Religious Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Religious Levels.
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{ "count": 446, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/religious-levels/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/religious-levels/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": 1368, "year_to": 1576, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. “In 1576 Tümen Jasaghtu Khan invited the head of the Red Hat sect, the Karma-pa Lama (bLama), to his headquarters and agreed with him that Tibetan Buddhism should be adopted as the state religion of Mongolia. In implementation of this decision, Altan Khan and Khutughtai Sechen Khongtaiji received the head of the Yellow Hat sect, the third Dalai Lama, with great pomp in 1577. The Tümed and Ordos Mongols con- verted simultaneously to Buddhism. On meeting the Dalai Lama at Altan Khan’s head- quarters, Abtai Khan also declared his desire to convert the whole of northern Mongolia to the Buddhist faith. » §REF§(Ishjamts 2003, 215)§REF§<br>Before 1576 CE, shamanism:\"While ruling China as the Yüan Dynasty, Qubilay and his successors began to abandon their people’s ancestral shamanism, which was marked by religious indifference or tolerance, and to display a growing interest in Buddhism.\" §REF§(Soucek 2000, 167)§REF§<br>1. Shaman<br>\"In all three cases the form adopted was the Tibetan denomination of the Yellow Hat, better known as Lamaism - and more correctly, in scholarly terminology, given its Tibetan name Gelugpa. It was famous for its extreme monasticism, theocracy eventually symbolized by the person of the Dalai Lama reigning from Lhassa, and a complex system of reincarnations. This also meant a lasting and mutually supportive relationship between the Mongol and Tibetan churches, which began in 1578 when Sonam-Gyatso (or bSod-nams rgya-mts’o, if we follow the generally accepted scholarly transliteration), chief of the Tibetan church, came to Mongolia to organize the new junior branch. It was at that point that the title Dalai Lama appeared for the first time - a Mongolian-Tibetan hybrid with the connotation of “Universal Lama” - apparently bestowed upon the Tibetan prelate by Altan Khan and from then on assumed by the spiritual and temporal chief of the Tibetan church. Sonam-Gyatso then returned to Tibet, but not without leaving in Mongolia a substitute of sorts, a “Living Buddha” who then resided at the aforementioend Köke-khoto or Huehot, a city in Inner Mongolia near the northeastern bend of the Yellow River and now the capital of China’s Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region.\" §REF§(Soucek 2000, 168)§REF§<br>1. Dalai Lama - head of the Tibetan church<br>2. Living Buddha in Mongolia - a local substitute for the Dalai Lama3. Lama(4. Novice?)" }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 51, "name": "id_mataram_k", "long_name": "Mataram Sultanate", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1755 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Moertono says that generally the Islamic clergy did not have an organized hierarchical structure in the sense of the Christian church. However, once religious specialists began to be more intertwined with the state administration in later Mataram, some hierarchies of power did develop (see 'Administrative Levels').§REF§(Moertono 2009, 84)§REF§" }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King?<br>\"The Axum Empire was ruled by a divine monarch\".§REF§(Newman et al. 1997, 231) Mark Newman. Lanny B Fields. Russell J Barber. Cheryl A Riggs. 1997. The Global Past: Prehistory to 1500. Macmillan Higher Education.§REF§<br>\"Currency coined in the time of Ezana and his successors bore a Greek motto signifying 'May the country be satisfied!' It is evident that this demagogic device reflects an official doctrine, the first traces of which may be discerned in the inscriptions of Ezana.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 394) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ <i>King Ezana was the last ruler of this period and the first ruler of the succeeding period. He changed the official state religion to Christianity.</i><br>\"Ancestor-cult, especially of dead kings, occupied an important place in the religion of the Aksumites. It was customary to dedicate stelae to them\".§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 396) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>2. Priest\"Although information on the religion of the Aksumites is still extremely fragmentary, it may be considered a relatively developed religion, linked to a complicated ritual and a professional priesthood. During the early Aksumite period religious ideas from countries near and far penetrated into Ethiopia.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>3.<br>\"Symbols of the sun and moon are found on stelae from Axum, Matara and Anza, and on the coinage of the Axumite kings of pre-Christian times. They refer probably to Mahrem, the dynastic and ethnic deity of the Axumites. In the 'pagan' bilingua of Ezana, the Mahrem of the Ethiopian text is given the Greek name, Ares. All the 'pagan' Greek inscriptions of the Axumite kings, with the exception of the Sembrythes' inscriptions in which the name of the god is absent, use the name Ares. As is well known, the Athenian Ares was worshipped as the god of war. It follows, then, that his double, Mahrem, was also worshipped as the god of war. In the Axumite inscriptions Ares-Mahrem, in his capacity of War-god, is termed 'invincible', 'unconquerable by his enemies' and ensuring victory. In is capacity as the ethnic progenitor, Ares is called the 'god of the Axumites' in the inscriptions from Abba-Pantalewon. As the dynastic deity, the kings called Mahrem-Ares their 'greatest god', ancestor of kings.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1990, 221) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1990. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Abridged Edition. James Currey. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>\"Plainly discernible in the religion of Aksum are the characteristic features of early class ideology, that of a feudal society in the process of formation. The Aksumites offered sacrifices to their gods. Domestic animals constituted the bulk of these offerings. One of Ezana's inscriptions records that a dozen oxen were offered up to Mahrem at a single sacrifice. According to ancient Semitic custom, some kinds of donation for sacrifice were brought in ritually immaculate clothing; for others this was not obligatory. But already in the pre-Aksumite period the living sacrificial animal was supplanted by its consecrated image. Bronze and stone images of sacrificial bulls, rams and other animals, many bearing inscriptions, have been preserved.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 396) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ \"A recently excavated monumental building at Berit Awde, to the north of Aksum, apparently contains a royal grave, and evidence for possible human sacrifice\".§REF§(Finneran 2007, 164) Niall Finneran. 2007. The Archaeology of Ethiopia. Routledge.§REF§<br>\"Sacrifices were brought to the altars and to the pedestals of stelae carved in the form of altars, and the blood of the sacrifices flowed down into hollows hewn in the form of bowls. The graves of Aksumite kings were regarded as the city's holy places. Vessels and other objects found in burial grounds indicate belief in a life beyond the grave.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>_Hinduism_<br>There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556</a>§REF§. However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. §REF§G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4§REF§), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels.<br>_Buddhism_<br>\"Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to 'pure' teachings and exemption from 'impure' duties.\" §REF§P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 256, "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "in_mahajanapada", "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1 Chief priest (purohit)2 Priest §REF§Burjor Avari, India: The Ancient Past: a History of the Indian Sub-continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200 (London: Routledge, 2007),p.73.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "fr_valois_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "King as divine ruler, especially encouraged by Philip IV who was the first of the Valois kings.<br>Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France<br>1. King as divine ruler, especially encouraged by Philip IV who was the first of the Valois kings.<br>1. Pope<br>Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>2. Metropolitans and archbishops\"the term 'bishop' applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the 'ecumenical' patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The title 'archbishop' emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>3. Priest\"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deacon\"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese's finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deaconess (diakonissa)\"The deaconess's chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>5. Subdeacon\"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>6. Reader (anagnostesj\"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>7. Minor orders\"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>Naram-Sin may have been a high priest at the Eulmash temple in Agade.§REF§(Foster 2016, 22) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>2. Priests and Priestesses of eight sanctuaries \"listed in Naram-Sin's inscription recording his deification\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 22) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§\"Naram-sin placed three of his daughters in key cultic positions. One of them, Tutanabsham, became high priestess of Enlil at Nippur; so important was this event that a year was named after it, which states that she was chosen by divination. A second, Enmenanna, became high priestess of the moon-god at Ur, successor to her great-aunt Enheduanna. A third, Shumshani, became high priestess of the sun-god at Sippar. Since these three sanctuaries are among the eight listed in Naram-Sin's inscription recording his deification, it is tempting to speculate that progeny or close relatives of Naram-Sin may have served in the other five, creating a network of family alliances linking Naram-Sin with the gods.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 22) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>3. Sanga (leading administrator subordinate to local governor)4. Lay personnel (Stewards, weavers, herdsmen etc.)5. Lay personnel<br>3. Lesser priest?4. Professional cult singers, dream interpreters, performers of rituals<br><br>Temples usually largest building in a Sumerian city. \"organized as manors, with an enclosed central complex for religious rites, as well as ancillary buildings, including staff residences, barns, and storage buildings. The leading cultic figure was a high priest or priestess, and the leading administrator was the sanga. The sanga had previously overseen the temple lands, gardens, herds, flocks, and other resources, but now, in Sumer at least, he was subordinate to both the local governor and the representatives of the king's household. ... Temple personnel numbered in the hundreds. There were stewards, herdsmen, building attendants, weavers, cultivators, and boatmen,as well as laborers, some of whom were dedicated to temple service by their families. ... such professionals as cult singers, dream interpreters, and performers of rituals.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 42-43) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>tablets that refer to the administration of the temple of Tishpak tell of boys and girls entering temple service, girls who learn singing in the temple conservatory.§REF§(Foster 2016, 57) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Akkadian ruler's assumption of the right to appoint high priestesses and other key cultic personnel.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 46) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>In governor's records at Lagash reference to high priestess of Ilaba, \"one of the patron deities of Agade\", who held over 400 hectares of arable land, which was administered by the local governor.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 42) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"The ancient city-states were reorganized into provinces, and the ancient temples were now dependent on the Akkadian king for support, renovation, dedications and gifts.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 44) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>in centre: north/south religious split. \"The new deification of the king and the role of the goddess of Akkad, Ishtar, characterised the north. On the contrary, the south was still centred on the authority of city-gods and of the supreme Sumerian deity, Enlil, god of Nippur. The kings of Akkad paid considerable attention to Enlil and Nippur.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 138) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 370, "name": "uz_timurid_emp", "long_name": "Timurid Empire", "start_year": 1370, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Timur \"Although he came from a conventional Sunni tradition, his Sufi credentials were bolstered through his patronage of the Naqshbandi order, centred in Bukhara, and his cultivation of the Sufi shaykhs of Mawarannahr and Khorasan, who enjoyed a prominent position in his court\" §REF§(Marozzi 2004, 93) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London.§REF§<br>However, \"Temur could just as easily pose as protector of the Shi'a tradition.§REF§(Marozzi 2004, 93) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London.§REF§<br>\"The five daily prayers were a regular feature of life at Temur's court. Wherever he campaigned, with him went the imams and the royal mosque, a sumptuously appointed pavilion made of the finest silk.\"§REF§(Marozzi 2004, 94) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "\"many religions flourished within the Parthian empire; in addition to Judaism, various Hellenistic, Babylonian, and other cults were observed in the cities of Dura, Palmyra, and elsewhere. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the Good Religion of the Mazdayasnians continued to be cultivated. Though Zoroastrianism as we know it from Sasanid times may have taken shape in the Arsacid period, we have no way to trade its developent. In general, the Parthians were as flexible and tolerant in religious matters as they were in politics and, at best, in Frye's judgment, we may speak of a 'general Mazdayasnian religious predominace,' within which were many subdivisions and even aberrations. Nonetheless, the dominant influence in Parthian religion was that of the Magi, who were, as in later periods, in charge of formal rites and cultic acitivities, though their influence on the religions of the Babylonian area was limited by the existence of powerful competing traditions.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 19) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>_Mazdayasnianism_<br>_Zoroastrianism_<br>\"... the part played by Zoroastrianism in the Parthian state has not been entirely clarified.\" §REF§Lukonin, V.G., ‘Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol. III, P.713.§REF§<br>1. Chief priest<br>2. Priest3. ?<br>_Christianity_<br>Religions and full-time religious professionals were present within the Parthian realm including Christian bishops.§REF§(Raschke 1976, 824) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter.§REF§ Can we code for Christian church?<br>1. ?<br>2. Bishop3. ?<br>_Mithraism_<br>Cult of Mithra spread from the Parthian Empire to Rome (originated in India? bronze age?). \"Contrary to other religions of the same type, such as the cults of Isis and Osiris, Serapis, Dionysus (all well-known examples), Mithraicism eschewed any external manifestations and depended only on its initiatory nature to recruit its followers. ... it gradually became a common faith for soldiers, civil servants, merchants ... The members joined a spirituality of an initiatory type ... shared with a large group of solar faiths ... that promised both a life near to the deity and a personal redemption.\"§REF§(Decharneux (2004, 94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"From the end of the first century B.C.E. we have evidence of a cult coming from the East and gradually and discretely conquering the Roman army and administration (Daniels). This god, previously unknown to the Romans, was called Mithra. Some historians believe (see Plutarch, Pomp. 24.7) that the notorius Cilician pirates defeated by Pompeius propagated this cult when deported in Calabria. We now believe that it was a late transformation of the god Mithra, the friendly protector of contracts .... and defender of true and just causes.\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 93) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"We must also stress that this god retained, in his manifestation in the Roman Empire, his essential characteristics of friend and guardian of contracts.\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 93-94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>In Rome \"Mithra probably won over even the imperial house. We are wary about the well-known initiation of the emperor Nero to the mysteries of the Magi through Tiridates (see Turcan 1989:237). However, it seems that the emperor Commodus (192) was an unworthy adept of the mysteries, because he was suspected of having killed a fellow-adept during a ceremony simulating a ritual sacrifice. The imperial house had a much worthier adept in Diocletian and his colleagues of the Tetrarchy: Galerius and Licinius. The god is then called the fautor imperii sui, the \"protector of the imperial power\" (Inscription of Carnuntum in 307).\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§ <i>Mithracism was very successful in the Parthian Empire.</i><br>Mithracism: \"on the social level people learned, in the 'Persic Cavern', to respect the contract linking the human being to the cosmos and to the gods, and then, at least in an implicit way, to respect the emperors, who were divine beings, as intermediaries between the sky and the earth. The faithfulness to a vivifying cosmic order was thus accompanied by faithfulness to the one representing this order on earth. It is not surprising, then, that Mithra was invoked as Jupiter Dolichenus for the salvation of the emperor. In time, a cult ascribed to the enemies gets mixed up with the worship of the protecting gods of Rome!\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 8, "religious_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Theodosius (r.379-395), made Christianity the legal or \"official\" religion of the empire.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 20)§REF§<br>1. Bishop of a patriarchate<br>\"The churches organized themselves along the lines laid down by the geography and political order of the empire. A city (civitas), along with its surrounding rural perimeter, the foundation of imperial organization, also formed the basic unit of ecclesiastical structure. Virtually every Roman city, many of them quite small, had its own bishop. He exercised his authority over a \"diocese\" that ordinarily coincided with the boundaries of the civitas. These dioceses were then grouped into provinces, over which a metropolitan, the bishop of a province's principal city, held sway. Eventually, provinces themselves were organized into large \"patriarchates,\" each lead by one of the five preeminent bishops of the church: those in Rome, Constantinople (called \"New Rome,\" second in prestige to the Old), Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 21)§REF§<br>2. Metropolitan, with authority over a province<br>3. Bishop in civitas, with authority over a diocese<br>4. Presbyters or priests (elders)\"Evidence from the second century suggests that a wide variety of models for local clergy existed throughout the Roman Empire. Yet the one to prevail was a three-tiered, hierarchical. In this model, the bishop served as leader of the local community and was assisted by presbyters or priests (elders) and deacons. Again, this model was established in the Antioch of Ignatius, as he underscores emphatically the necessity of gathering for learning, ritual, and teaching around a single bishop. By the end of the century this three-tiered form of ministry had spread to most early Catholic communities throughout the empire, and it would soon become the sole authoritative manner of organizing local ecclesial communities.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 14)§REF§<br>5. Deacons6. Sub-deacon7. Reader8. Minor order (exorcists, cantors, doorkeeper, lamplighter etc.)<br>" }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Yangdi \"Extending his administrative control into the religious sphere, Yangdi ordered that a supervisor (jian) and an assistant supervisor (cheng) be assigned to each Buddhist monastery, now renamed daochang, and each Daoist abbey (guan), now renamed xuantan.\"§REF§(Xiong 2006, 114)§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br><br>2. Supervisor (jian)<br>3 Assistant supervisor (cheng)" }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Hindu religion. \"Followers of both Siva and Visnu, referred to as Mahesvaras and Bhagavatas respectively, were prevalent among the upper classes and each probably occurred with equal frequence, among the elite + the kings. (Impressive sculptures of Brahma have also been found, but nothing is said about his cult.) ... Village worshippers favoured the Devi (goddess)\"§REF§Karel, Werner. 1998. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. 8. pp 459-461. The Vakaṭakas. An Essay in Hindu Iconology. By Hans T. Bakker. (Gonda Indological Studies, Vol V). 1997. pp. xiv, 211. Pl. xlvii.§REF§<br>\"Some kings ... adopted the title 'Dharmamaharaja' which suggests, in the absence of any clear indications of their religious allegiance, at the very least their ecumenical attitude to all faiths (and it might allow speculation about their Buddhist leanings since there is evidence that they were great patrons of the Buddhist Sangha).\"§REF§Karel, Werner. 1998. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. 8. pp 459-461. The Vakaṭakas. An Essay in Hindu Iconology. By Hans T. Bakker. (Gonda Indological Studies, Vol V). 1997. pp. xiv, 211. Pl. xlvii.§REF§<br>Royal court patronised religious institutions and foundations. This could be through financing building projects or gifts of money or land. The Gupta's \"patronage extended to religions other than their personal persuasions, thus spreading an atmosphere of religious tolerance throughout the realm.\"§REF§Bakker, Hans. October 2010. Royal Patronage and Religious Tolerance: The Formative Period of Gupta-Vakataka Culture. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Third Series. Vol. 20. No. 4. pp.461-475.§REF§<br>Rudrasena II of the Vakatakas, possibly inspired by the Guptas (he was married to a Gupta princess), \"initiated a tradition of large-scale religious patronage within the Vakataka kingdom.\"§REF§Bakker, Hans. October 2010. Royal Patronage and Religious Tolerance: The Formative Period of Gupta-Vakataka Culture. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Third Series. Vol. 20. No. 4. pp.461-475.§REF§<br>Gupta-Vakataka age: \"The followers of the different religions, however, lived in harmony and there was complete toleration. Hindu kings endowed Buddhist monasteries. Buddhist kings performed Hindu rituals. In the same family some members followed the Buddhist, and some the Vedic religion.\"§REF§(Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 9) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.§REF§<br>\"The hill of Ramtek in Maharashtra was a major religious centre of the Vakataka dynasty during the Gupta-Vakataka period, which is considered a time of momentous change in Indian history with significant cultural, political and religious developments.\"§REF§Lacey, Harriet. Department of Archaeology. Durham University. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.dur.ac.uk/research/directory/staff/?mode=staff&id=10069\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.dur.ac.uk/research/directory/staff/?mode=staff&id=10069</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Many religions." }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Social differences and nascent inequalities are demonstrated by the design of Iron Age settlements in central Karnataka where residential spaces were built to be practically and symbolically distinct from one another. Labor investment, access patterns, elevation, and, in some cases, construction materials were all variables that appear to have defined the residential spaces of some social groups in Iron Age settlement communities as more exclusive than those of others (Bauer, in press; Johansen, 2008, 2011). Yet, the most direct expression of Iron Age social differences comes from the remarkable variation observed in the mortuary record, and in particular that among a new suite of commemorative and memorial practices involving the construction of a range of large (and not so large) stone features collectively referred to as megaliths. The production of this new suite of monumental features marked important changes in the character and purpose of ritual practices in southern India, from those of the open public performances of the Neolithic, which appear to have emphasized group solidarity, to those of the Iron Age, which were more labor-intensive, often but not always more exclusive, and which emphasized politically salient social differences.\"§REF§(Johansen 2014, 1-28) Johansen, P. 2014. The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India. Journal of Social Archaeology. 0(0).§REF§<br>\"South Indian megaliths were distinctive and ubiquitous architectural features of Iron Age landscapes throughout most regions of South India (Figures 1 and 3). Megaliths include a wide range of commemorative-memorial stone and earth features such as dolmens, stone circles, cairns, menhirs, alignments, avenues, and passage chamber features, located in a variety of mortuary and non-mortuary contexts (Brubaker, 2001; Krishnaswami, 1949; Leshnik, 1974; Moorti, 1994; Morrison et al., in press; Rao, 1988; Sundara, 1975) (Figure 3). Megaliths are most frequently recorded in large mortuary complexes, but also occur in small groups or as isolated features (Brubaker, 2001). Large megalithic complexes are typically found within a short distance of settlements but individual features and small groups of megaliths also frequently occur in and around settlements as pre-abandonment and post-habitation occupations (Bauer, 2010, 2011; Brubaker, 2001; Johansen, 2009, 2011; Moorti, 1994; Morrison et al., in press; Sundara, 1975). The location of many recorded megalithic mortuary complexes close to settlements suggests that particular cemeteries were the relatively exclusive domain of specific settlement communities (see Bauer, 2010, 2011).\"§REF§(Johansen 2014, 1-28) Johansen, P. 2014. The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India. Journal of Social Archaeology. 0(0).§REF§<br>\"Megalithic construction and maintenance were intricately related to Iron Age death rituals and political claims to a variety of socio-symbolic resources. Their construction inscribed a range of important social meanings to places, through punctuated ritual practices involving the interment of the dead or small special offerings, burnings, feasting, and the creation or sanctification of precious pools and tanks of water (cf. Bauer, 2011; Bauer and Morrison, 2007; Bauer et al., 2007; Morrison et al., in press; Sinopoli, 2009).\"<br>" }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Ritual Specialists (inferred)3. Monk/Priest/Nun<br>Emperor Taizong: \"637 ... he ordered that henceforth at all ceremonies Daoist monks and nuns would take precedence over their Buddhist counterparts.\"§REF§(Roberts 1996, 91)§REF§<br>\"At about the same time he approved the Daoseng ge, the Regulations Regarding the Daoist and Buddhist Clergies, which provided harsh punishments for clergy committing various offences. His objective was to reduce the participation of Buddist clergy in secular life and to confine monks and nuns to their monasteries where they would be occupied with religious observances. By so doing he sought to establish control over the Buddhist church.\"§REF§(Roberts 1996, 91)§REF§<br>Empress Wu: \"... Buddhism reached the apogee of its economic and political might during her reign. The Buddhist monasteries were the repositories for much capital, the owners of vast quantities of metal (primarily copper, mostly in the form of statues) and were thus able to control the money market. They were probably also the greatest single group of landowners in the entire country. On the whole, the Buddhists were able to maintain this dominant position for the next century and a half.\"§REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 126)§REF§<br>\"Taoism the personal religious creed of all the later T'ang emperors.\"§REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 119)§REF§" }, { "id": 267, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 7, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "Note on Byzantine monks: \"Monks took a leading role not only in determining theology but in shaping a whole view of Christian life that had lasting effects on the Byzantine church.\" §REF§(Treadgold 1997, 555) Treadgold, Warren. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford.§REF§ Early 10th CE in Constantinople the church hierarchy \"was dominated by monks\" who \"tended to enjoy the greatest spiritual authority, first for their opposition to Iconoclasm and later for their personal sanctity\". Their influence increased with the formation of large monasteries such as Theodore's Monastery of Studius, in Constantinople, and those of Mount Olympus in Bithynia, Mount Latrus (near Ephesus) and Mount Athos (near Thessalonica). \"Monks on mountains were far enough from the world to escape many of its distractions, but close enough to influence it.\"§REF§(Treadgold 1997, 554-555) Treadgold, Warren. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford.§REF§<br>1. Pope<br>Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>1. Patriarch of Constantinople<br>\"Patriarchs were elected by the standing synod in Constantinople, which presented three names to the emperor. He was entitled to choose one of these, or, if unable to accept any of the candidates, to choose the new patriarch himself.\" §REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Five Patriarchs (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem).<br>2. Metropolitans and archbishops\"the term 'bishop' applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the 'ecumenical' patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The title 'archbishop' emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>\"Chorepiskopoi (literally 'country bishops') were assigned to rural communities and were subject to a bishop in a nearby city.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"After the fourth century, the powers and functions of chorepiskopoi were gradually restricted and they were allowed only to ordain clerics of the lower orders. After the second Council of Nicaea (787) which prohibited them from ordaining even readers (anagnostai) without episcopal assent (canon 14), this separate episcopal rank began to disappear (Jugie 1904).\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Priest\"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deacon\"Deacon (diakonos, 'servant')\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 530) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese's finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deaconess (diakonissa)Become more and more rare, would be of equal rank as deacon.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>\"The deaconess's chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>5. Subdeacon\"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>6. Reader (anagnostesj\"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>7. Minor orders\"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "Emperor was high priest. §REF§(Kerr 2013, 39)§REF§<br>Eclectic mix of ancestor worship, sorcery, Daoism, polytheism, and later Buddhism from first century CE. §REF§(Theobald 2000f)§REF§<br>\"In the state cult of the Han dynasty, Heaven was the supreme deity, a deity which was believed to guide the fate of the world directly.\" Omens and portents were examined to assess whether the emperor possessed the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 223)§REF§" }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 1) Buddhist and Saivite clergy (sogata); 1) Vaisnava clergy (wipra); 2) local religious specialists (resi); 3) residential communities of monks (caturdwija); 3) rural shamans (jangga). §REF§(Hall 1996, 102-111)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Khagan as high priest<br>2. Ordinary shaman<br>\"At the top, the kaghan ruled by heavenly mandate (kut), embodying and demonstrating heaven’s favor through successful performance of his functions as ruler.77 Prominent among these were ritual functions with shamanic overtones. The kaghan had to maintain control of Mount Ötüken and perform ancestral rites at the sacred sites there.\" §REF§(Findley 2005, 43)§REF§« Türk religious life, not extensively documented, was based on an ancient complex of beliefs widespread in Inner Asia.84 The term “shamanism,” although conventional, is a misleading name for this belief system. Shamans, male and female, served as religious specialists, who could communicate with the spirit world. They were called on, however, only for exceptional reli- gious or medical needs, not for routine religious practice. Their ability, real or reputed, to divine the future or conjure up storms on the battlefield made their services especially significant for rulers. However, the heroic, ecstatic quest that transformed an individual from sickness and alienation through initiation into a shaman capable of performing such wonders little resembled his or her neighbors’ usual religious observance. » §REF§(Findley 2005, 45-47)§REF§\"If there was a difference in spiritual emphases between dynast and ordinary nomad, it took the form of the greater devotion to Tengri, the supreme deity, in the politicized state cult, with the kaghan as high priest.87\" §REF§(Findley 2005, 48)§REF§" }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "For the administrative history, I would recommend C. IMBER, The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke. 2009.§REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§<br>Ulema<br>Imams<br>Ulema means \"scholars\" - they are scholars of the Quran and the holy law, but not priests in the sense of rituals etc. But one should discuss this categorisation with an expert on Islam.§REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§" }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "The Purohita was the royal priest. However, the sanctioned religions of the empire changed with the monarchs, and the multitude of faiths in such a diverse empire is staggering. King Chandragupta followed Jainism, Bindusara followed the ascetic tradition known as Ajivikas, and Ashoka implemented and heavily supported Buddhism. Individual faiths were undergoing reform throughout the period as well. It is therefore likely that the royal priest was not necessarily resident at court, and rather largely ceremonial. §REF§Craig, Graham, Kagan, Ozment, Turner, <i>The Heritage of World Civilizations</i> (2011), p. 134§REF§ §REF§Ashoka declared \"the followers of all religions as pasamdas...on the same plane\" Irfan Habib, <i>Mauryan India</i> (1931), p. 138§REF§<br>\"Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to 'pure' teachings and exemption from 'impure' duties.\" §REF§P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628§REF§.<br>Jainism: §REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319§REF§<br>(5) Arihants (ones who have conquered their inner enemies)<br>(4) Siddhas (Liberated Ones)<br>(3) Acharyas (who head the Order)<br>(2) Upadhyays (who teach the message)<br>(1) Sadhus (Monks/Seekers)<br>" }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "AD: possibly this hierarchy?<br>1. Ruler<br>2. High priest3. Priest<br>3. Temple scribes4. Scribes<br>EWA: Kim Ryholt. The political situation in Egypt ... 1997. might have relevant data.<br>Official religion modelled on Egyptian. State god Seth of Avaris. §REF§(Hayes 1990, 4)§REF§<br>Reference to Horemkhauef, a chief inspector of priests (late 13th Dynasty?). Lector priests. Scribes. §REF§(Bourriau 2003, 186)§REF§<br>Temple overseers, temple scribes, scribes, cultivators of divine offerings, scribes of the divine seal, masters of foodbearers, high priests, overseer of singers, w'b priests, and hm-ntr, hry-hbt, wnwt, and sm3. §REF§(Shirley 2013, 562)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. King<br>\"temples and Hwt were part of a network of economic and production centers spread all over the country and controlled by the crown.\" §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 198)§REF§<br>\"In contrast to the temples, the Hwt was seldom a path to social promotion to the highest offices of the state during the Sixth Dynasty.\"§REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 201)§REF§<br>\"temples or Hwt never became private possessions, and the revenues of the local dominant families seem to have been dependent, in a significant way, on their ties with the state and its institutions.§REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 202)§REF§<br>_ Pyramid complex levels _<br>High Priest or Overseer of the Estate<br>Larger cult complexes with numerous \"Servants of God\" had a high priest (jmj-r3 hmw-ntr). In the 4th, 5th and 6th Dynasty this role was often filled by more than one person. In some complexes this role had a special title. §REF§(Shafer 2005, 10)§REF§<br>\"In Old Kingdom royal cult complexes (including sun temples), the hmw-ntr were organized into five phyles, or companies. Each phyle had two sub-groups lead by a shd, inspector, and each of the ten sub-groups served the royal cult complex in rotation for one thirty-day month.\"<br>Servant of God (hm-ntr) from 1st Dynasty.<br>Servant of God \"prepared offerings, performed rituals, had access to the sanctuary of the divine image, and controlled entrance to the temple.\" §REF§(Shafer 2005, 10)§REF§<br>Servant of God (hmt-ntr)<br>Female priestesses Servant of God (hmt-ntr) was under the authority of a man. Associated with goddesses Hathor and Neith, and music making. Within the temple there was a female head (wrt-hnr) of a musical troupe (hnr). §REF§(Shafer 2005, 11)§REF§<br>W'b Priest<br>The w'b priest (w'b) assisted the Servants of God (hmw-ntr). They performed \"the lesser tasks requisite to maintaining the temples and rituals. Their leader was called the Great W*b.\" W'b priests \"handled ritual instruments and cultic objects.\" Certainly from 5th Dynasty a W'b could be promoted to hm-ntr \"at either the same temple or a different one.\" §REF§(Shafer 2005, 11-12)§REF§<br>Lector Priest<br>The lector priest hrj-hb(t) was \"the skillful reader who carried the ritual book and recited the formulas of cultic performance. No woman held this title.\" The titles Chief Lector Priest and Senior Lector Priest \"may have connoted not so much degree of command as length of service.\" §REF§(Shafer 2005, 12)§REF§<br>hntj-s<br>\"Ann Macy Roth, following Paule Posener-Kreiger, finds that in papyri from Abusir (Dynasty 5 and early Dynasty 6) hntjw-s perform the same duties as Servants of God, save for particular functions relative to the divine image and transporting offerings to and from the temple. She concludes that hmw-ntr served the deceased king's divine aspect while the hntjw-s served his human aspect.\"§REF§(Shafer 2005, 12)§REF§<br><br>2. High Priest or Overseer of the Estatecould also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)<br>3. Servant of God (hmw-ntr)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)<br>4. Servant of God (hmw-ntr) - Inspector (shd)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)<br>5. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Female head (wrt-hnr)6. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Musicians<br>5. Great W*b (w'b '3)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)6. W'b Priest (w'b)7. ... ? ...inferred level - scribes? guards? lay workers attached to the temple estate?<br><br>_ Local cult complex _<br>\"Religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians was locally diverse and socially stratified. Practically every area of Egypt had its local god, which for its inhabitants was the most important deity\" §REF§(Malek 2000, 101)§REF§<br>1. Servant of God<br>In the Old Kingdom a local government official was usually appointed to this role in the local cult complex. §REF§(Shafer 2005, 10)§REF§<br>2. ... ? ...3. ... ? ...<br><br>_ Mortuary complex _<br>\"some priests were not associated with temples. These were the mortuary priests who served cultuses at tombs.\" §REF§(Shafer 2005, 12)§REF§<br>1. Mortuary Priest §REF§(Shafer 2005, 12)§REF§<br>2. ... ? ...3. ... ? ...<br>" }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 346, "name": "iq_neo_babylonian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Babylonian Empire", "start_year": -626, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.(1) king(2) cult leaders(3) priests §REF§Liverani, M. 2011. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.547§REF§(4) regional religious leaders<br>" }, { "id": 276, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. AD: estimated as a range based on previous polities with a minimum of 3: ruler, priest of a major temple and local priest.<br>1. ruler of the theocracy<br>(2. priest of a major temple)(3. local priest)<br>Under Smendes (1069-1043 BCE) \"the government of Egypt was in effect a theocracy, supreme political authority being vested in the god Amun himself.\" Decisions of the gods were \"communicated via oracles. The workings of the theocratic government are explicitly documented at Thebes, where oracular consultations were formalized by the institution of a regular Festival of the Divine Audience, held at Karnak.\" §REF§(Taylor 2000, 325-327)§REF§<br>_ Cult of Amun _<br>1.<br><br>2.<br>3.<br>4.<br>_ Oracles _<br>Oracles of Amun, Mut, and Khons at times were very influential in government. §REF§(Taylor 2000, 327)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 277, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§§REF§(Rives 2007)§REF§§REF§(North and Price 2011)§REF§<br>1. Pontifex maximus<br>2. Colleges (flamines, augurs, pontifices, vestals)Three colleges of religious officials. 1. augurs 2. decemviri sacris faciundis 3. pontifices<br>3. high priests of imperial cult in provinces4. priests for a deity (running a specific temple or sanctuary)<br>\"Freelance\" religious officials (soothsayers, oracles, seers, etc). This hierarchy refers to the state religion only.<br>Six Vestals, appointd by pontifex maximus. Girls 6-10 with two living parents served 30 years during which time had to remain chaste. After 30 released and free to marry. Duties included: tend sacred fire and sacred objects \"on which the survival of Rome depended (such as the 'palladium')\"; making salt cakes used at sacrifices; various rituals and ceremonial appearances. Vestals had unique \"old-fashioned and heavy\" costumes and impressive hairstyles \"which other women only wore on their wedding\".<br>\"Because a vestal's person was sacrosanct, she could not be executed. Instead, she was entombed in an underground chamber with a bed, a lamp, and some food and water, and left to die. Male accomplices were publicly flogged to death.\"§REF§(McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The vestal virgins were responsible for maintaining the temple of Vesta and performing the rites of the goddess. They ensured that her holy flame, said to have been brought from Troy, was not extingished.\"§REF§(McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>The vestal virgins had many privileges: \"Wills and treaties were in their keeping, and they themselves could make a will. They could conduct business in their own name. They could give evidence in court without taking an oath. ... If they accidentally met a criminal on his way to execution, he was spared.\"§REF§(McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§; \"any injury to them was punishable by death; they could own and administer their own property ...; when they went out they were preceded by a lictor and had complete right of way on the streets; they could even drive in carriages within the city limits (otherwise only permitted to empresses).\"§REF§(Claridge 1998, 103) Claridge, Amanda. 1998. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§; given prominent seats at games.§REF§(McKeown 2010, 15) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 278, "polity": { "id": 494, "name": "ir_susa_3", "long_name": "Susa III", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2675 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Priest-king?<br>2. Priests appointed by king3. Lesser priests?<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>\"During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, 'the great mother of the gods to the Elamites' and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana.§REF§" }, { "id": 279, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Ancestor-worship rituals: \"Erlitou's regional expansion was unprecedented and is particularly attributable to the rulers' hunger for bronze alloys, which were used to cast weapons for warfare and ceremonial vessels for ancestor-worship rituals, both activities being intended to ensure the political legitimacy of the ruling class (Chang 1983).\" §REF§(Liu 2009, 226)§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Top priest at ritual <i>inferred</i>3. Lesser priest at ritual <i>inferred</i><br>More conservative view<br>\"While the Erlitou ceramic tradition was widespread, the mechanisms of this expansion are probably only indirectly related to political activity (if pots don’t equal people, they are even less representative of conquering armies or “state” administrators). The degree of centralization, mechanisms of political control, and social organization can only be guessed at or extrapolated through comparison with Zhengzhou and Anyang.\" §REF§(Campbell 2014, 62)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 280, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 7, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§(Potter 1995, 207-250)§REF§<br>1. Pope<br>de jure #1<br>1. King<br>de facto #1. made ecclesiastical appointments<br>2. Parlement of Paris\"issued orders in January 1535 offering rewards for those who denounced heretics and punishments for concealments.\" §REF§(Potter 1995, 247)§REF§<br>3. Council of the French ChurchCardinals, Papal legates<br>4. Archbishop in archbishopric5. deputy called vicar-general?<br>5. Bishop in Diocese1551 CE diocese of Lombez had 154 priests in 91 parishes (low density priests to parishes) where as diocese of Leon (Brittany) had \"an exceptionally dense concentration of clergy.\"<br>under Francis I \"only six known commoners promoted as bishops who in fact owed their positions to their scholarship and close relationship to the royal household.\"6. Archdeacon7. Parish priestPriest / Cures / Vicaires. \"in the 392 parishes of Beauvais, there were only 80 resident cures ... distributed unevenly, the rest replaced by vicaires.\"<br>" }, { "id": 281, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "Inferred continuity with preceding polity.<br>1. Master <br>2. Disciple" }, { "id": 282, "polity": { "id": 171, "name": "tr_rum_sultanate", "long_name": "Rum Sultanate", "start_year": 1077, "end_year": 1307 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Caliph.<br>2. Sultan. The title 'sultan', \"carried with it the notion of defender of the faith, but ... did not commit them to holy war\". §REF§Michael Brett, ‘State Formation and Organisation’, in Maribel Fierro (ed.), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 562.§REF§3. Jurists. The central concern of the madrasa was the study of law in this period. §REF§Muhammad Qasim Zaman, ‘Transmitters of Authority and Ideas across Cultural Boundaries, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 582-610.§REF§4. Imams<br>" }, { "id": 283, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " Was previously coded as 4. AD<br>1. Sultan (Baybar was \"Servant of the two Holy Cities\")<br>2. Ulama - religious scholars §REF§(Dols 1977, 153)§REF§<br>3. Imams<br>Under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. All Mamluk sultans performed a ritual demonstration of manumission at an inaugural ceremony. Manumission was performed at about 18 years old, following the Mamluk's training. §REF§(Oliver 1977, 39-67)§REF§<br>\"Under the Mamluks the state appointed judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy. Never did the state attempt to define the content of religious teaching. Thus, the \"Mamluks extended the Saljuq-Iranian pattern of organized religious life to Syria and Egypt.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 249)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 284, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"To maintain power, Psamtek made use of the century-old concept of divine kingship and established control over Upper Egypt by sending his daughter as God's wife of Amum.\"§REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 16)§REF§<br>Temple of Amun at Thebes had a unique political structure, used to independence. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 977)§REF§ Psamtik II \"broke the back of the last major political entity capable of resisting the crown.\"§REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1026)§REF§<br>1. Montuemhat, the fourth prophet, prince of the city, Agent for Upper Egypt - head until 648 BCE. Title of Agent for Upper Egypt survived at least until 610. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 979)§REF§<br>1. Then Nesnaisut who under Psamtik I ruled 9 cities in the Delta and Upper Egypt, including Thebes, El Kab and Edfu. Title of \"Observer\" in Thebes and \"Governor\" in the other 8 cities.<br>1. Chief Priest of Amun. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1019)§REF§<br>2. Theban Scribes §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 980)§REF§<br>2. Protector of the Priests of Amun of Teudjoi. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 999)§REF§<br>3. Priests<br>3. Agent for the division of offerings\"supervision and the management of the sacred domains.\" §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 999)§REF§<br>3. Manager of the fields. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 999)§REF§\"The agricultural tax map must have been the principal work tool of this high-level administrator.\" §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1000)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 285, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Supreme Druid§REF§(Kruta 2004, 185)§REF§<br>2. DruidsIntellectual elite §REF§(Kruta 2004, 16)§REF§<br>Did not have day-day role running the temples.§REF§(Collis 2003, 215)§REF§<br>Tax and military service exempt (according to Caesar)§REF§(Kruta 2004, 185)§REF§<br>Responsible for education (according to Caesar)§REF§(Kruta 2004, 185)§REF§<br>Judges (according to Caesar)§REF§(Kruta 2004, 185)§REF§<br>3. PriestsThere were local priests who maintained local religions. At time of Roman conquest (c50 BCE) there was no unified Celtic religion. §REF§(Collis 2003, 214)§REF§<br>In the Roman era they were called gutuateres.§REF§(Collis 2003, 215)§REF§" }, { "id": 286, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>George Makdisi is a specialist on Seljuk religion.<br>It is important to bear in mind that “a new stratification of power emerged, in which legitimacy and prestige belonged to the Abbasid caliph, but political power belonged to sultans or other synonymously titled rulers who acquired power by conquest and claimed legitimacy from him.” §REF§Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), P.69.§REF§ This was called the amir-a’yan system, with the “the caliph theoretically at the top, then the various sultans or other autonomous rulers supposedly acting as his agents, then the commander (amir) of their military forces, then the notables (a’yan) from the indigenous populace who mediated between conquerors and conquered, and lastly the populace.” §REF§Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), P.69.§REF§ The caliph was not at the head of administration but did theoretically head the religious and military hierarchies.<br>Sultan Malik-Shah (r. 1073-92) introduced a new definition of caliphal authority and a separation of powers. From then on \"the (Abbasid) caliph functioned as the religious head of Sunnism, while the (Seljuk) sultan, as its secular authority, enforced public order.\" §REF§Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages Ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010)§REF§<br>1. Caliph<br>2. Sultan. The title 'sultan', \"carried with it the notion of defender of the faith\". §REF§Michael Brett, ‘State Formation and Organisation’, in Maribel Fierro (ed.), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 562.§REF§<br>3. Jurists. The central concern of the madrasa was the study of law in this period. §REF§Muhammad Qasim Zaman, ‘Transmitters of Authority and Ideas across Cultural Boundaries, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 582-610.§REF§<br>3. Imams<br>" }, { "id": 287, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. AD: coded as a range to reflect various possibilities in the following (tentative) hierarchy:<br>1. Head of Safawiya Shi'ite order at Ardabil<br>2. ?3. Local imam<br>\"The Qaraquyunlu and Aqquyunlu tribal entities which succeeded the Timurids on the region’s political scene pursued a similarly inclusive 'project': Islam was their religion, their tribal military levies were Turks, their administrators were Tajiks and their cultural discourse was Persian.\"§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§<br>Uzun Hasan r. c1453-1478 CE funded religious activities.§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>Uzun Hasan married a daughter to the head of the Safawiya Shi'ite order at Ardabīl. \"The argument that there was a clear-cut contrast between the Sunnism of the Āq Qoyunlu and the Shiʿism of the Qara Qoyunlu and the Ṣafawiya rests mainly on later Safavid sources and must be considered doubtful.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 288, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 7, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "1. Pope<br>Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>1. Patriarch of Constantinople<br>\"Patriarchs were elected by the standing synod in Constantinople, which presented three names to the emperor. He was entitled to choose one of these, or, if unable to accept any of the candidates, to choose the new patriarch himself.\" §REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Five Patriarchs (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem).<br>2. Metropolitans and archbishops\"the term 'bishop' applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the 'ecumenical' patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The title 'archbishop' emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>\"Chorepiskopoi (literally 'country bishops') were assigned to rural communities and were subject to a bishop in a nearby city.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"After the fourth century, the powers and functions of chorepiskopoi were gradually restricted and they were allowed only to ordain clerics of the lower orders. After the second Council of Nicaea (787) which prohibited them from ordaining even readers (anagnostai) without episcopal assent (canon 14), this separate episcopal rank began to disappear (Jugie 1904).\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Priest\"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deacon\"Deacon (diakonos, 'servant')\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 530) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese's finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deaconess (diakonissa)Become more and more rare, would be of equal rank as deacon.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>\"The deaconess's chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>5. Subdeacon\"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>6. Reader (anagnostesj\"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>7. Minor orders\"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"Hagia Sophia alone had 60 priests, 100 deacons, 40 deaconesses (infirmarians), 90 sub-deacons, 110 readers, 25 singers (psaltai) and 100 door-keepers.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 79) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>Chair of St Peter.§REF§(Haussig 1971, 79) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>End 6th century: \"patriarchal sees in Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Rome were occupied by monks.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 83) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ <i>Not true, Patriarchs come from various backgrounds.</i>§REF§(Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences. Personal Communication§REF§<br>\"In Constantinople and other big cities of the Empire there were monastries whose monks were engaged in publicist activity in support of imperial policy. Commissioned by the Emperor they composed letters and polemic in various languages.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 252) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 289, "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "tr_roman_dominate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " Christianity 4: 380-457 CE<br>\"Theodosius (r.379-395), made Christianity the legal or \"official\" religion of the empire.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 20)§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br>\"The first seven \"ecumenical\" ... councils were gathered by the Roman (or, later, Byzantine) emperors.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 21)§REF§<br>1. Bishop of a patriarchate<br>\"The churches organized themselves along the lines laid down by the geography and political order of the empire. A city (civitas), along with its surrounding rural perimeter, the foundation of imperial organization, also formed the basic unit of ecclesiastical structure. Virtually every Roman city, many of them quite small, had its own bishop. He exercised his authority over a \"diocese\" that ordinarily coincided with the boundaries of the civitas. These dioceses were then grouped into provinces, over which a metropolitan, the bishop of a province's principal city, held sway. Eventually, provinces themselves were organized into large \"patriarchates,\" each lead by one of the five preeminent bishops of the church: those in Rome, Constantinople (called \"New Rome,\" second in prestige to the Old), Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 21)§REF§<br>2. Metropolitan, with authority over a province<br>3. Bishop in civitas, with authority over a diocese<br>4. Presbyters or priests (elders)\"Evidence from the second century suggests that a wide variety of models for local clergy existed throughout the Roman Empire. Yet the one to prevail was a three-tiered, hierarchical. In this model, the bishop served as leader of the local community and was assisted by presbyters or priests (elders) and deacons. Again, this model was established in the Antioch of Ignatius, as he underscores emphatically the necessity of gathering for learning, ritual, and teaching around a single bishop. By the end of the century this three-tiered form of ministry had spread to most early Catholic communities throughout the empire, and it would soon become the sole authoritative manner of organizing local ecclesial communities.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 14)§REF§<br>5. Deacons<br><br>_Mithraism_<br>Cult of Mithra spread from the Parthian Empire to Rome (originated in India? bronze age?). \"Contrary to other religions of the same type, such as the cults of Isis and Osiris, Serapis, Dionysus (all well-known examples), Mithraicism eschewed any external manifestations and depended only on its initiatory nature to recruit its followers. ... it gradually became a common faith for soldiers, civil servants, merchants ... The members joined a spirituality of an initiatory type ... shared with a large group of solar faiths ... that promised both a life near to the deity and a personal redemption.\"§REF§(Decharneux (2004, 94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"From the end of the first century B.C.E. we have evidence of a cult coming from the East and gradually and discretely conquering the Roman army and administration (Daniels). This god, previously unknown to the Romans, was called Mithra. Some historians believe (see Plutarch, Pomp. 24.7) that the notorius Cilician pirates defeated by Pompeius propagated this cult when deported in Calabria. We now believe that it was a late transformation of the god Mithra, the friendly protector of contracts .... and defender of true and just causes.\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 93) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"We must also stress that this god retained, in his manifestation in the Roman Empire, his essential characteristics of friend and guardian of contracts.\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 93-94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"Mithra probably won over even the imperial house. We are wary about the well-known initiation of the emperor Nero to the mysteries of the Magi through Tiridates (see Turcan 1989:237). However, it seems that the emperor Commodus (192) was an unworthy adept of the mysteries, because he was suspected of having killed a fellow-adept during a ceremony simulating a ritual sacrifice. The imperial house had a much worthier adept in Diocletian and his colleagues of the Tetrarchy: Galerius and Licinius. The god is then called the fautor imperii sui, the \"protector of the imperial power\" (Inscription of Carnuntum in 307).\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>Mithraism: \"on the social level people learned, in the 'Persic Cavern', to respect the contract linking the human being to the cosmos and to the gods, and then, at least in an implicit way, to respect the emperors, who were divine beings, as intermediaries between the sky and the earth. The faithfulness to a vivifying cosmic order was thus accompanied by faithfulness to the one representing this order on earth. It is not surprising, then, that Mithra was invoked as Jupiter Dolichenus for the salvation of the emperor. In time, a cult ascribed to the enemies gets mixed up with the worship of the protecting gods of Rome!\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§" }, { "id": 290, "polity": { "id": 448, "name": "fr_atlantic_complex", "long_name": "Atlantic Complex", "start_year": -2200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 291, "polity": { "id": 25, "name": "us_woodland_4", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland II", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Shaman-like religious leaders.<br>" }, { "id": 292, "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "us_woodland_5", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Shaman-like religious leaders.<br>" }, { "id": 293, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " In Mycenaean states, the <i>wanax</i> is the head of the religious hierarchy. §REF§Shelmerdine, C. W. and Bennet, J. 2008. \"12: Mycenaean states. 12A: Economy and administration,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 293.§REF§ Like the gods themselves he received offerings (e.g. perfumed oil) but he had not a divine status. He was assisted by a considerable priesthood. §REF§Ventris, M. and Chadwick, J. 1973. <i>Documents in Mycenaean Greek</i>, London,128-29.§REF§" }, { "id": 294, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels." }, { "id": 295, "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "gr_crete_geometric", "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels. There is no evidence for the religious organization of Cretan communities. Members of local elite families might controlled the religious sector of the large settlements that arose in Crete during the period. During the Archaic period (710-500 BCE), religious control was exercised by the <i>Kosmoi</i>, a board of 3 to 10 nobles annually elected by the <i>Ecclesia</i>, the body of free male citizens. It is very likely that some aspects of this organization existed since the 8th century BCE. §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 192-207.§REF§" }, { "id": 296, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels." }, { "id": 297, "polity": { "id": 22, "name": "us_woodland_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Early Woodland", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>" }, { "id": 298, "polity": { "id": 491, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_2", "long_name": "Susiana - Late Ubaid", "start_year": -4700, "end_year": -4300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>In the later Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\" c3800-3000 BCE that the following quote refers to religious ideology became more complex, so can infer still low level religious complexity in this period: \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>At Susa, in the late fifth millennium, \"sealings show ceremonies in which a number of individuals perform (fig. 15.8h-j). The latter examples are especially interesting in that they also show dress and the use of beakers and bowls like those found in the cemetery (fig. 15.8i-j). More importantly, they also show hierarchical relations among participants with principal figures flanked by smaller attendants.\"§REF§(Hole 2006, 234) Hole, Frank in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§<br>\"At Susa, leaders determined that only ceremonies of sacrifice and supplication carried out on top of platforms would impress the forces that could not be controlled by secular human effort. An elaborate set of rituals, with participation by numerous individuals under the direction of priests, emerged (fig. 15.9).\"§REF§(Hole 2006, 238) Hole, Frank in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§" }, { "id": 299, "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "cn_longshan", "long_name": "Longshan", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Differences between religious hierarchy and political hierarchy is possible unknowable. §REF§(Cook, Connie. North China Workshop, 2016)§REF§" }, { "id": 300, "polity": { "id": 23, "name": "us_woodland_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Middle Woodland", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Shaman-like religious leaders.<br>" }, { "id": 301, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "fr_beaker_eba", "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": null, "religious_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " No information found in sources." } ] }