the dome of Heaven, presided over by 'Great Spirit,' and the spirits associated with particular crafts and major bodies of lore.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§ Diviners, Healers, and Mediums were involved in the treatment of illness: 'Sickness was believed to result from the 'bite' of a malevolent spirit, or of any other spirit one had offended or that was controlled by a ritual specialist one had offended or by a sorcerer. Sickness might also result from soul loss. In all but the latter case, treatment involved the use of medicines to be applied externally, to be drunk, or to be inhaled. For soul loss, a spirit medium was consulted to help find and restore the soul. Divination was used as a diagnostic aid in cases of severe or prolonged illness. Massage was used to treat bruises, local infections, and muscle ailments.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§ Diviners accepted payments from apprentices in exchange for secret knowledge: 'There are systems of knowledge which are subject to special rules of their own. [Page 56] For example, to learn knot divination a pupil must pay the diviner ( sowupwe) even if the latter is his own father or mother’s brother. An jitag (a sort of lawyer, general, diplomat and orator all rolled into one, who occupies the most prestigeful position in Trukese society) is alleged never to teach his own children as much as he teaches his sister’s children. This contention does not, however, appear to be supported by the genealogical connections of the past jitag of Romonum Island. Despite special rules governing specific forms of incorporeal property, their over-all organization is analogous to that of corporeal property and does not require a new conceptual framework to make them intelligible.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 55§REF§ Spirit mediums were an exception to this rule, as their expertise did not rely on knowledge per se: 'All religious practitioners as well as craftsmen and magicians are owners of the knowledge necessary to exercise their specialties. The Trukese make no distinction between them and other skilled personnel. There is one important exception to this rule, the spirit medium ( wäättwa or wään ëny). His (or her) position is not based on knowledge so much as on having been possessed by a spirit. This spirit is in no way classed as the medium’s property, nor can it be inherited automatically by a son or lineage mate. The position of a spirit medium, therefore, is different from that of a property holder, except as he uses his abilities to diagnose illness.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 55§REF§ As a result of missionary activities, Christianity spread quickly in the 20th century: 'After 1900 Christianity became well established in most major centres in Micronesia. For the most part, traditional religions ceased being practiced in their full original form, although in Yap and some atolls of the central Carolines, traditional religion continued to be practiced until the middle of the 20th century. Missionaries and travelers recorded descriptions of certain aspects of the island religions, but there is no complete and systematic account.' §REF§(Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE</a>.§REF§ 'The main island is Toloas. On it lie: the government station (Witetun), the main station of the Catholic ( O[unknown]omenau) and of the Protestant ( Kutua) missions. The landmark of Poloas is the legendary mountain of Tolemuan (peak of the man). The small island of Eten, on which was to be found the seat of the Jaluit Company, is also under the head chief of Toloas.' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 247§REF§ 'Before the Spanish Government had gained sufficient influence in the islands, the people of Truk lived under the rule of numerous petty chiefs who were constantly engaging in inter-district and inter-island warfare. In Spanish and German times, Catholic and Protestant missionaries Christianized and subdued the warlike tendencies of the population, but many of the old suspicious attitudes still show in present-day culture patterns. The numbers of Spanish and Germans who came to Truk at any one time were relatively small; they left their mark on the people in the folklore, in the religion and in the alphabet which they applied to the Trukese language, teaching the people to read and write. It was left to the Japanese to make the most impression on the native economy.' §REF§Fischer, Ann M. 1950. “Role Of Trukese Mother And Its Effect On Child Training”, 7§REF§ We have coded for native specialists rather than missionaries for the time being." }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Roman Catholicism was the official state religion.§REF§(Chartrand and Leliepvre 1997)§REF§ King chose important bishops through Conseil de conscience which eventually disintegrated into two members, the king and a Jesuit confessor. §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 132)§REF§ Supreme authority divided uncertainly between the Pope, King, and Assembly of Clergy, dominated by bishops, which me every 5 years.§REF§(Briggs 1998, 161)§REF§ Levels 7-5 ordered in theory if not practice.<br>1. Pope<br>2. King3. Assembly of Clergy4. Archbishop in seeArchbishopric of Paris (founded 1622 CE) c1660-1700 CE had great influence at court<br>5. deputy called vicar-general?<br>5. Bishop in Dioceseover 120 bishoprics. due to King and Parlements not ratifying Council of Trent Bishops were free to choose own \"rituals, catechism, and synodal statues\"6. Archdeacon7. Parish priestover 30,000 parishes. cures, vicaires and priests<br>" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France<br>1. Pope<br>Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>2. Metropolitans and archbishops\"the term 'bishop' applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the 'ecumenical' patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The title 'archbishop' emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>3. Priest\"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deacon\"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese's finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deaconess (diakonissa)\"The deaconess's chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>5. Subdeacon\"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>6. Reader (anagnostesj\"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>7. Minor orders\"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br><br>" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "King as divine ruler, especially encouraged by Philip IV who was the first of the Valois kings.<br>Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France<br>1. King as divine ruler, especially encouraged by Philip IV who was the first of the Valois kings.<br>1. Pope<br>Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>2. Metropolitans and archbishops\"the term 'bishop' applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the 'ecumenical' patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The title 'archbishop' emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>3. Priest\"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deacon\"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese's finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deaconess (diakonissa)\"The deaconess's chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>5. Subdeacon\"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>6. Reader (anagnostesj\"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>7. Minor orders\"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France<br>1. Pope<br>Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>2. Metropolitans and archbishops\"the term 'bishop' applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the 'ecumenical' patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The title 'archbishop' emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>3. Priest\"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deacon\"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese's finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deaconess (diakonissa)\"The deaconess's chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>5. Subdeacon\"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>6. Reader (anagnostesj\"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>7. Minor orders\"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France<br>1. Pope<br>Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>2. Metropolitans and archbishops\"the term 'bishop' applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the 'ecumenical' patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The title 'archbishop' emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>3. Priest\"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deacon\"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese's finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deaconess (diakonissa)\"The deaconess's chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>5. Subdeacon\"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>6. Reader (anagnostesj\"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>7. Minor orders\"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Quasi-Polities were unified by their sanctuaries and monuments. §REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Pope<br>Christian state after baptism Clovis 508 CE. Catholic church. §REF§(Wood 1994, 72)§REF§<br>1. King (\"Like Constantine, the Merovingian King was considered the reflection of God on Earth. The succession to the kingship could never been anything but the expression of a higher will\" §REF§(Schutz 2004, 18) Schutz, H. 2004. The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900. BRILL§REF§<br>Kings involved in ecclesiastical legislation §REF§(Wood 1994, 105)§REF§<br>Kings gave money for shrines of saints. §REF§(Wood 1994, 66)§REF§<br>\"Many bishops owed their position to the king\" and \"were royal servants with no known connections with their sees.\" §REF§(Wood 1994, 78)§REF§<br>2. Bishop in diocesesBishop in every civitas. Bishop's church called ecclesia, other churches were basilicae. City had complex of religious buildings, usually included a number of churches, a baptistery, and the bishop's home (domus ecclesiae). Other religious officials were the clergy. Outside the city were funerary basilicas, sacred sites (shrines called loca sancta), mausoleums, tombs and cemeteries. Authorities secular and often came into conflict with religious authorities. §REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 252-253)§REF§<br>Dioceses provided basic structure of Merovingian Church, \"the ecclesiastical counterparts of the civitates\" and in the same place, except in the north and east. §REF§(Wood 1994, 71)§REF§<br>3. Subordinate bishopsDioceses had provinces (like civitates) §REF§(Wood 1994, 71)§REF§<br>4. Priests5. Lesser clergy<br>" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 456, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_3", "long_name": "Proto-Carolingian", "start_year": 687, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Pope<br>Christian state after baptism Clovis 508 CE. Catholic church. §REF§(Wood 1994, 72)§REF§<br>1. King (\"Like Constantine, the Merovingian King was considered the reflection of God on Earth. The succession to the kingship could never been anything but the expression of a higher will\" §REF§(Schutz 2004, 18) Schutz, H. 2004. The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900. BRILL§REF§<br>Kings involved in ecclesiastical legislation §REF§(Wood 1994, 105)§REF§<br>Kings gave money for shrines of saints. §REF§(Wood 1994, 66)§REF§<br>\"Many bishops owed their position to the king\" and \"were royal servants with no known connections with their sees.\" §REF§(Wood 1994, 78)§REF§<br>2. Bishop in diocesesBishop in every civitas. Bishop's church called ecclesia, other churches were basilicae. City had complex of religious buildings, usually included a number of churches, a baptistery, and the bishop's home (domus ecclesiae). Other religious officials were the clergy. Outside the city were funerary basilicas, sacred sites (shrines called loca sancta), mausoleums, tombs and cemeteries. Authorities secular and often came into conflict with religious authorities. §REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 252-253)§REF§<br>Dioceses provided basic structure of Merovingian Church, \"the ecclesiastical counterparts of the civitates\" and in the same place, except in the north and east. §REF§(Wood 1994, 71)§REF§<br>3. Subordinate bishopsDioceses had provinces (like civitates) §REF§(Wood 1994, 71)§REF§<br>4. Priests5. Lesser clergy<br>" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) priests serving major shrines associated with the Omanhene; (2) priests serving minor shrines and chiefs; (3) priests and healers associated with the commoner population and village shrines<br>Priests and spirit mediums communicated with deities and other spirits: 'Indigenous Akan religion is based upon the worship of a High God, various spirits or deities, and ancestors. The High God-known as Onyame, Onyankopon, and by other names-is the Creator, now otiose; Asase Yaa, the goddess of the earth, accompanies him. The ancestors live in the land of the dead and may demand offerings, in the past including those of slaves.' §REF§Gilbert, Michelle, Lagacé, Robert O. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Akan§REF§ 'Spirits or deities are many, and the living can communicate with them through prayer, sacrifice, and possession. Each has its own OSOFO, or priest; an OKOMFO is a living spirit medium who interprets the words of a spirit who is consulted to remove sickness and human disasters.' §REF§Gilbert, Michelle, Lagacé, Robert O. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Akan§REF§ Rulers and royal lineages were closely connected to the cult: 'The royal ancestors are at the heart of the ritual protection of a kingdom. They are \"fed\" at shrines in the form of blackened stools of wood and kept in the \"stool rooms\" in palaces and houses. Traditionally, the stools were anointed with human blood, gunpowder, and spider webs, and given alcoholic drink; human sacrifices are no longer made. Each kingdom and town has, or had in past years, an annual purification ritual, known as ODWIRA, in which the king, the office of kingship, the kingdom, and the town are purified of the pollution of the preceding year; this is often known in the literature as a \"yam festival.\"'§REF§Gilbert, Michelle, Lagacé, Robert O. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Akan§REF§ In Fante communities, high-ranking priests played a prominent role in the polity: 'The object, however, of this work is not to deal with religious theories, deities, or matters of belief. In the Fanti districts, with their numerous free and independent communities, the priests who officiated at the shrine of Nanaam (that is ancestors), the national deities, situate at Mankesim, exercised large powers and wielded great [Page 52] influence, so much so that the opinion has been expressed that the high priest, a Braffo, was the sovereign ruler of the Fanti people. The physician was so often a priest that it is not surprising to discover him possessed of much influence; but this much may be said, the priests did not rule the people. The general name for God is Nyankupon (Nyankrupon according to the Akanfu), meaning the Only One, than who none is greater, or, as others say, the Great Friend. Nyankupon is invisible. He lives above the heavens, and the winds are His messengers. The common saying is, “Speak to the winds, and God will hear thee.” This word has different pronunciations, and the difficulty of finding its root may be through this cause. Rain is called Nyankum; rainbow is nyankunton. Nyan is to awaken, and it has been suggested that probably Onyan (the awakener) was an old name for the sky. One is rather inclined to form the opinion that Nyankupon is not derived from ye, meaning to do, act, create, as some say. This subject is certainly interesting, and requires further study and much thinking over.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 51p§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) head-priests involved in the organized ceremonial of the state and its ruler;(2) priests serving major deities and chiefs;(3) priests serving minor deities and chiefs;(4) priests and healers associated with the commoner population and village shrines<br>From the information gathered so far, we infer that organized religion shared some basic structural principles with the territorial and military organization. Some particularly powerful priests worked with the Asantehene himself, in organized ceremonial and military campaigns: 'Before a war senior servants of the Asantehene visited the shrines of major gods with gifts, to ask for guidance and support, and to promise rewards for success. They may also, of course, have received knowledge obtained by the webs of communication centred on the shrine. After successful campaigns, gods were rewarded with land and captives, large umbrellas and asipim chairs, and their priests given gold or silver crescent-shaped pendants to wear. Some priests and gods accompanied the armies, or missions, as in the case of the three priests in the retinue of General Akyeampon when he returned to the capital after negotiating in the south in the early 1870s.' §REF§McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 64§REF§ The practice was projected back to the times of Osei Tutu, but this may have had ideological reasons §REF§Wilks, Ivor 1993. “Forests Of Gold: Essays On The Akan And The Kingdom Of Asante”, 111§REF§. Major gods and their shrines produced offshoots in the form of minor deities and temples, both with their respective religious specialists: 'The god Tano has long enjoyed a particularly high place in the Asante pantheon. Thus in 1817 Bowdich remarked that “the present favourite fetish of Ashantee is that of the river Tando.” Such a god was divisible. Water and sediment might be transferred from the river to other locations and, provided this was done with all due ritual and honors, access to the god might be gained at them. Such local offshoots, the atano, were regarded as “children” of Tano and given a second name to distinguish each from the other, thus Taa (or Tano) Odomankoma, Taa Kora, Taa Bobodwo, Taa Kwadwo, Taa Yawo, Taa Mensa, and Taa Dwemo, to name but a few. An atano resided in a shrine, commonly a brass pan, which was housed in an abosomfie or temple protected and maintained by a custodian or bosomwura. Depending upon its prestige and wealth, the atano was served by a greater or lesser number of priests and priestesses - akomfo - who had been possessed by the god, and by such other attendants - atanokwaa - as cooks, musicians, umbrella carriers, and the like. Indeed, the temple of a powerful atano might, in terms of its personnel, closely resemble the court of a chief.' §REF§Wilks, Ivor 1993. “Forests Of Gold: Essays On The Akan And The Kingdom Of Asante”, 338§REF§ Priests also participated in the organized ceremonial relevant to chiefs: 'Eto (mashed yams) are cooked once a year by the priests, and upon the day appointed (a Saturday) the chief will place a spoonful in the pan upon top of the forked branch, with the words: ‘Me Nyankopon me sere wo nkwa, na me sere wo ahooden’ (My God, I pray you for life and I pray you for strength). A sheep is also killed and the blood allowed to fall upon the ground [...].' §REF§Rattray, R. S. (Robert Sutherland) 1923. “Ashanti”, 143§REF§ The smallest shrines were associated with the village-level: 'Temples of gods ( bosom'dan, bosom'fie) were also often situated towards the edges of the village, although some were built well away from human habitation, usually on the banks of rivers or streams (from which gods were thought to come). In their simplest form the temples were small rectangular buildings, entered by steps, the outer surfaces decorated with low reliefs and covered with red and white clay. More usually they consisted of a number of units around a court. Here male priests would periodically carry the god's shrine on their heads, becoming possessed and showing their powers to see, say and do things beyond the abilities of ordinary mortals.' §REF§McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 38§REF§ Those priests 'combine with their office the cure of disease. Some of them are very good doctors and pull through cases where European skill has failed. They are skilled in the use of herbal remedies, and it might repay European medical men to study native therapeutics in its application to the treatment of diseases peculiar to the Gold Coast.' §REF§Hayford, J. E. Casely (Joseph Ephraim Casely) 1970. “Gold Coast Native Institutions With Thoughts Upon A Healthy Imperial Policy For The Gold Coast And Ashanti”, 106§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Religious control was exercised by the <i>Kosmoi</i>, a board of 3 to 10 annually elected nobles -their number varies from 3 to 10- elected by the <i>Ecclesia</i>, the body of free male citizens. §REF§Willetts, R. F. 1965. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 56-75§REF§ §REF§Lembesi, A. 1987. \"Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 166-72.§REF§ Cult was performed by priests annually elected by the <i>Ecclesia</i>." }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Religious control was exercised by the <i>Kosmoi</i> (<i>Κόσμοι</i>), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the <i>Ecclesia</i> (<i>Εκκλησία</i>), the body of free male citizens. <i>Kosmoi</i> were responsible for the construction and maintenance of the sanctuaries, the organization of large religious festivals, and the offering of sacrifices. Cult was performed by priests annually elected by the <i>Ecclesia</i> (<i>Εκκλησία</i>). §REF§Willetts, M. A. 1955. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 56-75§REF§ §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 192-203.§REF§" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 4-1 For the Christian population: The Patriarch of Constantinople (4); the archbishop of Crete (3); 22 regional bishops (2); priests (1). §REF§Τωμαδάκης, Ν. Β. 1961-1962. \"Η Εκκλησία της Κρήτης κατά την Αραβοκρατία (ιστορία-επίσκοποι-άγιοι), <i>Κρητικά Χρονικά</i> ΙΕ-ΙΣΤ, 193-212.§REF§ The Arab population was muslims sunnis and recognized the supreme religious authority of Amir al-Mu'minin of Bagdad. §REF§Christides, B. <i>The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam</i>, Athens, 105.§REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Religious control was exercised by the Kosmoi (<i>Κόσμοι</i>), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the Ecclesia (<i>Εκκλησία</i>), the body of free male citizens. Kosmoi were responsible for the construction and maintenance of the sanctuaries, the organization of large religious festivals, and the offering of sacrifices. Cult was performed by priests annually elected by the Ecclesia (<i>Εκκλησία</i>). §REF§Willetts, R. F. 1965. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 56-75§REF§ §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 196-99.§REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 1-3 The <i>wanax</i> is the head of the religious hierarchy. §REF§Shelmerdine, C. W. and Bennet, J. 2008. \"12: Mycenaean states. 12A: Economy and administration,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 293.§REF§ Like the gods themselves he received offerings (e.g. perfumed oil) but he had not a divine status. He was assisted by a considerable priesthood. §REF§Ventris, M. and Chadwick, J. 1973. <i>Documents in Mycenaean Greek</i>, London,128-29.§REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Local priest" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " Though there were many different types of ritual specialists in pre-contact Hawaii §REF§(Kirch 2010, 57)§REF§, only one kind, the kahuna pule, was involved with state affairs. Other types include healing experts, sorcerers, and prophets §REF§(Kirch 2010, 57)§REF§.<br>1. Kahuna nuiThe kahuna nui was the most important of the kahuna pule (see below), as he \"carried the responsibilities for the king's religious duties and looked after his temples and main gods.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 57)§REF§<br>2. Kahuna pule\"The priests who officiated at temples controlled by the king and major chiefs were the kahuna pule. These were subdivided into a number of specific orders or cults, especially those pertaining to Kū and Lono (mo'o Kū and mo'o Lono). These priests were drawn from high-ranking elite families, typically of papa rank (in which the person's mother comes from one of the three highest ranks).\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 57)§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Bards (LEMAMBANG), Augurs (TUAI BURONG), and Shamans (MANANG) associated with Longhouse Communities<br>'The personnel of Iban religion, the experts, are those individuals who have specific roles in relation to rice cultivation, augury, ritual celebrations and the ordering of society. They act as a channel between the world of immediate experience and its spirit antecedents and influences. The leading exponents of these roles in Iban society are four, although one or more functions may be vested in the same person. They are the tuai burong or augur, the tuai rumah or village headman, the lemambang or ritual incantation specialist, and, lastly, the manang--shaman or ‘healer’.' §REF§Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 59§REF§ 'There are three religious practitioners: the bard (LEMAMBANG), the augur (TUAI BURONG), and the shaman (MANANG). Individually or in teams, bards are invited to chant at all major rituals. They are highly respected men, capable of recalling and adapting as appropriate, chants that go on for hours. The augur is employed for critical activities, such as farming or travelling. The shaman is a psychotherapist, who is consulted for unusual or persistent ailments.' §REF§Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ 'For deliberate auguries the knowledge of an expert augur is usually sought. If the undertaking involves the efforts of the whole community, as, for example, house-building, responsibility for seeking omens generally falls on the tuai burong , or community augur. The latter is a man generally recognized for his experience and skill as an augur. In practice, beburong ordinarily precedes a great many lesser occasions, aside from the major ones mentioned, and responsibility for taking auguries normally rests with tuai burong or with the person who leads the undertaking. Because of the importance of augury, any man traditionally aspiring to leadership within the community, as a longhouse headman or senior family head, or within the wider region, as a war chief, migrational leader, or the head of a trading venture, was expected to possess a proficient knowledge of augury. The position of the tuai burong was traditionally one of considerable influence in Iban society and a knowledge of practical augury was an important requirement of leadership more generally.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict, and Clifford Sather 1980. “Iban Adat And Augury”, xxxviiip§REF§ Village headmen often double as augurs: 'Administration of customary law and the social code as such, the adat in its restricted and technical sense, falls to the tuai rumah (see above, pp. 25 seq.). Unlike the office of tuai burong , the tuai rumah is officially recognized by the government, although the position carries no emoluments. The functions of tuai rumah and tuai burong are distinct, but in practice it is often the same man who performs both. This was the case in approximately two-thirds of the longhouses studied in the Lemanak and Delok. In the past, while the Iban remained comparatively isolated and pindah migration was a recurrent event thought to depend for its success on spirit favour and the correct response to spirit guidance, the tuai burong was almost invariably also tuai rumah . In recent years, a more settled way of life and the expectation that the tuai rumah will act as host to visiting officials and as spokesman or longhouse representative before the authorities, have come to demand qualities which the traditional tuai burong did not need nor always possess.' §REF§Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 61§REF§ Bards provide ritual incantations: 'The lemambang may perhaps be called a priest but he is not the ultimate authority on Iban religion. His concern is with intoning the ritual incantations, called pengap , which form a central part of major ceremonies ( gawai ). These occur intermittently. Although extremely important, they are not as significant in the context of day-to-day religion as are omens, dreams, and social ordinances.' §REF§Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 62§REF§ 'The incantations include the full names, honorifics, and nick-names of the spirits. These are unfamiliar in detail to Iban other than the lemambang ; even the tuai burong rarely knows them fully. The lemambang , however, does not necessarily understand the precise role of the named spirits in augury or other rites, and does not, qua lemambang , participate in these. Less than being a priest, since he does not perform ritual acts, it is probably truer to say, as Scott (1956, 103) does in his dictionary, that the lemambang is the ‘bard’ of Iban society, albeit the liturgical bard or cantor.' §REF§Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 63§REF§ Shamans act as healers and perform rituals associated with head-hunting, which are continued symbolically even after the cessation of infighting and head-taking: 'Various female deities are then summoned to “nurse” ( ngua ) the unhappy head, among them the wives of the legendary headhunting heroes of Panggau Libau. But even the best attempts of Kumang, Lulong, and the others are to no avail - the trophy head is inconsolable. In the end, in desperation, it is passed to the highest ranking shamans in the community - the manang bali' . The latter are individuals who have changed their sex from male to female in the pursuit of their vocation ( bali' lit. = “changed”), their adopted status being reflected in their female attire. The position of manang bali' in society is a very special one in that they are able to slay malevolent demons ( antu ) in ritual combat. In this respect their role is comparable to that of Iban warriors, except that their deeds are performed in the supernatural realm against unseen foe, rather than on the ground against enemies of flesh and blood.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 189§REF§" }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Bards (LEMAMBANG), Augurs (TUAI BURONG), and Shamans (MANANG) associated with Longhouse Communities<br>'The personnel of Iban religion, the experts, are those individuals who have specific roles in relation to rice cultivation, augury, ritual celebrations and the ordering of society. They act as a channel between the world of immediate experience and its spirit antecedents and influences. The leading exponents of these roles in Iban society are four, although one or more functions may be vested in the same person. They are the tuai burong or augur, the tuai rumah or village headman, the lemambang or ritual incantation specialist, and, lastly, the manang--shaman or ‘healer’.' §REF§Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 59§REF§ 'There are three religious practitioners: the bard (LEMAMBANG), the augur (TUAI BURONG), and the shaman (MANANG). Individually or in teams, bards are invited to chant at all major rituals. They are highly respected men, capable of recalling and adapting as appropriate, chants that go on for hours. The augur is employed for critical activities, such as farming or travelling. The shaman is a psychotherapist, who is consulted for unusual or persistent ailments.' §REF§Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ 'For deliberate auguries the knowledge of an expert augur is usually sought. If the undertaking involves the efforts of the whole community, as, for example, house-building, responsibility for seeking omens generally falls on the tuai burong , or community augur. The latter is a man generally recognized for his experience and skill as an augur. In practice, beburong ordinarily precedes a great many lesser occasions, aside from the major ones mentioned, and responsibility for taking auguries normally rests with tuai burong or with the person who leads the undertaking. Because of the importance of augury, any man traditionally aspiring to leadership within the community, as a longhouse headman or senior family head, or within the wider region, as a war chief, migrational leader, or the head of a trading venture, was expected to possess a proficient knowledge of augury. The position of the tuai burong was traditionally one of considerable influence in Iban society and a knowledge of practical augury was an important requirement of leadership more generally.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict, and Clifford Sather 1980. “Iban Adat And Augury”, xxxviiip§REF§ Village headmen often double as augurs: 'Administration of customary law and the social code as such, the adat in its restricted and technical sense, falls to the tuai rumah (see above, pp. 25 seq.). Unlike the office of tuai burong , the tuai rumah is officially recognized by the government, although the position carries no emoluments. The functions of tuai rumah and tuai burong are distinct, but in practice it is often the same man who performs both. This was the case in approximately two-thirds of the longhouses studied in the Lemanak and Delok. In the past, while the Iban remained comparatively isolated and pindah migration was a recurrent event thought to depend for its success on spirit favour and the correct response to spirit guidance, the tuai burong was almost invariably also tuai rumah . In recent years, a more settled way of life and the expectation that the tuai rumah will act as host to visiting officials and as spokesman or longhouse representative before the authorities, have come to demand qualities which the traditional tuai burong did not need nor always possess.' §REF§Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 61§REF§ Bards provide ritual incantations: 'The lemambang may perhaps be called a priest but he is not the ultimate authority on Iban religion. His concern is with intoning the ritual incantations, called pengap , which form a central part of major ceremonies ( gawai ). These occur intermittently. Although extremely important, they are not as significant in the context of day-to-day religion as are omens, dreams, and social ordinances.' §REF§Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 62§REF§ 'The incantations include the full names, honorifics, and nick-names of the spirits. These are unfamiliar in detail to Iban other than the lemambang ; even the tuai burong rarely knows them fully. The lemambang , however, does not necessarily understand the precise role of the named spirits in augury or other rites, and does not, qua lemambang , participate in these. Less than being a priest, since he does not perform ritual acts, it is probably truer to say, as Scott (1956, 103) does in his dictionary, that the lemambang is the ‘bard’ of Iban society, albeit the liturgical bard or cantor.' §REF§Jensen, Erik 1974. “Iban And Their Religion”, 63§REF§ Shamans act as healers and perform rituals associated with head-hunting, which are continued symbolically even after the cessation of infighting and head-taking: 'Various female deities are then summoned to “nurse” ( ngua ) the unhappy head, among them the wives of the legendary headhunting heroes of Panggau Libau. But even the best attempts of Kumang, Lulong, and the others are to no avail - the trophy head is inconsolable. In the end, in desperation, it is passed to the highest ranking shamans in the community - the manang bali' . The latter are individuals who have changed their sex from male to female in the pursuit of their vocation ( bali' lit. = “changed”), their adopted status being reflected in their female attire. The position of manang bali' in society is a very special one in that they are able to slay malevolent demons ( antu ) in ritual combat. In this respect their role is comparable to that of Iban warriors, except that their deeds are performed in the supernatural realm against unseen foe, rather than on the ground against enemies of flesh and blood.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 189§REF§" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 47, "name": "id_kalingga_k", "long_name": "Kalingga Kingdom", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"The circa 1500-1600 B.P. inscriptions at Kutai, East Borneo, and Taruma, Jakarta bay, refer to the kings' gifts to their newly arrived Brahmans. Given the lack of wider direct archaeological evidence on religious specialization, we must revert to generalized Austronesian ethnographic analogy to imagine the late prehistoric situation. In that case, the single required qualification in egalitarian communities, of enhanced mystical prowess, would have increasingly been overshadowed by the religious authority of the head of the extended family in ranked societies, and the chief in kinship-centralized societies. Specialist priesthoods no doubt emerged along with other occupational specialists in the largest societies and so paved the way for the ready incorporation of Buddhist and Brahmanic concepts in the historical Indianized states.\" §REF§(Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 88)§REF§ \" Purnavarman's Brahmans, or the Indian Buddhist pilgrim Gunavarman who preached Buddhism in Ho-ling (Central Java) in 1538 B.P. (Hall 1985: 104-107), presumably had to content themselves with limited headway, as the earliest Indic religious architecture (at least, as preserved) post- dates 1300 B.P. (Van Bemme11994: 5). It can be assumed that specialist religious practicioners attached to the courts, and distributed through the countryside in various capacities, would have resisted the incursion of any Indian ideas that might have challenged the priests' authority or conflicted with traditional beliefs.\" §REF§(Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 106)§REF§<br>At the onset of the next period: \"Like Sanjaya, initially the Sailendra leaders were rakrayan, or regional leaders, rulers of a watak that integrated village clusters (wanua) participating in a regional irrigation and/or otherwise networked society. As rakrayan, these earliest Sailendra rulers provided the political stability necessary to maintain the local irrigation and marketing networks, and through their patronage of Indic religion they constructed sacred cults to legitimize the regional integration of wanua into watak.\" §REF§(Hall 2011, 123)§REF§<br>Range of [1-2] given to reflect the presence of religious specialists but the possible absence of religious hierarchy." }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. There is no evidence that multiple cultic sites were connected within a larger organization; they seem to have operated independently, and were probably devoted to localized deities. Thus, the typical shrine would have featured:<br>1) A chief priest (possibly the only priest).<br>2) Rarely, subordinate priests.<br>3) Lesser functionaries, such as female cultic servants.<br>The possibility of a fourth rung would be relevant to larger cultic sites, such as the one at Hazor, which would have had a more elaborate structure." }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. That there were dedicated priests with at least two levels of hierarchy is about all we know. Whether parochial religious figures were linked in a centralized hierarchy with the center, or whether the king claimed to be the paramount priest, or how elaborate the priestly hierarchy was, are all unknown." }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>_Hinduism_<br>There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556</a>§REF§. However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. §REF§G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4§REF§), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels.<br>_Jainism_<br>NOTE: I have found two equally authoritative sources on Jain hierarchy:<br>(1) §REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319§REF§<br>1. <i>Arihants</i> (ones who have conquered their inner enemies)<br>2. <i>Siddhas</i> (Liberated Ones)3. <i>Acharyas</i> (who head the Order)4. <i>Upadhyays</i> (who teach the message)5. <i>Sadhus</i> (Monks/Seekers)<br>(2) §REF§M. Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka (2006), pp. 269-276§REF§<br>1. Guru (teacher)<br>2. Monks<br>2. Male figure (not specified by author whether a monk) in charge of nuns3. <i>Pravartini</i> or <i>ganini</i> (aides to the male figure in charge of nuns)4. Nuns<br>_Buddhism_<br>\"Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to 'pure' teachings and exemption from 'impure' duties.\" §REF§P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628§REF§.<br>" } ] }