Religious Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Religious Levels.
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{ "count": 446, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/religious-levels/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/religious-levels/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"cloisters\" §REF§(Kradin 2014, 160)§REF§" }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>The Sailendra court attracted Buddhist scholars from afar and was a major international centre of Buddhist pilgrimage and learning. §REF§(Miksic 1993-1994 cited in Hall 2011, 123)§REF§<br>Three major temple complexes - Borobudur (Buddhist, built around 825), Prambanan (Hindu - Shivaist, built around 850), and Dieng (Hindu - Shivaist, completed between the mid-seventh century and the end of the eighth century). Many smaller temples were in addition built by regional coalitions, and each local constituent contributed parts of the temple. §REF§(Hall in Tarling 1993, 204)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>At time of Concordat of Worms (1122 CE). \"Now the clergy were organized in a hierarchical line under the direction of the pope, who could trump the power of local custom, tradition, and even episcopal power. Below the pope stood the bishop. Responsible for maintaining clerical discipline and for overseeing the property of the church, he was answerable only to the pope. Only he could perform all the sacraments; he alone performed the sacrament of confirmation and by the sacrament of ordination passed on his power to others. Theoretically, canon law held that he would be elected by the clergy and people of his diocese. In practice, he was elected only by the canon priests attached to the cathedral. Considered high clergy, the canons aided the bishop in furthering his agenda, administering the diocese and performing rituals at the cathedral church. At their head was the dean, the highest officer in the diocese. A diocesian chancellor supervised the cathedral school and issued licenses allowing clerics to teach and preach in the diocese. A treasurer oversaw finances, while a precentor managed the choir and organized the cathedral's musical program. Each diocese was divided into administrative districts, over which presided the archdeacons. Practically, these were powerful men; they were the bishop's legates, charged with enforcing discipline among the lower clergy, and therefore they were often quite unpopular. ... The parish priests were answerable to them.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 144-145)§REF§<br>1. Pope<br><br>2. Archdeacon, of a dianocal collegeArchdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§ Following the 1059 decree <i>Decretum in Nomine Domini</i>, only cardinals could elect a new pope.§REF§di Carpegna Falconieri, 65§REF§. Furthermore, only cardinals could become popes. Silvester IV (1105-1111), an anti-pope, was the last pope who was not a cardinal before his elevation.§REF§di Carpegna Falconieri, 64§REF§<br>3. Deacons, of a dianocal collegeThere were seven regional deacons of Rome.§REF§(Richards 1979, 293)§REF§<br>4. Subdeacon, of a college of subdeaconsThere was a college of subdeacons.§REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§ Regionary sub-deacons.§REF§(Partner 1972, 1)§REF§<br>5. AcolytesRome's ecclesiastical structure contained a diaconal college with seven regional deacons of Rome, possessing in turn a staff of subdeacons and acolytes. These subdeacons dealt with property and relief for poor. The number increased as responsibilities of Papacy increased. 19 by Gregory I.§REF§(Richards 1979, 293)§REF§<br>2. Archpriest, of a collegePapal administration was collegiate: priests formed a college, headed by the archpriest, which was less important than dianocal college headed by archdeacon. Archdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>3. Priests, of a college<br>2. Metropolitan see <span style=\"color:blue\">archbishop?</span>\"Santiago was in 1120 made a metropolitan see by the pope.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 333)§REF§<br>Metropolitan had authority over a province §REF§(Madigan 2015, 14)§REF§<br>3. Bishops in diocese<br>4. Dean<br>5. Canon priests attached to cathedral<br>5. Diocesian chancellor<br>6. Diocesian clergy\"After 2015 ... cathedral chancellors were required to furnish their diocesan clergy with some instruction in theology.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 310)§REF§<br>5. Treasurer<br>5. Precenter<br>4. Archdeacons of administrative districts<br>5. Priests in ParishThere were multiple parishes in each episcopal diocese, and dozens or hundreds in larger dioceses such as the city of Rome.<br>\"by the year 1000 it was the priest who really emerged as the religious and even educational leader of the local church.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 83)§REF§<br>_Proprietary Churches_<br>\"In 1000 CE ... western Europe had not yet been clearly divided into well-defined territorial parishes with resident priests chosen, ordained, and supervised by the local ordinary, who was in turn directed by the papacy. Indeed, the parish in the year 1000 was far from that ideal, ordered, hierarchical model. Instead, many different (often competing) churches, structures, and people overlapped in the organization of local religious life.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 80-81)§REF§ \"Actually, the most common type of church in the year 1000 was one founded - and governed - by a local lay lord rather than a bishop. ... It is impossible to calculate precisely how many of these churches there were, but they surely numbered in the tens of thousands. Indeed, they far outnumbered the Baptismal churches controlled by the bishops (many of which had passed into the hands of lay lords). ... Because of the force exerted by the ancient, hierarchical, episcopal Roman tradition, this model, which was based on German property law, never took root in central and southern Italy. ... Proprietary churches served very small communities, encompassing perhaps a village or two.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 81-83)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>There were, apparently, three hierarchical levels in Sufi brotherhoods§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 50-51§REF§:<br>1. Sheikh<br>2. Marabout<br>3. Novice<br>However, Sufi brotherhoods were only one aspect of Islamic practice in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Morocco§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 50-54§REF§, and indeed Islam does not technically have a priestly hierarchy§REF§J. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire (2003), p. lv§REF§." }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Caliph<br>\"They left the caliphs in position as titular heads of state, reorganized them as the chiefs of all Sunni Muslims, conceded their right to make appointments to religious offices, and accepted the idea that their own right to make appointments to religious offices was based on caliphal recognition. The sermon at Friday prayers, government coinage, and (in Iraq) even grants of land and appointments to offices referenced the names of the caliphs. Although it was deprived of actual administrative and military power, this allowed the caliphate to mobilize the support of the Sunni population of Baghdad and to retain an important role in Baghdadi politics.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 227-228)§REF§<br>Under Buyids the caliph was a religious but not administrative/military head<br>However, Buyids \"openly favoured the Shi'ites, giving them appointments, allowing them to celebrate their festivals, paying handsome sums to Shi'ite poets and littérateurs.\"§REF§(Crone 2005, 221) Crone, Patricia. 2005. Medieval Islamic Political Thought. Edinburgh University Press.§REF§<br>Religion was an interesting concept in the Buyid Dynasty. The major religion was Islam, although Christians were employed in high levels of office. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.288§REF§ Amongst the Muslims; some were Sunni, some Shīīte and some Zaidites. The ruling Buyid dynasty, by descent Shīīte, seemed uninterested in installing a single religion or removing the Sunnī calliph. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.287§REF§ Therefore, while the calliph was the highest religious figure in the Daylam State; he was not a personal religious figure for many of the inhabitants.<br>(3) calliph, (2) syndics, (1) immam §REF§Donohue, J. J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq 334H./945 to 403H./1012: Shaping Institutions for the Future. Leiden: Brill. p.303-305§REF§<br>1. Caliph<br>2. Syndics3. Imams" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 354, "name": "ye_himyar_2", "long_name": "Himyar II", "start_year": 378, "end_year": 525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Up until about the fourth century AD almost all the inhabitants of Arabia were polytheists.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 139) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>The cult of Athtar was widespread throughout Arabia, where the pantheon of gods known from surviving inscriptions contains over one hundred names (altough \"many of these probably represent different aspects or manifestations of the same god\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 140) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§). \"'Athtar almost always occupies first place in lists and his cult was spread throughout the region.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 140) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§ Different polities/people had their own god. \"The patron deity (shym) of a people was of more immediate significance in south Arabia than the remoter figure of 'Athtar. The four principal peoples had as their patrons Almaqah (Sabaeans), Wadd (Minaeans), 'Amm (Qatabanians) and Sayin (Hadramites), and each people was collectively termed the 'chrildren of their respective patron deity.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 140) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§ The pagan religion of South Arabia \"was in its essence a planetary astral system in which the cult of the moon-god prevailed. The moon, known in Hadramawt as Sin, to the Minaeans as Wadd (love or lover, father), to the Sabaeans as Almaqah (the health-giving god?) and to the Qatabanians as 'Amm (paternal uncle), stood at the head of the pantheon. He was conceived of as a masculine deity and took precedence over the sun, Shams, who was his consort. 'Athtar (Venus, corresponding to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, Phoenician 'Ashtart), their son, was the third member of the triad. From this celestial pair sprang the many other heavenly bodies considered divine.\"§REF§(Hitti 2002, 60-61) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>The pagan Himyarites likely worshipped Almaqah from the time the kingdom was combined with Saba. Hitti writes that the \"Himyarites were close kinsmen of the Sabaeans and, as the youngest branch of the sock, became the inheritors of the Minaeo-Sabaean culture and trade.\"§REF§(Hitti 2002, 56) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ The Himyarites worshipped Almaqah, 'Athtar and other deities.§REF§(Finegan 1965, 478) Jack Finegan. 1965. The Archaeology of World Religions. Volume 3. Princeton University Press.§REF§ Philostorgius said of the Himyarites: 'They sacrifice to the sun and moon and spirits of the land.'\"§REF§(Finegan 1965, 478) Jack Finegan. 1965. The Archaeology of World Religions. Volume 3. Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>The pagan Himyarites practiced dedications to temples§REF§(Kaye 2007, 168) L E Kogan. A V Korotayev. Epigraphic South Arabian Morphology. Alan S Kaye ed. 2007. Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake.§REF§ which were likely sufficiently complex to archive papyrus legal statements concerning the usage of tombs.§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 126) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§ Minaean carvings in the temple ruins of al-Hazm, from the first millennium BCE, suggest dancing girls may have been included among the temple servants.§REF§(Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ Sabaean temples are known to have received tithes at the federal and local levels and its financing may been the \"divine assistance\" behind construction projects. \"Some Middle 'Sabaean' temples may have acted as 'insurance companies' ... Hence the presence of some kind of insurance company which would provide assistance (to build, say, a house after it had been destroyed) was really very practical and useful for most clans. By paying their tithe ('s2r) to the local temples, the tribesmen paid a sort of 'premium' to this insurance company', whereby they could expect to get their 'compensation' when they needed it.\"§REF§(Korotayev 1996, 65-66) Andrey Vitalyevhich Korotayev. 1996. Pre-Islamic Yemen. Socio-political Organization of the Sabaean Cultural Area in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD. Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§<br>The religion of the Himyarites was pagan and polytheistic in the period 270-375 CE and Jewish or Judaistic monotheism in the period 375-525 CE when they \"fell under the influence of Jewish proselytizers\"§REF§(Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§ and by the late 4th century CE were rapidly converting from their pagan polytheistic belief system to monotheistic religious doctrines.§REF§(Kaye 2007, 168) L E Kogan. A V Korotayev. Epigraphic South Arabian Morphology. Alan S Kaye ed. 2007. Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake.§REF§ \"There is significant archaeological evidence of the abandonment of pagan temples toward the conclusion of the fourth century and of the almost complete disappearance of expressions of devotion to the old tribal gods shortly thereafter.\"§REF§(Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§<br>\"From the 4th century on the Himyarite kings were either full members or sympathizers of Judaism\" and the Jewish faith became \"the dominant religion\" in South Arabia.§REF§(Tubach 2015, 363-365) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"Rome's destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in A.D. 70 brought Jewish emigrants to South Arabia, as well as the Christian message.\"§REF§(Fahlbusch et al. 2008, 824) Erwin Fahlbusch. Jan Milic Lochman. John Mbiti. Jaroslav Pelikan. Lukas Vischer. Geoffrey W Bomiley. David B Barrett. 2008. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Volume 5. Si-Z. Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Company. Grand Rapids.§REF§ Jews also may have emigrated to Yemen after the destruction of the First Temple of Jerusalem in 587 BCE.§REF§(Caton 2013, 45) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara§REF§ In the later fourth century there was a Jewish dynasty of kings known as the Tabbai'a.§REF§(Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>A list of Himyarite's known Jewish kings include: Yassirum Yohre'am (from 270 CE); 'Amr-Shlomo ben David (325-330 CE); Malki Kariba Juha'min (378-385 CE); Abu Kariba As'as (385-420 or 445 CE); Shurihbi'il Yakkuf (468-480 CE); Martad Ilan ('Judaized' 495-515 CE); Yusuf Ash'ar Dhu Nuwas (515-525 CE).§REF§(Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§§REF§(Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ The Himyarite army adopted Judaism as its official religion at the start of the fifth century CE.§REF§(Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§<br>Christianity also was present in Himyar at least from the first half of the 4th century§REF§(Tubach 2015, 363-363) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ when the Christian missionary Theophilus arrived and \"complained that he found a great number of Jews\".§REF§(Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§ The Christian message was probably first carried to Arabia by hermits and traders; and, \"since there was a significant Jewish presence in southern Arabia, especially in Najran, Jewish converts to Christianity could have brought the Christian message to Arabia.\"§REF§(Rassam 2006, 44) Suha Rassam. 2006. Christianity in Iraq: Its Origins and Development to the Present Day. Gracewing. Leominster.§REF§ \"By the year 350 Christian communities were established. During the fourth and fifth centuries AD, missionaries systematically converted many Arabian tribes from their traditional polytheistic practices to monotheistic Christianity, which spread throughout the area later known as Yemen.\"§REF§(Romano 2004, 13) Amy Romano. 2004. A Historical Atlas of Yemen. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>It is also suggested that the rulers were not Jewish but Monophysite Christians. According to Friedman (2006) Himyarite colonists, the Axumites, in the land of Cush (Ethiopia) \"which they renamed Axum ... converted to Monophysite Christianity at the beginning of the fourth century. Between 340 to 378, the Axumites returned to Yemen and imposed their rule and religion over the Himyarites. Although the interregnum was short-lived, the impact of the Axumites was very profound. Yemen was a Christian land, with churches and a cathedral in San'a, and all but one of the restored Himyarite monarchs (378-525) were Monophysite Christians. The lone heretic was Dhu-Nuwas who, for unknown reasons, hated Christians and converted to Judaism.\"§REF§(Friedman 2006, 106) Saul S. Friedman. 2006. A History of the Middle East. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson.§REF§ Hitti also mentions the 340-378 CE period of Abyssinian rule.§REF§(Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ Evans (2000) writes: \"Christianity and Judaism both struggled for the allegiance of the Himyarite kings, and at Justin's accession [518 CE], Christianity with the support of Axum had the upper hand. The king was a Christian and an Axumite vassal.\"§REF§(Evans 2000, 95) J A S Evans. The Age of Justinian. 2000. The Circumstances Of Imperial Power. Routledge. London.)§REF§<br>However, most scholars call the early monotheistic Himyarites Jewish or Judaistic. Christians were repressed due to a perceived association with influence of the Byzantine Empire: \"in the 470s ... a priest named Azqir was executed for active proselytisation in Najran\".§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 51) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"Dhu Nuwas (515-25), a Himyarite king, changed the state religion to -> Judaism and began to massacre Christians.\"§REF§(Fahlbusch et al. 2008, 824) Erwin Fahlbusch. Jan Milic Lochman. John Mbiti. Jaroslav Pelikan. Lukas Vischer. Geoffrey W Bomiley. David B Barrett. 2008. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Volume 5. Si-Z. Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Company. Grand Rapids.§REF§ McLaughlin (2007) says \"the last Himyarite king changed it to Judaism and killed thousands of Christians at Najran.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2007, 9) Daniel McLaughlin. 2007. Yemen. Bradt Travel Guides Ltd. Chalfont St Peter.§REF§ Orlin (2016 writes that the process through which Himyar converted to Judaism is unclear - some have speculated that the influence of agents from the Palestinian Jewish community was at work - but the epigraphic proof of a transformation of the public official religion of the state is undeniable.§REF§(Orlin et al. 2016, 424) Eric Orlin. Lisbeth S Fried. Jennifer Wright Knust. Muchael L Satlow. Michael E Pregill. eds. 2016. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Routledge. New York.§REF§<br>An inscription dated to 378 CE claimed \"the completion of buildings by a Himyar monarch had been accomplished 'through the power of their lord of sky and heaven,' and phrases such as 'the owner of the sky and earth,' and the expression 'the Merciful' also were used.§REF§(Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§ It has been suggested that the Himyarite \"profession of monotheism, and later full-fledged Judaism, distanced the Himyarites from the Christianity of the Byzantines and their Ethiopian allies and the Zoroastrianism of the Persians\"§REF§(Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§ so that their strategically located state had an independent or neutral identity. Written sources mention the presence of synagogues in Zafar and Najran.§REF§(Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>_Judaistic_<br>1. King<br>2. Priest3. ?<br>" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Twelver Shi‘ism official faith, established by Ismail.§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§<br>1. The Shah. The shahs claimed the titles of “representatives of the Twelfth Imam of the Shi'ites and to bear the title of Morsed-e-kdmel (the supreme spiritual leader of the Sufi order)” §REF§Mousavi, Mohammad A. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2008):22§REF§<br>2. Mulla Bashi \"a learned person of high repute ... whom many Safavid kings chose as a close companion, who could counsel them on religious matters and read various prayers for them on different occasions.\" §REF§Nasr, Hossein. “Religion in Safavid Persia.” Iranian Studies 7, no. 1/2 (January 1, 1974): 275-276§REF§<br>2. Sadr \"the highest religious office of the land, whose incumbent was chosen directly by the king.\" §REF§Nasr, Hossein. “Religion in Safavid Persia.” Iranian Studies 7, no. 1/2 (January 1, 1974): 275-276§REF§<br>3. \"the chief official religious dignitary (shaikh al-islam) of the bigger cities\". Sadars appointed them \"with the consent of the king\".§REF§Nasr, Hossein. “Religion in Safavid Persia.” Iranian Studies 7, no. 1/2 (January 1, 1974): 275-276§REF§<br>4. Mujtahids. These were clerics outside political power. They gave \"fresh opinions on sacred law\". §REF§Nasr, Hossein. “Religion in Safavid Persia.” Iranian Studies 7, no. 1/2 (January 1, 1974): 275-276§REF§<br>5. Imans - leaders of prayers in the mosques. \"Chosen freely by the members of the religious community itself.\"<br>§REF§Nasr, Hossein. “Religion in Safavid Persia.” Iranian Studies 7, no. 1/2 (January 1, 1974): 275-276§REF§<br>\"chancellery correspondence after 1588 pointed to the Safavid dynasty as the custodian of a complex heritage, which on the one hand recognized ecumenicalism and on the other claimed exclusive divine absolutism and soteriological superiority. This Universalist emphasis was in part inherited from the Turco-Mongol world of the Fourteen and Fifteenth centuries, but we also cannot dismiss the importance of those Universalist empires and world conquerors of the Archaemenian and Sasanian eras represented so faithfully as exemplars in Perso-Islamic literature and art.\"§REF§(Mitchell 2009, 202) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Shamans. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Priest-king?<br>2. Priests appointed by king3. Lesser priests?<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"<br>\"The existence of at least one such temple of the Susian acropolis, known as the Acropole mound ... is attested by a collection of characteristic statueettes of worshippers, some indistinguisable in both form and execution from the ones recovered in Mesopotamian temples.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 5) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, 'the great mother of the gods to the Elamites' and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana.§REF§" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 169, "name": "tr_lysimachus_k", "long_name": "Lysimachus Kingdom", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " At least 2.<br>Similar to Macedonian Empire?<br>For the Macedonian Empire, the king was the chief priest and religious leader. Phillip II believed in \"his special relationship with Zeus, maintained the cult of the Temenid family, and worshipped his his ancestor, Herakles, the son of Zeus.\" §REF§(Gabriel 2010, 21)§REF§ After Alexander III, divine worship of king emerged.§REF§(Christesen and Murray 2010)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 0, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>There are no official hierarchies in Hinduism §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556</a>§REF§. However, some would argue for the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. §REF§G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4§REF§). Based on that viewpoint, it may not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels." }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>_Hinduism_<br>There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556</a>§REF§. However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. §REF§G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4§REF§), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels.<br>_Jainism_<br>NOTE: I have found two equally authoritative sources on Jain hierarchy:<br>(1) §REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319§REF§<br>1. <i>Arihants</i> (ones who have conquered their inner enemies)2. <i>Siddhas</i> (Liberated Ones)3. <i>Acharyas</i> (who head the Order)4. <i>Upadhyays</i> (who teach the message)5. <i>Sadhus</i> (Monks/Seekers)<br>(2) §REF§M. Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka (2006), pp. 269-276§REF§<br>1. Guru (teacher)2. Monks<br>2. Male figure (not specified by author whether a monk) in charge of nuns3. <i>Pravartini</i> or <i>ganini</i> (aides to the male figure in charge of nuns)4. Nuns<br>_Buddhism_<br>\"Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to 'pure' teachings and exemption from 'impure' duties.\" §REF§P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628§REF§." }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " The Seleucid kings (and occasionally the queens) were portrayed as divine beings and so acted as the head of religious order in the empire. The high priests were appointed by the king to be responsible for the temples in territories or satrapies of the empire, which included dealing with the temple high priests (for example, in matters of state funding and provisions).§REF§Wright, N. L. Divine Kings and Sacred Spaces: power and religion in Hellenistic Syria (301-64 BC). Oxford: Archaeopress. pp51-55.§REF§ The local priests include for example the three priests of the shrine to Sarapis and Isis at Laodicea-by-the-Sea, who complained about the number of statues being erected on their land. §REF§Wright, N. L. Divine Kings and Sacred Spaces: power and religion in Hellenistic Syria (301-64 BC). Oxford: Archaeopress. pp145.§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Chief priest3. Temple high priest4. Local or shrine priest" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Hindu temple structure<br>" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " There seems to have been a fusion of Greek polytheism and Buddhist practices in at least some areas of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. There is no good evidence on whether this was made into a formalized practice, or the structure of religious practice.<br>There was a \"Mesopotamian-style temple\" in Ai Khanoum so at least one level can be inferred.§REF§(Mori 2015, 93) Mori, A. in Hose M and Schenker D. 2015. A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons.§REF§<br>\"On the north side of the Oxus (present-day Amu Darya) River a few miles north of the Tajikistan/Afghanistan border and a day's ride west of Ai Khanoum, archaeologists have found a smaller, but no less interesting, 3rd - 2nd century BC Hellenistic-era site: a temple structure known locally as Takht-i-Sangin.<br>The site appeared to be a combination Greek temple and Zoroastian fire temple, reflecting the dual traditions that existed in Bactria during the Hellenistic era.\"§REF§(www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh02-06enl.html)§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "Lavinium was an important religious centre and place of pilgrimage. The Penates, the cult of the ancestral gods was located here. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 66)§REF§ Cult of Vesta and Capitoline Jupiter attested from middle 7th Century.§REF§(Cornell 1995, 102)§REF§ \"The reforms of Servius Tullius, as presented in the literary sources, represented a seismic shift in the organization of Roman society, changing not only how the early Roman army was recruited and equipped, but also the social, politicial, and possibly religious divisions of early Roman society.\"§REF§(Armstrong 2016, 75) Armstrong, Jeremy. 2016. War and Society in Early Rome. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1.King (ritual specialist along with other functions; e.g. Numa noted as founding many Roman ritual practices during Regnal period)<br>public auspices rituals \"formed the basis of regal and then, in the Republic, magisterial power\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 37) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>2. Priest in temple<br>" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§§REF§(Rives 2007)§REF§§REF§(North and Price 2011)§REF§<br>1. Pontifex maximus<br>2. Colleges (flamines, augurs, pontifices, vestals)Three colleges of religious officials. 1. augurs 2. decemviri sacris faciundis 3. pontifices<br>3. high priests of imperial cult in provinces4. priests for a deity (running a specific temple or sanctuary)<br>\"Freelance\" religious officials (soothsayers, oracles, seers, etc). This hierarchy refers to the state religion only.<br>Six Vestals, appointd by pontifex maximus. Girls 6-10 with two living parents served 30 years during which time had to remain chaste. After 30 released and free to marry. Duties included: tend sacred fire and sacred objects \"on which the survival of Rome depended (such as the 'palladium')\"; making salt cakes used at sacrifices; various rituals and ceremonial appearances. Vestals had unique \"old-fashioned and heavy\" costumes and impressive hairstyles \"which other women only wore on their wedding\".<br>\"Because a vestal's person was sacrosanct, she could not be executed. Instead, she was entombed in an underground chamber with a bed, a lamp, and some food and water, and left to die. Male accomplices were publicly flogged to death.\"§REF§(McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The vestal virgins were responsible for maintaining the temple of Vesta and performing the rites of the goddess. They ensured that her holy flame, said to have been brought from Troy, was not extingished.\"§REF§(McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>The vestal virgins had many privileges: \"Wills and treaties were in their keeping, and they themselves could make a will. They could conduct business in their own name. They could give evidence in court without taking an oath. ... If they accidentally met a criminal on his way to execution, he was spared.\"§REF§(McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§; \"any injury to them was punishable by death; they could own and administer their own property ...; when they went out they were preceded by a lictor and had complete right of way on the streets; they could even drive in carriages within the city limits (otherwise only permitted to empresses).\"§REF§(Claridge 1998, 103) Claridge, Amanda. 1998. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§; given prominent seats at games.§REF§(McKeown 2010, 15) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 466, "name": "uz_koktepe_2", "long_name": "Koktepe II", "start_year": -750, "end_year": -550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>No data but distinct religious institutions would have had at least one level of hierarchy. Unlikely to have had much more due to small scale of the polity.<br>\"Reflecting the major social and political development of the region, this monumental architecture is evidence of a strong local state organization. The inner buildings of these courtyards are at present difficult to reconstruct. Although this question has still to be resolved, it would seem that the courtyards of Koktepe housed earlier religious and administrative institutions.\"§REF§(Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.§REF§<br>\"The religious function of the western courtyard has been determined by the presence of a fireplace, the remains of which seem to have been intentionally collected in one of the ruined towers of the main southern gate\"§REF§(Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Caliph<br>\"As the nominal leader of the Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam), the caliph was charged with a variety of tasks, both temporal and spiritual.\"§REF§(Hanne 2007, 22) Hanne, Eric J. 2007. Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press.§REF§<br>2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the muslim world." }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "Isma'ilism was the state religion. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 242)§REF§ Majority of Egyptians were Sunni Muslims.§REF§(Oliver 1977, 12)§REF§ The Ismaili branch of Shi'ite Islam is \"a sect within a sect.\"§REF§(Man 1999) Man, J. 1999. Atlas of the Year 1000. Harvard University Press.§REF§ \"Under this dynasty these were two of the highest positions: the chief justice, termed the judge of judges (qadi al-qudat), was outranked only by the imam and the wazir. The head da'i, the da'i al-du'at, followed immediately below.\"§REF§(Walker 2006, 70) Paul E Walker. 2006. 'The Relationship Between Chief Qadi and Chief Da'i Under The Fatimids' in <i>Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies</i> edited by Gudrun Kramer and Sabine Schmidtke. BRILL.§REF§<br>The Fatimids claimed \"biological and spiritual descent from the Prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and her husband, the first Shia imam and fourth Sunni caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib\" and \"the Fatimids (who also called themselves 'Alawids') challenged the rival caliphate of the Abbasids of Iraq, and asserted that they were the sole legitimate rulers of the Islamic world.\"§REF§(Qutbuddin 2011, 37) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§ The da'wa was a \"unique institution of religiopolitical proselytizing and education\"§REF§(Qutbuddin 2011, 37) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§<br>1. First Imam / Caliph<br>da'wa: international missionary movement, in principle directed by the Fatimid imam in Egypt, but the provincial leaders had virtually complete autonomy. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 242)§REF§<br>\"The Imam \"stood, for the Ismailis, in the very centre of their religious system; it was of overriding importance; on it depended the continuity of institutional religion as well as the personal salvation of the believer. 'Whosoever dies without recognising the Imam of his time, dies a pagan's death' is one of the most often quoted maxims of Ismailism.\"§REF§(Stern 1951, 194) Stern, S. M. 1951. The Succession to the Fatimid Imam al-Amir, the Claims of the Later Fatimids to the Imamate, and the Rise of Tayyibi Ismailism. Oriens. Vol. 4. No. 2. December 31. pp. 193-255.§REF§<br>Commander of the Believers §REF§(Raymond 2000, 35)§REF§<br>2. Chief da'i §REF§(Daftary 2005, 74-75 \"Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies: A Historical Introduction to an Islamic Community\")§REF§closely supervised by the Imam<br>administrative head, appointed provincial da'i and influenced choice of da'i in non-Fatimid territories<br>3. Provincial da'i §REF§(Daftary 2005, 74-75 \"Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies: A Historical Introduction to an Islamic Community\")§REF§in Damascas, Tyre, Acre, Ascalon, Ramla and some rural areas.<br>4. hujja (or naqib, lahiq or yad) in a jazira (region, or \"island\") §REF§(Daftary 2005, 74-75 \"Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies: A Historical Introduction to an Islamic Community\")§REF§\"assisted by a number of subordinate da'is of different ranks operating in the localities under his jurisdiction.\" e.g. China, Byzantium.<br>5. Subordinate da'is §REF§(Daftary 2005, 74-75 \"Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies: A Historical Introduction to an Islamic Community\")§REF§6. al ma'dhun, the licentate §REF§(Daftary 2005, 74-75 \"Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies: A Historical Introduction to an Islamic Community\")§REF§assistant of the subordinate da'i ??<br>There were scholars (e.g. 11th CE al-Baghdadi in Farq bayna 'l-firaq) who alleged the Fatimids, Ismailis and Carmathians \"were all Manichaean dualists, followers of the ancient religion of the Persians to the detriment of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam itself.\"§REF§(Brett 2001) Brett, Michael. 2001. The Rise of the Fatimids. The World of the Mediterranean & the Middle East in the Tenth Century CE. Koninklijke Brill. Leiden.§REF§ However, Brett suggests \"we should probably think in terms of a number of different movements which eventually came together under the leadership of the Fatimids and the rubric of Isma'ilism. ... a world of many doctrines coalescing in the future rather than dividing in the past\".§REF§(Brett 2001, 47) Brett, Michael. 2001. The Rise of the Fatimids. The World of the Mediterranean & the Middle East in the Tenth Century CE. Koninklijke Brill. Leiden.§REF§<br>Provincial da'i in charge of actual provinces within the Caliphate, hujja in charge of regions outside the Caliphate, such as China and Byzantium. EC<br>" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "1. Caliphate<br>2. All Muslims<br>In theory the Caliphate and governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths were not clearly hierarchical as all were theoretically equal before Allah. §REF§Lapidus 2002, p. 82, p. 215§REF§<br>1. Ruler<br>2. Imam" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 49, "name": "id_kediri_k", "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom", "start_year": 1049, "end_year": 1222 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. No firm data, but inferred on the basis of Majapahit. 1) Buddhist and Saivite clergy (sogata); or 1) Vaisnava clergy (wipra); 2) local religious specialists (resi); 3) residential communities of monks (caturdwija); and 3) rural shamans (jangga). §REF§(Hall 1996, 102-111)§REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 163, "name": "tr_konya_lba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>King<br>\"The king himself was not only his kingdom's war leader, but also its supreme judicial authority and chief priest.\"§REF§(Bryce 2007, 11)§REF§<br>Priests SANGA (het. sankunni-). The distinction of priests of the great (SANGA GAL) and priests minor (SANGA TUR) was made.§REF§Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 206, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259§REF§<br>Eg. priest GUDU, priestess \"lady of daity\" (EREŚ.DINGER), priestess \"mother of God\" (AMA DINGIR).§REF§Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 207, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259§REF§<br>Different priests (eg. priest <i>tazzeli</i>, priest <i>hamina-</i>).§REF§Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 207, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " No more than 1 level. Does not have to be professional to have levels.<br>The introduction of professional priesthood occurred during the New Kingdom §REF§Doxey, D. M. 2001. \"Priesthood\". [in:] Redford, D. B. [ed.]. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pg: 77.§REF§ As there is no professional priesthood in the Dynastic Egypt up to New Kingdom it seems improbable that this institution existed in the predynastic times§REF§Doxey D. M. 2001. \"Priesthood\".[in;] Redford, D. B. [ed.]. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford:Oxford University Press. pg: 77.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "In theory the Caliphate and governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths were not clearly hierarchical as all were theoretically equal before Allah. The period also saw the rise of the religious sects. §REF§(Lapidus 2002, 82, 215)§REF§<br>1. Caliph as head of the Sunni Muslim Umma.<br>2. Imams: successors of the prophet and leaders of the Muslim world.<br>" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 365, "name": "ye_warlords", "long_name": "Yemen - Era of Warlords", "start_year": 1038, "end_year": 1174 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Sulayhids: \"'Ali and al-Mukarram had been, by appointment of the Fatimid caliph, commanders of their armed forces, chiefs of the civil administration, and heads of the state religion.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 69) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>Fatimid Egypt: \"an autonomous da'wa was set up under the Sulayhid sovereigns.\"§REF§(Hamdani 2006, 776-777) Hamdani, Abbas. Sulayhids. Josef W Meri ed. 2006. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1, A - K, Index. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br>1. Da'i.<br>\"The term as it had applied to Mansur al-Yaman and 'Ali al-Sulayhi implied the concentration in one person of all powers, spiritual and temporal, exercised in the name of the Fatimids. The title was now becoming diluted, and prominent members of several governing families bore it\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 71-72) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>2. al-hujjaQueen Arwa of the Sulayhids conducted missionary efforts with the title al-hujja \"a rank in the Fatimid hierarchy second only to that of da'i and to that of the caliph's chief doorkeeper.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 72) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>34.\"a specialized professional class, the ulama, grew up to preserve, perfect, and administer\" the Islamic jurisprudence.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 58) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>\"In eleventh-century Yemen the ulama fostered a modicum of social integration which might not otherwise have existed in the absence of central political authority, and where local power was the object of chronic contention among petty notables.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 59) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>Sulayhids were founded by a Sunni of the Shafi'i rite who was taught Ismaili doctrine as a boy.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 59) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§ <i>Fatimids were Shia?</i><br>Ali al-Sulayhi led the pligrimage to Mecca between 1031-1046 CE. In 1046 CE obtained permission from Fatimids to create a regime in Yemen.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 60) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "1. Master<br>2. Disciple<br>‘Honen and, especially, Shinran present interesting cases in the problems of institutional development in the Kamakura schools. Both of them preached a form of salvation requiring total reliance on the power of Amida Buddha and complete denial of self. Implicit in that view is the repudiation of any qualitative difference between teacher and follower and, by logical extension, the rejection of the hierarchy necessary for setting up a religious organization. This attitude is exhibited in its purest form in Shinran's assertion, preserved in the Tannisho, that he was on the same plane with other believers and that he shared with them the same faith. The resistance to formal religious organization intimated in Shinran's statement was one of Kamakura Buddhism's revolutionary characteristics. Notwithstanding these antiorganizational inclinations, religious bodies did take shape, with the Kamakura originators at their center. This process of formation is seen in the examples of Honen and Shinran alike. They themselves functioned as guides and advisers in matters of religious faith but around them revolved a great number of organizers and proselytizers.'<br>'Because specialized training and understanding are part of Zen, it is impossible for ordinary members of the organization to stand above the teacher or master.'§REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.573§REF§<br>The following is also worth noting: 'With the exception of Zen in the early period, particularly the Soto Zen school of Dogen, all the schools of Kamakura Buddhism actively proselytized among lay people. Hence, as the religious organizations gained greater structure, groups of believers had considerable say in the school's operation. The clerical organizers of the schools functioned primarily as leaders of ritual and religious practice, but the people who oversaw the organization's economic affairs were often lay adherents. Through their combined efforts the Kamakura schools gained a high degree of institutional stability, though the power and vitality of their teachings were sometimes diluted by institutional concerns.'§REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.578§REF§<br>'Shinran taught that all people are equal in the sight of Amida Buddha. He was critical of the clerical ideal that existed in the established Buddhist schools, and he described himself as neither priest nor layman. Because of this outlook, the Shinshu religious organization, during its formative period at least, consisted of nothing more than individual congregations. In congregational dojo there was no great difference between dojo leaders and ordinary believers, in either intellectual capacity or economic means. But this idyllic period of Shinran's school did not last long, for a master-disciple relationship gradually evolved between the dojo head and the average adherent.'§REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.578-579§REF§<br>'˜Details of the early gozan network are unclear, but the surviving records indicate that the Hojo regents in Kamakura took the initiative in honoring and regulating the new Zen monasteries that they were building, by adopting the Southern Sung practice of organizing an official three-tiered hierarchy of Zen monasteries.'§REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.598§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Shang worshipped the \"Shang Di,\" who was the supreme god that ruled over the lesser gods of the sun, the moon, the wind, the rain, and other natural forces and places. They also worshipped their ancestors because they believed that although their ancestors lived in heaven after their death, they were still actively involved in the affairs of family and descendants.\"§REF§(The Shang Dynasty, 1600 to 1050 BCE. Spice Digest, Fall 2007. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf</a>)§REF§<br>1.King.2. Chief diviners.3. Lesser diviners (e.g. scribes).<br>Theocracy. King considered god called Di's representative on earth. His responsibility was to ensure harmony between the \"cosmic cycle of the seasons and the agricultural cycle of humanity.\"<br>Ritual functions included fixing the timetable for farming activities through divination. To help him he had colleges of soothsayers and scribes who carried out royal divination activities. Scapulimancy and plastromancy were practised.<br>Sacrifices were made to dead kings (ancestral worship cult) who were thought to be able to communicate with Di. §REF§(Gernet 1996,47)§REF§§REF§(Kerr 2013, 21)§REF§§REF§(Gernet 1996, 47)§REF§§REF§(Hook 1991, 143)§REF§§REF§(Roberts 2003)§REF§§REF§(Fussati 1982, 19)§REF§§REF§(Kerr 2013, 21)§REF§" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "\"Though the Delhi Sultans ruled independently in India, they perceived themselves to be part of the Islamic world that operated through the Caliphate of Baghdad. ... Most of the sultans included the name of the caliph in their khubta of Friday sermon, on the coins that they issued, and in the titles they assumed, which were all symptomatic of their humility to the caliph.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 96) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>1. Caliph<br>\"owed only nominal allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphs\".§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 97) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>1. Sultan<br>2. Advisory Council\"Since the sultans were expected to enforce the law of the Shariah, they were also obliged to take the opinion of the ulema.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 97) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>2. Sadr-u's-sudur (minister of theological affairs).The Sadr-u's-sudur was a highly venerated official who not only enjoyed great prestige but also exercised much power. The offices of qadi-i-mumalik and sadr-u's-sudur were given to the same men because offices of a religious and legal nature were often concentrated in the hands of single individuals in the empire. §REF§Qureshi, I. H. (1971). The administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (p. 93). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal, pp.175-176.§REF§ He was officially presided over the ahl-i-qalam (men of pen). §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp.246.§REF§<br>3. Khatib - u'l - khutaba.Subordinate to the Sadr-u's-sudur. \"A preacher of exceptional eloquence .. as leader of the diwan - i - risalat, he appointed the religion preachers and imans to lead prayers and manage the mosques the realm.\" §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp.246.§REF§ He was officially presided over the ahl-i-qalam (men of pen). §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp.246.§REF§<br>4. Shaikh-u'l-Islam. The large number of sufis and faqirs under the patronage of the state were under a shaikh-u'l-Islam. Probably administration of hospices and tombs of saints and kings ultimately rested in the hands of shaikh-u'l-Islam, because in many cases derwishes were included among the beneficiaries. §REF§(original source: Minhaj, Fawa'id-u'l-fuwad, p.67) Qureshi, I. H. (1971). The administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (p. 93). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 190-191.§REF§<br>4. Qadi.The provincial qadis (judges) also acted as sadrs in their respective areas. §REF§Qureshi, I. H. (1971). The administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (p. 93). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 176.§REF§<br>5. Imam.Imams led prayers and managed the mosques of the realm. They were generally trained at a college in theology. §REF§Qureshi, I. H. (1971). The administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (p. 93). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 175.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "1. Emperor2. Upper level of ritual specialists <i>inferred</i>3. Lower level of ritual specialists <i>inferred</i><br>Emperor was high priest. §REF§(Kerr 2013, 39)§REF§<br>Eclectic mix of ancestor worship, sorcery, Daoism, polytheism §REF§(Theobald 2000f)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Retained estimate from previous periods.<br>Temples existed in this period.§REF§(Potts 2016, 231) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, 'the great mother of the gods to the Elamites' and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana.§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>No data. This is the estimate for the early periods and temples existed in this period e.g. temple of Ishmekarab in Apadana§REF§Hinz 1971, 262§REF§§REF§Potts 1999, 172§REF§<br>\"During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, 'the great mother of the gods to the Elamites' and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana.§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Paganism.<br>1. King<br>\"Their religion is paganism and the worship of idols. When their king dies they construct over the place where his tomb will be an enormous dome of acacia wood.\"§REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 16)§REF§<br>2. Sorcerers\"In the king's town and not far from his court of justice, is a mosque where the Muslims who arrive at his court pray. Around the king's town are domed buildings and groves and thickets where the sorcerers of these people, men in charge of the religious cult, live.\"§REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 15)§REF§<br> ?. Heads of clans\"the basic social and political unit appears in the past to have been the small local group, bound together by ties of kinship. When a number of groups came together they formed a clan. The heads of local clans were usually responsible for certain religious rites connected with the land.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 53)§REF§<br><br>Not Islamic until end of polity<br>\"In former times the people of this country professed paganism until the year 469/1076-1077 when Yahya b. Abu Bakr the amir of Masufa made his appearance.\"§REF§(Al-Zuhri c1130-1155 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 24-25)§REF§<br>\"In Ghana king and commoners remained loyal to their ancestral religion.\" §REF§(Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 10)§REF§<br>\"For the sake of administrative support, legitimization, and commercial contacts, the rulers of Kawkaw, Takrur, Ghana, and Bornu adopted Islam in the late tenth and eleventh centuries. Islam became an imperial cult and the religion of state and trading elites, while the agricultural populations maintained their traditional beliefs.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 590)§REF§<br>Islam in Kumbi-Saleh<br>\"mosques and religious functionaries including imams, muezzins, Quran reciters, and scholars. The Muslims provided the ruler with interpreters and officials.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 591)§REF§<br>King was supreme judge<br>\"Au sommet de l’Etat, on a le roi; on le designe sous plusieurs appellations Kaya Maghan qui signifie roi de l’or en langue Ouakare, Tounka qui veut dire Seigneur ou Dieu. Ses pouvoirs etaient tres etendus: il etait le juge supreme. Il rendait la justice en tenant compte de l’appartenance religieuse. Ses sujets qui dans l’ensemble appartenaient à la religion traditionnelle etaient juges selon la coutume,les musulmans, eux, l’etaient sur la base du Coran.\" <i>At the top of the state, was the King; means the under several names \"Kaya Maghan\" meaning gold king in language Ouakaré \"Tounka\" meaning Lord or God. His powers were very extensive: he was the supreme judge. He dispensed justice in the light of religious affiliation. His subjects in all belonged to the traditional religion were judged according to custom, Muslims, themselves, were based on the Koran.</i>§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Same as earlier period as no new information to code higher.<br>" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "Official cult of Amun established c780-760 BCE under Alara, whose sister was made a priestess. §REF§(Török 1997, 144)§REF§ High priests.§REF§(Török 1997, 179)§REF§<br>Temples were centres of territorial administration. §REF§(Török 1997, 171)§REF§<br>Peye claimed divine legitimacy, as written on one Stele: “Amon of Napata has made me sovereign over every people.” §REF§(Mokhtar ed. 1981, 280)§REF§<br>Priests of temple of Amum had “enormous influence.” §REF§(Mokhtar ed. 1981, 318)§REF§<br>\"The highest ranks in the priestly offices of Thebes were those of Gods' Wife of Amun and the High Priest (First Prophet) of Amun.\" \"Of the other major priesthoods of Amun at Thebes some, such as that of Second Prophet,\" seem to have 'gaps' in the recorded holders.\" There was also a rank of Third Prophet and Fourth Prophet. §REF§(Morkot 2013, 962)§REF§<br>1. King?2. Gods' Wife of Amun3. High Priest or First Prophet of Amun4. Second Prophet5. Third Prophet6. Fourth Prophet<br>... ? ...... ? ...<br>\"A cult that may be specifically Twenty-fifth Dynasty in date is that of the Wadjty, the Two Serpent Goddesses: this may be connected with the two cobras worn by the Kushite kings. The priests of this cult also carry the title \"Royal Friend,\" suggesting a close connection with the kingship.\"§REF§(Morkot 2014, 11) Morkot, Robert G. Thebes under the Kushites. in Pischikova, Elena. ed. 2014. Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. American University in Cairo Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": "The city of Balkh had about 100 Buddhist monasteries and some 3,000 monks. Outside the town was a large Buddhist monastery, although this description occurs after the area had been conquered by the Turks. Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, a Sun cult and some kind of sky and fire worship are also attested. However, we have no information as to what the Hepthalites practiced, and whether this had a hierarchical structure. §REF§Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia pp. 150-151§REF§<br>\"There is some evidence that Buddhism was practices in some of the territories held by the Hephthalites; however, some contemporary authors also wrote of the persecution of Buddhists. There are references to sacred fire, which indicates at least some familiarity with Zoroastrianism. However, because Hephthalite graves have been found, not all aspects of Zoroastrianism would have been practiced, since the funerary ritual of this religion, entailed leaving the body in the open to be devoured by sacred birds and dogs. As was the case with language religion was probably another area in which the Hephthalites constituted a multicultural society\".§REF§(West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Palmer 1992)§REF§<br>1. Sultan<br>Suleiman I called himself \"caliph of all the Muslims in the world\" §REF§(Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 20) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction' in <i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire. Volume One: 1300-1600</i> edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>2. Chief Mufticalled seyhulislam. Part of the ulema religious establishment.<br>3. Inner Circlecalled ilmiye. Part of the ulema religious establishment.<br>4. Imams<br>\"The population of the Empire was heterogenous in religion, language and social structure. As the Faith of the sultans and of the ruling elite, Islam was the dominant religion, but the Greek and Armenian Orthodox Churches retained an important place within the political structure of the Empire, and ministered to large Christian populations which, in many areas, outnumbered Muslims.\" There were also Jews (especially after expelled from Spain 1492), Maronites and Druzes.§REF§(Imber 2002, 1-2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Elite ancestor cult. Worship of Sun as state religion. akllawasi+ from Inca Roq'a* §REF§(Covey 2006a, 118)§REF§ +(House of the Cloistered Women) *c1350 CE<br>Religious hierarchy §REF§(Covey 2006a, 119)§REF§<br>1. Priests at principal temple (Coricancha)<br>2. Local level state priests<br>The title intip churin (Son of the Sun) was added to paramount qhapaq/capac title during the imperial period. §REF§(Covey 2006a, 119)§REF§<br>Each ayllu attended to their own mortuary shrines. §REF§(Andrushko 2007, 12)§REF§<br>Cieza de León (1985, p. 117 [c. 1550] Chapter 34) notes that Qhapaq Yupanki began to take women from conquered territories to serve a new state religion involving veneration of the Sun, and Sarmiento de Gamboa (1965, p. 223 [1572 Chapter 18]) mentions that he also delegated religious authority by naming an older brother, Kunti Mayta, as high priest of the cult. §REF§(Covey 2003, 352)§REF§ : delegation of religious authority to the Inca's relatives, and establishment of religious orders.<br>" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 492, "name": "ir_susa_1", "long_name": "Susa I", "start_year": -4300, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. At Susa \"sealings show ceremonies in which a number of individuals perform (fig. 15.8h-j). The latter examples are especially interesting in that they also show dress and the use of beakers and bowls like those found in the cemetery (fig. 15.8i-j). More importantly, they also show hierarchical relations among participants with principal figures flanked by smaller attendants.\"§REF§(Hole 2006, 234) Hole, Frank in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§. Cameron Petrie: \"almost everything is speculative and based on almost no evidence\"§REF§Email from Cameron Petrie to Pat Savage 5 Sep 2017§REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "\"many religions flourished within the Parthian empire; in addition to Judaism, various Hellenistic, Babylonian, and other cults were observed in the cities of Dura, Palmyra, and elsewhere. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the Good Religion of the Mazdayasnians continued to be cultivated. Though Zoroastrianism as we know it from Sasanid times may have taken shape in the Arsacid period, we have no way to trade its developent. In general, the Parthians were as flexible and tolerant in religious matters as they were in politics and, at best, in Frye's judgment, we may speak of a 'general Mazdayasnian religious predominace,' within which were many subdivisions and even aberrations. Nonetheless, the dominant influence in Parthian religion was that of the Magi, who were, as in later periods, in charge of formal rites and cultic acitivities, though their influence on the religions of the Babylonian area was limited by the existence of powerful competing traditions.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 19) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>_Mazdayasnianism_<br>_Zoroastrianism_<br>\"... the part played by Zoroastrianism in the Parthian state has not been entirely clarified.\" §REF§Lukonin, V.G., ‘Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol. III, P.713.§REF§<br>1. Chief priest<br>2. Priest3. ?<br>_Christianity_<br>Religions and full-time religious professionals were present within the Parthian realm including Christian bishops.§REF§(Raschke 1976, 824) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter.§REF§ Can we code for Christian church?<br>1. ?<br>2. Bishop3. ?<br>_Mithraism_<br>Cult of Mithra spread from the Parthian Empire to Rome (originated in India? bronze age?). \"Contrary to other religions of the same type, such as the cults of Isis and Osiris, Serapis, Dionysus (all well-known examples), Mithraicism eschewed any external manifestations and depended only on its initiatory nature to recruit its followers. ... it gradually became a common faith for soldiers, civil servants, merchants ... The members joined a spirituality of an initiatory type ... shared with a large group of solar faiths ... that promised both a life near to the deity and a personal redemption.\"§REF§(Decharneux (2004, 94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"From the end of the first century B.C.E. we have evidence of a cult coming from the East and gradually and discretely conquering the Roman army and administration (Daniels). This god, previously unknown to the Romans, was called Mithra. Some historians believe (see Plutarch, Pomp. 24.7) that the notorius Cilician pirates defeated by Pompeius propagated this cult when deported in Calabria. We now believe that it was a late transformation of the god Mithra, the friendly protector of contracts .... and defender of true and just causes.\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 93) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"We must also stress that this god retained, in his manifestation in the Roman Empire, his essential characteristics of friend and guardian of contracts.\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 93-94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>In Rome \"Mithra probably won over even the imperial house. We are wary about the well-known initiation of the emperor Nero to the mysteries of the Magi through Tiridates (see Turcan 1989:237). However, it seems that the emperor Commodus (192) was an unworthy adept of the mysteries, because he was suspected of having killed a fellow-adept during a ceremony simulating a ritual sacrifice. The imperial house had a much worthier adept in Diocletian and his colleagues of the Tetrarchy: Galerius and Licinius. The god is then called the fautor imperii sui, the \"protector of the imperial power\" (Inscription of Carnuntum in 307).\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§ <i>Mithracism was very successful in the Parthian Empire.</i><br>Mithracism: \"on the social level people learned, in the 'Persic Cavern', to respect the contract linking the human being to the cosmos and to the gods, and then, at least in an implicit way, to respect the emperors, who were divine beings, as intermediaries between the sky and the earth. The faithfulness to a vivifying cosmic order was thus accompanied by faithfulness to the one representing this order on earth. It is not surprising, then, that Mithra was invoked as Jupiter Dolichenus for the salvation of the emperor. In time, a cult ascribed to the enemies gets mixed up with the worship of the protecting gods of Rome!\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": "Would be at least one level.<br>Din-e Ilahi, religion of the empire from 1582 CE to 1605 CE, had no priestly hierarchy or sacred scriptures. §REF§Dr.Sunita Gupta, Children's Knowledge Bank, Pustak Mahal.§REF§<br>Islam (which both proceeded and succeeded Din-e Ilahi) similarly has no hierarchy, although there are Shaikh, Olama or Imam's who are seen as spiritual teachers and leaders. §REF§<a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.onislam.net/english/ask-the-scholar/shariah-based-systems/178241.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">Link</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 496, "name": "ir_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period", "start_year": -2028, "end_year": -1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>No data. This is the estimate for the early periods and temples existed in this period e.g. temple of Shilkhak-In-Shushinak§REF§Hinz 1971, 659§REF§<br>\"During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, 'the great mother of the gods to the Elamites' and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana.§REF§" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Khagan as high priest<br>2. Ordinary shaman<br>\"At the top, the kaghan ruled by heavenly mandate (kut), embodying and demonstrating heaven’s favor through successful performance of his functions as ruler.77 Prominent among these were ritual functions with shamanic overtones. The kaghan had to maintain control of Mount Ötüken and perform ancestral rites at the sacred sites there.\" §REF§(Findley 2005, 43)§REF§<br>\"Türk religious life, not extensively documented, was based on an ancient complex of beliefs widespread in Inner Asia.84 The term “shamanism,” although conventional, is a misleading name for this belief system. Shamans, male and female, served as religious specialists, who could communicate with the spirit world. They were called on, however, only for exceptional reli- gious or medical needs, not for routine religious practice. Their ability, real or reputed, to divine the future or conjure up storms on the battlefield made their services especially significant for rulers. However, the heroic, ecstatic quest that transformed an individual from sickness and alienation through initiation into a shaman capable of performing such wonders little resembled his or her neighbors’ usual religious observance.\" §REF§(Findley 2005, 45-47)§REF§<br>\"If there was a difference in spiritual emphases between dynast and ordinary nomad, it took the form of the greater devotion to Tengri, the supreme deity, in the politicized state cult, with the kaghan as high priest.\" §REF§(Findley 2005, 48)§REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "<br>Ulama - religious scholars §REF§(Dols 1977, 153)§REF§<br>1. Sultan<br>2. Ulama3. Imams(4. ?)<br>" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>_Daoism_<br>\"Organized religion emerged in Daoism with the founding of its first church - the Wudoumidao (the Way of Five Pecks of Rice) or Tianshidao (the Way of the Celestial Masters) - in Sichuan in Eastern Han in the early second century AD. In the Six Dynasties period, Tianshidao still existed, but there was no clear line of transmission, In the north, Kou Qianzhi of Northern Wei, as a self-claimed successor to Tianshidao, made a forceful effort to promote Daoism at court.\" §REF§(Xiong 2009, 111)§REF§<br>1. Celestial Master<br>There was a Celestial Master at Pingcheng.§REF§(Xiong 2009, xcix)§REF§<br>It was \"standard practice\" for new emperors to take part in a \"Daoist ritual to receive talisman registers.\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, c)§REF§<br>2. ?<br>_Buddhism_<br>\"After its official entry in the Han, Buddhism came to dominate both north and south China during the Six Dynasties period.\" §REF§(Xiong 2009, 68)§REF§<br>1. Emperor (from 460 CE)<br>\"Adopting Confucianism as the state religion was not acceptable to many nobles of the Northern Wei royal lineage, who took pride in their steppe traditions, nor was it appealing to their Chinese subjects. Buddhism was the obvious choice. From 460 on, the Northern Wei emperor began to have huge statues of the Buddha carved near the capital, Pingcheng (present-day Yungang, in the northern part of present Shanxi Province. Those statues, monuments marking the eastern end of the Silk Road, represented the reincarnations of the current and former rulers of the Northern Wei. Through these carvings, the Northern Wei emperors declared themselves the representatives of the Buddha and therefore the legitimate rulers of China.\"§REF§(Liu 77, 2010) Xinru Liu. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>2. ?<br>_Confucianism_<br>Construction of Confucian temple late fifth century, Empress Dowager and Xiaowen. §REF§(Holcombe 2011, 66-67)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": "There were many different sizes/classes of temples and a multi-level prestige hierarchy. However, a prestige hierarchy does not represent hierarchical levels of authority within a religious organization. The code therefore might look like this \"5 King, 4 High Priest of Ptah of Memphis, 3 regional chief priest, 2 Lector Priest, 1 Wab priest\" but in fact these were only titles; the lower ranked priests were independent and did not take orders from those higher in rank. Since this code does not code prestige hierarchy only hierarchical levels of authority we code 1.<br>Certain priesthoods, e.g. the High Priest of Ptah at Memphis, exerted considerable political influence. Functioned as a virtual centralized priesthood in Egypt; several of the synodal meetings of priests from throughout Egypt met at Memphis, from which emanated the trilingual decrees, e.g. the Rosetta Stone. These priests were closely associated with the priests at Letopolis. See D. Thompson, Memphis under the Ptolemies. 2d. ed. Princeton, 2012.<br>The dynastic cult was founded by Ptolemy II. The annually selected priesthoods of the cult were based in Alexandria, and later also in the southern capital at Ptolemais. Within the dynastic cult there is not much of a hierarchy as there is not a command structure. The Egyptian cults are completely separated. Here each temple functions autonomously. There is a clear hierarchy within each temple.<br>Alexandria: \"In the religious sphere, there is evidence - as Arrian observed (3.1.5) - for the worship of the Olympian and other Greek gods, as well as the \"Egyptian\" gods, especially Sarapis. Of the Olympian gods, the worship of Dionysos, Demeter, and Aphrodite in particular received royal support. There is also evidence for a founder cult of Alexander and a (dynastic) cult of Alexander and the Ptolemies. The priests of the latter were eponymous priests. In addition, we know of, among other things, cults of individual dynastic members, such as that of Ptolemy Soter (the Ptolemaieia), Berenike (a temple - the Berenikeion), Ptolemy Soter and Berenike (the \"Theoi Soteres\"), Arsinoe Philadelphos (the Arsinoeia), Ptolemy Philadelphos and Arsinoe (the \"Theoi Adelphoi\"), and the commemoration of Philadelphos's birthday (the Basileia). Although evidence is sparse, it is clear that - as was usual in Greek festivals - competitions and processions were an important part of the various cults. The best attested is, of course, the great procession of Ptolemy Philadelphos.\" §REF§(Cohen 2006, 358)§REF§<br>At Ptolemais in the Thebaid \"evidence for the worship of Zeus (OGIS 103), Dionysos (OGIS 51), and Isis (OGIS 52).\" §REF§(Cohen 2006, 350)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 7, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "1. Pope<br>Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>1. Patriarch of Constantinople<br>\"Patriarchs were elected by the standing synod in Constantinople, which presented three names to the emperor. He was entitled to choose one of these, or, if unable to accept any of the candidates, to choose the new patriarch himself.\" §REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Five Patriarchs (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem).<br>2. Metropolitans and archbishops\"the term 'bishop' applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the 'ecumenical' patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The title 'archbishop' emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>\"Chorepiskopoi (literally 'country bishops') were assigned to rural communities and were subject to a bishop in a nearby city.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"After the fourth century, the powers and functions of chorepiskopoi were gradually restricted and they were allowed only to ordain clerics of the lower orders. After the second Council of Nicaea (787) which prohibited them from ordaining even readers (anagnostai) without episcopal assent (canon 14), this separate episcopal rank began to disappear (Jugie 1904).\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Priest\"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deacon\"Deacon (diakonos, 'servant')\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 530) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese's finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Deaconess (diakonissa)Become more and more rare, would be of equal rank as deacon.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>\"The deaconess's chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>5. Subdeacon\"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>6. Reader (anagnostesj\"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>7. Minor orders\"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes.\"§REF§(Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " Al-Azhar and local mosques.<br>Shafi'i school of religious law. The return of Egypt's rulers to Sunni orthodoxy constituted an event of considerable importance. The Ismailis, despite their long rule, had failed to impart their faith to the mass of the Egyptian population. Saladin and his successors addressed the task of making Egypt once more a center of orthodox belief (Raymond, 2000, p. 80).<br>EWA: Religious: Sultan, Imams [this is the shorter chain of command]<br>Alternative religious 4: Sultan, Chief Sufi Priest, Sheikh, minor sufi religious specialists [this is the longer chain of command and therefore the one we code]<br>1. Sultan<br>2. Chief Sufi priest3. Sheikh4. Minor Sufi religious specialist (local priest?)<br>Judiciary religious 5: Sultan, Supreme supreme judge, supreme judge, judge, clerks [we decided not to include this]<br>Hierarchical structure is largely irrelevant to Sunni Islam with its four Madhhabs.Estimated 3000 clergy in Saladin's Empire, 600 in Damascus. §REF§(Humphreys 1977, 24)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>At time of Concordat of Worms (1122 CE). \"Now the clergy were organized in a hierarchical line under the direction of the pope, who could trump the power of local custom, tradition, and even episcopal power. Below the pope stood the bishop. Responsible for maintaining clerical discipline and for overseeing the property of the church, he was answerable only to the pope. Only he could perform all the sacraments; he alone performed the sacrament of confirmation and by the sacrament of ordination passed on his power to others. Theoretically, canon law held that he would be elected by the clergy and people of his diocese. In practice, he was elected only by the canon priests attached to the cathedral. Considered high clergy, the canons aided the bishop in furthering his agenda, administering the diocese and performing rituals at the cathedral church. At their head was the dean, the highest officer in the diocese. A diocesian chancellor supervised the cathedral school and issued licenses allowing clerics to teach and preach in the diocese. A treasurer oversaw finances, while a precentor managed the choir and organized the cathedral's musical program. Each diocese was divided into administrative districts, over which presided the archdeacons. Practically, these were powerful men; they were the bishop's legates, charged with enforcing discipline among the lower clergy, and therefore they were often quite unpopular. ... The parish priests were answerable to them.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 144-145)§REF§<br>1. Pope<br>From Innocent III, title \"Vicar for Christ\" became standard. §REF§(Moore 2003, 29)§REF§<br>\"the prestige of the papacy grew steadily in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Popes were now without doubt the heads of the churches and the entire body of Christians, called Christendom (Christianitas). More and more, Christians felt a primary allegiance to this supranational, supernatural corporate body, an allegiance that, many came to feel, superseded their fidelity and obligations to local or regional communities.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 145)§REF§<br>2. Archdeacon, of a dianocal collegeArchdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§ Following the 1059 decree <i>Decretum in Nomine Domini</i>, only cardinals could elect a new pope.§REF§di Carpegna Falconieri, 65§REF§. Furthermore, only cardinals could become popes. Silvester IV (1105-1111), an anti-pope, was the last pope who was not a cardinal before his elevation.§REF§di Carpegna Falconieri, 64§REF§ College of cardinals. §REF§(Kleinhenz 2004, 853)§REF§<br>3. Deacons, of a dianocal collegeThere were seven regional deacons of Rome.§REF§(Richards 1979, 293)§REF§<br>4. Subdeacon, of a college of subdeaconsThere was a college of subdeacons.§REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§ Regionary sub-deacons.§REF§(Partner 1972, 1)§REF§<br>5. AcolytesRome's ecclesiastical structure contained a diaconal college with seven regional deacons of Rome, possessing in turn a staff of subdeacons and acolytes. These subdeacons dealt with property and relief for poor. The number increased as responsibilities of Papacy increased. 19 by Gregory I.§REF§(Richards 1979, 293)§REF§<br>2. Archpriest, of a collegePapal administration was collegiate: priests formed a college, headed by the archpriest, which was less important than dianocal college headed by archdeacon. Archdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>3. Priests, of a college<br>2. Metropolitan\"Santiago was in 1120 made a metropolitan see by the pope.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 333)§REF§<br>Metropolitan had authority over a province §REF§(Madigan 2015, 14)§REF§<br>3. Bishops in diocese<br>\"the slow monopolization of ecclesiastical benefices by papal provision, from the highest (archbishoprics) to the lowest (cures for village churches).\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 295)§REF§<br>4. Dean<br>5. Canon priests attached to cathedral<br>5. Diocesian chancellor<br>6. Diocesian clergy\"After 2015 ... cathedral chancellors were required to furnish their diocesan clergy with some instruction in theology.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 310)§REF§<br>5. Treasurer<br>5. Precenter<br>4. Archdeacons of administrative districts<br>5. Priests in ParishThere were multiple parishes in each episcopal diocese, and dozens or hundreds in larger dioceses such as the city of Rome.<br>\"by the year 1000 it was the priest who really emerged as the religious and even educational leader of the local church.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 83)§REF§<br>\"the slow monopolization of ecclesiastical benefices by papal provision, from the highest (archbishoprics) to the lowest (cures for village churches).\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 295)§REF§" } ] }