Religious Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Religious Levels.
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{ "count": 446, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/religious-levels/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/religious-levels/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 28, "name": "us_cahokia_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Sand Prairie", "start_year": 1275, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"At Cahokia there may have been no difference between the religious and political hierarchy. They were interlocked, impossible to disentangle.\"§REF§(Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 23)§REF§<br>1. Chief / Priest<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"The central administrative complex represents the core of the Cahokian polity. The location of ridgetop mounds within this area may equate with kin groupings or other administrative units. East St. Louis, being newer, may have been a higher status community of isolated elites.\"§REF§(Peregrine/Emerson 2014, 14)§REF§<br>At Mound 72 \"Analysis of the skeletal remains shows that certain burial groups were of higher status than others and that some may have come prom places other than Cahokia.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2010, 82)§REF§<br>\"Ridge top mounds may also reflect ritual performances or “tableaus” associated with these mound and plaza complexes. In this control of ritual activity there may have also have been specialists in maintaining and performing specific rituals at various community levels.\"§REF§(Kelly 2014, 22)§REF§<br><br>2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest?<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"The answers provided by the working group seem to point to Cahokia being an urban settlement that was the center of a regional government, but the picture is not entirely clear.\" §REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"Regional political integration appears to have been an essentially ritual one; that is, the site hierarchy that is present appears to be more of a hierarchy of ritual spaces than of political jurisdictions.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia was also the center of a regional government of some kind, at least for a short period of time.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"mound complexes may have been organized around sodalities rather than around kin groups. Perhaps these sodalities were secret societies\"§REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"Mound and plaza groups may represent corporate (perhaps kin-based) political and<br>ritual complexes, each of which would have been maintained by their own administrativespecialists or generalized leader.\"§REF§(Kelly 2014, 22)§REF§<br>\"priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br><br>3. Elder / Religious functionary<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"lower-level religious functionaries\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 27, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"At Cahokia there may have been no difference between the religious and political hierarchy. They were interlocked, impossible to disentangle.\"§REF§(Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 23)§REF§<br>1. Chief / Priest<br>In the Emergent Mississippian period: \"perhaps the appearance of chiefs\" §REF§(Iseminger 2010, 26)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>2. Elder / Religious functionary<br>kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 29, "name": "us_oneota", "long_name": "Oneota", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1650 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Part-time shamans §REF§G. Gibbon, Oneota, in P. Peregrine, M. Ember and Human Relations Area Files, Inc. (eds.) Encyclopedia of Prehistory: Volume 6: North America (2001), pp. 389-407§REF§." }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 469, "name": "uz_janid_dyn", "long_name": "Khanate of Bukhara", "start_year": 1599, "end_year": 1747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1. Khan?)<br>2. Ulama (high clergy)<br>3. Imams<br>\"The ruling class included members of the ulama, (high clergy). Some of these were considered the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, which allowed them to claim the honorary title of sayyid and seek a high status accordingly. Another group of privileged individuals, calling themselves khwa ̄ja, claimed to be descended from one of the four immediate successors of Muhammad.\" §REF§(Mukminova 2003, 53)§REF§" }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 464, "name": "uz_koktepe_1", "long_name": "Koktepe I", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels." }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Zoroastrianism in Bukhara. Zoroastrianism, Nestorian Christianity, Buddhism, and other religions still in existence until the ninth century.§REF§(Hanks 2010, 5) Hanks, R R. 2010. Global Security Watch-Central Asia. ABC-CLIO.§REF§" }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 541, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(3) Zaydi imams; (2) Other sayyids and scholars; (1) Local preachers<br>Most Yemenis were Muslims: 'Islam is the major force that unifies Yemenis across social, sexual, and regional boundaries. Yet most adherents of the different schools of Islam reside in distinct sections of the country, and this fact has certain political implications. Zaydis, who belong to the Shia subsect of Islam, are located in the northern and eastern parts of Yemen, whereas Shafis, orthodox Sunnis, live in the southern and coastal regions. Location in the highlands apparently enables Zaydis more successfully to repel invasions than Shafis in the lower lying areas. A smaller Shia subsect, the Ismaili, and also the remnants of an ancient Jewish community, may still be found in certain parts of Yemen.' §REF§Walters, Delores M.: eHRAF Culture Summary for Yemen§REF§ 'As Muslims, Yemenis aspire to fulfill the five tenets of Islam: affirmation of the Islamic creed, prayer, fasting, charity, and pilgrimage.' §REF§Walters, Delores M.: eHRAF Culture Summary for Yemen§REF§ 'In the Shafi areas of Yemen, the tombs of certain holy men are visited by believers for their special healing and other powers.' §REF§Walters, Delores M.: eHRAF Culture Summary for Yemen§REF§ 'Being of sayyid status, even in contemporary Yemeni society, still validates (but does not necessarily guarantee) one's access to religious learning. Men gather at the mosque for prayers and sermons on the Sabbath, which in Yemen occurs on Friday. Strict segregation of the sexes usually does not permit women to worship in public.' §REF§Walters, Delores M.: eHRAF Culture Summary for Yemen§REF§ 'Yemenis observe the major holidays, such as Ramadan, the holy month of fasting, as well as lesser festivals in the Arabian calendar.' §REF§Walters, Delores M.: eHRAF Culture Summary for Yemen§REF§ Religion was an important social divider: 'Throughout society, the broadest distinctions between population groups are based not on ethnicity but on religious affiliation. Islam is the state religion, and the Sunni branch of Islam, represented by the Shāfiʿī school, predominates. The Shīʿite minority consists of the Zaydī school, which has long been politically dominant in the mountainous highlands of the north, and the Ismāʿīlīs, now a relatively small group found in the Haraz region of northern Yemen and in Jabal Manakhah, the mountainous area west of Sanaa. The non-Muslim community is very small, consisting mostly of foreign visitors and workers. All are free to worship as they wish - including the Jewish community - but, as in most conservative Muslim countries, proselytizing of Muslims by non-Muslims is illegal.' §REF§(Burrowes and Wenner 2020) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RMZUSMFG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RMZUSMFG</a>.§REF§ Yemen has a history of religious militancy: 'Yemen’s distance from any Islamic central authority has made it historically an attractive haven for militant offshoots of normative Sunni Islam, particularly the two smaller branches of Shi˜ism: Ismaili, or “Sevener,” Shi˜ism, and Zaydi, or “Fiver,” Shi˜ism. Zaydism was established in Yemen by the imam Yahya al-Hadi (d. 911), a descendant of ˜Ali’s son Hasan who migrated from Medina to Yemen late in the ninth century and established his capital at the northern highland city of Sa˜da.1 Unlike Ismaili or Twelver Shi˜ite doctrine, Zaydi theology posits an active, visible imam, or leader of the Muslim community, descended from either Hasan or his brother Husayn, who is learned in the religious sciences and who publicly proves himself worthy of leading the Muslim community, in battle if necessary.2 What this has meant in Yemeni history is that scions of numerous lines of Hasanid and, less frequently, Husaynid descendants have proclaimed their da˜was, or “calls” - occasionally simultaneously, so that the supporters of one line were obliged to fight it out with supporters of another.' §REF§Hathaway, Jane 2003. \"A Tale of Two Factions\", 79pp§REF§ While Yemen was nominally under the control of a Zaydi imamic dynasty, sayyids also quarreled amongst themselves: 'AI-Mahdi al-iAbbas (1748-75) was very much a Sanani Imam, being based on the city throughout his reign. Among learned San'anis he retained a high reputation (al-Shawkani 19 29: 310-12; Serjeant 1983: 85 ff.), but it is plain that all was not well elsewhere. Abu 'Alamah's 175I rising in the north-west has already been mentioned. Two years earlier a campaign had been fought in Lower Yemen against a 'sorcerer' who promised his followers immunity against sword wounds and gun shots.V In the year before that, Hasan al-Tlkarn, of the qadi family from Barat and the north-east, was leading tribesmen at odds with the new Imam in Lower Yemen (Zabarah 1958: 684)Y In both the west and the south, the incursion of tribesmen over the preceding generation had not been quietly absorbed, and the affairs of the Barat tribes in particular (Dhii Muhammad and Dhu Husayn) became involved with those of the Imam's capital at San'a'.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 212§REF§ 'The connections of learning which were often important in an Imam's rise to power (Ch. 5) could also readily generalize a threat to that power if one emerged; and the language of equality, justice, and religious probity linked the learned with the tribesmen also. In 17 68, for instance, the 'ulamd' of Barat (particularly Bayt al-'Ansi) wrote to Zaydi centres such as Huth and Dhamar, calling for the expulsion of al-Mahdi al-Abbas and his Qasimi relatives on doctrinal grounds (al-jirafi 1951: 187; Zabarah 1958: 521-2; al-Shawkani 1929: ii. 134-5), though the Barat tribes' incursions in preceding years suggest that doctrinal detail was not the main motive force (see e.g. Zabarah 1958: 13).' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 212p§REF§ 'The Qasimis were accused of 'innovations' (bida'). Zaydism had always recognized ijtihad (the formation of new law by extrapolation from scripture), but in the mid-eighteenth century a pronounced movement of criticism was under way. Ibn al-Amir, for instance, a Zaydi scholar who kept his political distance from the Imamate, blurred the distinction between his own school and the Shafi'i,14 with the result that conspicuous details, such as postures of prayer, became matters of contention among those less learned than he. The Barat qadis blamed the Qasimis for supporting him. On at least one occasion, an intestine squabble among San'ani 'ulamd' over mosque appointments, phrased in these terms, led one faction to demand arbitration from al-'Ansi, 'the qadi of Hashid and Bakil' (Zabarah 1941: 617), rather than from their Qasimi rulers.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 213§REF§ Dresch also mentions millenarian militant movements: 'In 175I, however, a millenarian rising broke out in the western mountains, led by Abu 'AIamah, a black 'magician' who preached a puritanical renewal of Islam. Accounts of the rising mention several forts in the west being taken from Bayt al-Ahmar: al-Qahirah at alMahabishah was lost, then Qaradah and al-Gharnuq at Najrah, just south of Hajjah, then Sabrah, and finally the fort near alMadayir that al-Mansur had bought several years earlier (Zabarah 1941: 53-5). During the forty years since al-Mansur al-Husayn b. al-Qasim (a rival of al-Mawahib) came to power in 1712, says a contemporary witness, the state had counted for little: \"The rule of 'All al-Ahmar and his sons after him and of other tribesmen from Hashid remained over-great and excessive until God destroyed what they had built and extinguished their flame, proclaiming their weakness and perdition by the appearance of this dervish. (Quoted ibid. 54)' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 206§REF§ Accordingly we have opted for a rough approximation of the complex religious landscape of Yemen for the time being. More material is needed." }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "ye_rasulid_dyn", "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>The first Rasulid Sultan, Nur al-Din, caused \"prayers to be said in his name in the mosques\" although he sought and gained \"formal authentication of his rule from the Abbasid caliph.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 108) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>1. Abbasid Caliph<br>2. Rasulid Sultan3. Imam4. ?<br>" }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 372, "name": "ye_tahirid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Tahirid Dynasty", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. This is based on the codes for the Rasulids as 'Sultan 'Amir also appears to have been emulating the high period of Rasulid power a hundred years earlier'§REF§Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 4 Available at Durham E-Theses Online: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/</a>§REF§<br>The first Rasulid Sultan, Nur al-Din, caused \"prayers to be said in his name in the mosques\" although he sought and gained \"formal authentication of his rule from the Abbasid caliph.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 108) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>1. Abbasid Caliph<br>2. Rasulid Sultan3. Imam4. ?<br>" }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "_Zoroastrianism_ \"or more exactly Mazdaism\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 204) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Third-century CE Zoroastrian two priests were highly influential in the development of Zoroastrianism as the Sasanid state religion (three if we include Pabag, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, who was a priest).<br>Kerdir \"may be considered the father of the Zoroastrian church in this period, as he was the one who attempted to make Zoroastrianism into a uniform body, with a unified doctrine, attached to the state.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 188-189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The Sasanian sources state that Tosar was responsible for the codification of the Avesta ... Kerdir brought about the organization of the church and a religious hierarchy.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 188-189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>1. King of Kings (until Shapur II)<br>2. Ohrmaz mowbed (chief priest)§REF§(Daryaee 2009) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ mowbedan mowbed§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§mowbedan mowbed was the \"head of the religious order\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"When Sassanid kings were raised to the throne they received the insignia of royal authority from the chief Mobedh who held the highest religious office.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 186) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. mowbed (district level) (head priest)§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§\"important functions and carried out legal as well as religious and administrative duties.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. mow/mogThe magus (mow/mog) had a higher status and later was also involved in economic and legal matters. Above him was the chief magus (mowbed), who held an important position and was probably the main religious authority throughout the empire.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4-5. herbeds (teacher priests)§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§\"instructed the people in daily ritual, prayer, and tradition and tended the fire.\"<br>\"Three major fire-temples were established for the three classes ... Smaller fire-temples existed in the villages and towns, attended by a teacher-priest (herbed).\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"Magians had a hierarchy parallel to that of the state, a hierarchical judicial administration specifically for Zoroastrians, a cult, scriptures, religious laws, and distinctive customs. It was the religion of the elite and rulers.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 16) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Eight different priests required for some Zoroastrian rituals e.g. vispered ritual and the videvad sade purification ritual \"who took up specific positions in the ritual area, also described in the Nirangestan.\"§REF§(Skjaervo 2012, 89) Skjaervo, Prods Oktor. Avestan Society. in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>haoma-pressing priest (hawanan)<br>fire-lighting priest (atr-wakhsh)<br>presenting priest (frabertar)<br>tending priest, who brings water (abert or danu-uzwaza, which refers to the river Danu)<br>washing priest (asnatar)<br>mingling priest (raethwish-kar)<br>auditing priest (sraoshawarz)<br>one who brings sacrificial animal (pasu-wazah)<br>Comprehensive source on Zoroastrian religion: Moazami (2016) \"Zoroastrianism: Religious texts, theology, history and culture.\"§REF§Moazami, Mahnaz. 2016. Zoroastrianism: Religious texts, theology, history and culture. Encylopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.biblioiranica.info/zoroastrianism-religious-texts-theology-history-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.biblioiranica.info/zoroastrianism-religious-texts-theology-history-and-culture/</a>§REF§<br>_Nestorian Christianity_<br>\"first synod of the Nestorian Church was convened in 410\" during reign of Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE).§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon; he and the Jewish exilarch became responsible for their coreligionists.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The Sasanian state used the churches as intermediaries to regulate and tax the population.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 18) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. Patriach<br>\"Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon\".§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>the Sasanid king \"organized a Christian Persian church that grew in number, and many in the royal family and the nobility, especially the women, gravitated toward this religion.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 205) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>2. Catholicos in province\"The Christian community was headed by the Catholicos\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The Catholicos in each province oversaw the Christian congregation and provided money and guidance for the community.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 205) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Metropolitan\"The Sasanians appointed a catholicos or patriarch and a metropolitan to preside over the bishops in parallel with the Sasanian administrative hierarchy.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 16) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>4. Bishops of Bishoprics\"According to al-Biruni, Christianity had reached Merv within 200 years of the birth of Christ and the first reference to a Merv bishopric dates to the year 334.\"§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 474) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>5. Heads of Churches\"by the end of the Sasanian period there were churches and bishoprics established throughout the empire, and many from the royal family also converted to Christianity.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"Royal permission was required for the election of the heads of churches, for construction of buildings, for burials, and even for the issue of monastic rules.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 18) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>6.<br>From the 4th century: \"religions communities were organized as legal corporations owning property; maintaining courts; regulating marriages, divorces and inheritances; and through their chiefs, holding responsibility to the state for taxes and discipline.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 16) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Judaism_<br>1. Exilarch (Resh Galut)§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>2. Rabbis§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§3.<br>_Buddhism_<br>\"The Buddhas of Bamiyan and a number of Iranian texts in the Sogdian and Khotanese languages are testaments to the importance of Buddhism in eastern Iran.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 205) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>_Manicheanism_<br>\"Manicheans moved east and westward, through some still remained in Iran, to write down their tradition and spread it among all people.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 205) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Manichaean community in Merv mid-3rd CE.§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 474) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Buddhist religion<br>\"Many daimyō took along Buddhist priests as army chaplains. They would perform religious services and could also be counted on to perform funerary nembutsu, the ritual of calling on the name of Amida Buddha. They might even advance at great risk to their own lives during the midst of battle to offer nembutsu to the spirits of those who had just died. They also provided memorial services, and would perform the useful act of visiting relatives of the slain and reporting deeds back to the home temple.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>Based on previous periods:<br>1. Master<br>2. Disciple" }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>_Great Temple in Hattusa_<br>1. King<br>\"The king himself was not only his kingdom's war leader, but also its supreme judicial authority and chief priest.\"§REF§(Bryce 2007, 11)§REF§<br>\"the gods' agent-in-chief on earth.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 21)§REF§<br>2. Tawananna<br>\"reigning queen and chief consort of the king, high priestess of the Hittite realm and sometimes a politically powerful figure in her own right, who retained her status until the end of her life even if she outlived her husband.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 21)§REF§3. Priests of the great4. Preists of the minor<br>Priests SANGA (het. sankunni-). The distinction of priests of the great (SANGA GAL) and priests minor (SANGA TUR) was made.§REF§Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 206, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259§REF§<br>?. Scribes<br>\"In the thirteenth century some fifty-two scribes (including thirty-three scribes of the wooden tablets) were attached to the service of the Great Temple in Hattusa, making up just over a quarter of the temle's total cult personnel.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 60)§REF§<br>?. Scribes of the wooden tablets<br>\"In the thirteenth century some fifty-two scribes (including thirty-three scribes of the wooden tablets) were attached to the service of the Great Temple in Hattusa, making up just over a quarter of the temle's total cult personnel.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 60)§REF§<br>Eg. priest GUDU, priestess \"lady of daity\" (EREŚ.DINGER), priestess \"mother of God\" (AMA DINGIR).§REF§Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 207, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259§REF§<br>Different priests (eg. priest <i>tazzeli</i>, priest <i>hamina-</i>).§REF§Tarach P. (2008) Religie Anatolii hetyckiej, pp. 207, [In:] K. Pilarczyk and J. Drabina (ed.) Religie starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu, Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM, pp. 177-259§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>_Mortuary cults_<br>\"full-blown, society-wide investment in the mortuary cult did not come into fruition until the First Intermediate Period - when the central state had for all intents and purposes collapsed.\" §REF§(Morris in Schwartz and Nichols eds. 2010, 66)§REF§<br>1. Overseers of priests §REF§(Seidlmayer 2003, 117)§REF§<br>local rulers usually acted as \"overseers of priests\" §REF§(Seidlmayer 2003, 122)§REF§<br>2. Priests<br>3. Scribes?<br>" }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 489, "name": "ir_susiana_b", "long_name": "Susiana B", "start_year": -5700, "end_year": -5100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>In the later Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\" c3800-3000 BCE that the following quote refers to religious ideology became more complex, so can infer still low level religious complexity in this period: \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>3 was the code for Abbasid Caliphate. Samanids were loyal to the Caliph.§REF§(Hodgson 1977, 33) Hodgson, Marshall G. S. 1977. The Venture of Islam. Volume II. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>1. Caliph as head of the Sunni Muslim umma.<br>2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the muslim world.<br>3. The Umma, i.e all Muslims.<br>" }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "1. Achaemenid king<br>\"However, unlike previous Near Eastern dynasties, they did not claim divine descent or nature.\"§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 132) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>Achaemenid kings claimed a divine right to rule as the representative of the supreme god Ahura Mazdā on earth - a cultural link to the Mesopotamian peoples.§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[10]</a>)§REF§<br>When the empire expanded the Achaemenid kings assumed the pre-eminent position at the top of the religious hierarchy in conquered lands. In Egypt he became \"son of the god Atum.\"§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[11]</a>)§REF§<br>2. Mobats (upper magi) <i>does this term encompass multiple levels?</i>3. Herbats (lower magi) <i>does this term encompass multiple levels?</i><br>\"Alexander is cited by Zoroastrian tradition as having \"killed the magi ... many teachers, lawyers, Herbats [the lower magi], Mobats [the upper magi]. Much of the literature of Persia, notably works of learning and Zoroastrian texts, simply perished during the Alexandrian conquests.\"§REF§(Farrokh 2007, 108) Farrokh, Kaveh. 2007. Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>\"Darius supproted alien faiths and temples 'as long as those who held them are submissive and peaceable.\"§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 136) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>Persepolis was a palatial city and the ritual centre of the empire.§REF§(Nylander 1971, 50-54)§REF§ However, priests of the temples performed the coronation ritual in Parsargadae, in which the new king had to wear the old clothes of Cyrus the Great.§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[12]</a>)§REF§<br>Numerous religions. State contributed to building of temples. §REF§(Farazmand 2002)§REF§ Cyrus II left native religious and political institutions intact. §REF§(Stearns 2001, 28)§REF§" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": 250, "year_to": 537, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": "1. shamanistic local figures, having religious and social authority§REF§K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 299.§REF§.<br>\"Between A.D. 300 and A.D. 500 people in the area of the present day Kobe-Osaka-Kyoto triangle began to bury their elite dead in huge stone sarcophagi covered by keyhole-shaped earthen mounds called kofun.\"§REF§(Jones 2015, 87-88) Jones, David. 2015. Martial Arts Training in Japan: A Guide for Westerners. Tuttle Publishing.§REF§<br>Mound building until change of emphasis to constructing Buddhist temples \"from the sixth century onwards.\"§REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>_Buddhism_<br>" }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>_Hinduism_<br>There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556</a>§REF§. However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. §REF§G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4§REF§), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels.<br>_Buddhism_<br>\"Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to 'pure' teachings and exemption from 'impure' duties.\" §REF§P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Until Ghazan the Reformer the Ilkhans were pagan§REF§(Marshall 1993, 228) Marshall, Robert. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press.§REF§ although Teguder had converted to Islam before 1284 CE.§REF§(Morgan 2015, 66) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§<br>1. The Khan. After Ghazan's formal conversion to Islam he adopted the title <i>padishah-i Islam</i> which \"expressed independence within the Mongol tradition and claims to pre-eminence in the Islamic world\" §REF§Beatrice Forbes Manz, ‘The Rule of the Infidels: The Mongols and the Islamic World’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 151.§REF§<br>2. Islamic judges. They were regulated under Ghazan's administrative reforms. §REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.147.§REF§<br>3. Imams<br>" }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>There was \"a local variety of Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism) in Tokharistan, various expressions of Buddhism and Hinduism in the territory of Gandhara and also, probably, the official Sasanian doctrine.\"§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>\"It appears that the Kidarites' beliefs had not yet developed into a rigid religious system\".§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>\"The Buddhist religious centre in Old Termez, destroyed probably in the 360s-370s by the Sasanians, already lay in ruins\".§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 131) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>also at time of Kidarites were abandoned buildings and caves of monasteries.§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 131) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 187, "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate", "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"once the court moved to Ravenna, its bishops likewise rose in the hierarchy of the Italian church, eventually holding the rank of archbishop, ranking second after the pope and making periodic bids for autocephaly, or independence from the papal see.\" §REF§(Deliyannis 2010, 3) Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. Pope<br>Pope was the fifth patriach.§REF§(Deliyannis 2010, 211) Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. Exarch of Ravenna<br>701 CE Pope John VI was elected against approval of the Byzantine Exarch. He was the choice of the native Romans. The choice was enforced by the soldiers of the Papacy. §REF§(Trevor, 1869, 113)§REF§<br>1. Bishop of a patriarchate<br>\"The churches organized themselves along the lines laid down by the geography and political order of the empire. A city (civitas), along with its surrounding rural perimeter, the foundation of imperial organization, also formed the basic unit of ecclesiastical structure. Virtually every Roman city, many of them quite small, had its own bishop. He exercised his authority over a \"diocese\" that ordinarily coincided with the boundaries of the civitas. These dioceses were then grouped into provinces, over which a metropolitan, the bishop of a province's principal city, held sway. Eventually, provinces themselves were organized into large \"patriarchates,\" each lead by one of the five preeminent bishops of the church: those in Rome, Constantinople (called \"New Rome,\" second in prestige to the Old), Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 21)§REF§<br>2. Metropolitan, with authority over a province<br>3. Bishop in civitas, with authority over a diocese<br>4. Presbyters or priests (elders)\"Evidence from the second century suggests that a wide variety of models for local clergy existed throughout the Roman Empire. Yet the one to prevail was a three-tiered, hierarchical. In this model, the bishop served as leader of the local community and was assisted by presbyters or priests (elders) and deacons. Again, this model was established in the Antioch of Ignatius, as he underscores emphatically the necessity of gathering for learning, ritual, and teaching around a single bishop. By the end of the century this three-tiered form of ministry had spread to most early Catholic communities throughout the empire, and it would soon become the sole authoritative manner of organizing local ecclesial communities.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 14)§REF§<br>5. Deacons<br>" }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 490, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_1", "long_name": "Susiana - Early Ubaid", "start_year": -5100, "end_year": -4700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>In the later Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\" c3800-3000 BCE that the following quote refers to religious ideology became more complex, so can infer still low level religious complexity in this period: \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>At time of Concordat of Worms (1122 CE). \"Now the clergy were organized in a hierarchical line under the direction of the pope, who could trump the power of local custom, tradition, and even episcopal power. Below the pope stood the bishop. Responsible for maintaining clerical discipline and for overseeing the property of the church, he was answerable only to the pope. Only he could perform all the sacraments; he alone performed the sacrament of confirmation and by the sacrament of ordination passed on his power to others. Theoretically, canon law held that he would be elected by the clergy and people of his diocese. In practice, he was elected only by the canon priests attached to the cathedral. Considered high clergy, the canons aided the bishop in furthering his agenda, administering the diocese and performing rituals at the cathedral church. At their head was the dean, the highest officer in the diocese. A diocesian chancellor supervised the cathedral school and issued licenses allowing clerics to teach and preach in the diocese. A treasurer oversaw finances, while a precentor managed the choir and organized the cathedral's musical program. Each diocese was divided into administrative districts, over which presided the archdeacons. Practically, these were powerful men; they were the bishop's legates, charged with enforcing discipline among the lower clergy, and therefore they were often quite unpopular. ... The parish priests were answerable to them.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 144-145)§REF§<br>1. Pope<br><br>2. Archdeacon, of a dianocal collegeArchdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§ Following the 1059 decree <i>Decretum in Nomine Domini</i>, only cardinals could elect a new pope.§REF§di Carpegna Falconieri, 65§REF§. Furthermore, only cardinals could become popes. Silvester IV (1105-1111), an anti-pope, was the last pope who was not a cardinal before his elevation.§REF§di Carpegna Falconieri, 64§REF§<br>3. Deacons, of a dianocal collegeThere were seven regional deacons of Rome.§REF§(Richards 1979, 293)§REF§<br>4. Subdeacon, of a college of subdeaconsThere was a college of subdeacons.§REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§ Regionary sub-deacons.§REF§(Partner 1972, 1)§REF§<br>5. AcolytesRome's ecclesiastical structure contained a diaconal college with seven regional deacons of Rome, possessing in turn a staff of subdeacons and acolytes. These subdeacons dealt with property and relief for poor. The number increased as responsibilities of Papacy increased. 19 by Gregory I.§REF§(Richards 1979, 293)§REF§<br>2. Archpriest, of a collegePapal administration was collegiate: priests formed a college, headed by the archpriest, which was less important than dianocal college headed by archdeacon. Archdeacons became popes, Archpriests did not. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>3. Priests, of a college<br>2. Metropolitan see\"Santiago was in 1120 made a metropolitan see by the pope.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 333)§REF§<br>Metropolitan had authority over a province §REF§(Madigan 2015, 14)§REF§<br>3. Bishops in diocese<br>4. Dean<br>5. Canon priests attached to cathedral<br>5. Diocesian chancellor<br>6. Diocesian clergy\"After 2015 ... cathedral chancellors were required to furnish their diocesan clergy with some instruction in theology.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 310)§REF§<br>5. Treasurer<br>5. Precenter<br>4. Archdeacons of administrative districts<br>5. Priests in ParishThere were multiple parishes in each episcopal diocese, and dozens or hundreds in larger dioceses such as the city of Rome.<br>\"by the year 1000 it was the priest who really emerged as the religious and even educational leader of the local church.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 83)§REF§<br>_Proprietary Churches_<br>\"In 1000 CE ... western Europe had not yet been clearly divided into well-defined territorial parishes with resident priests chosen, ordained, and supervised by the local ordinary, who was in turn directed by the papacy. Indeed, the parish in the year 1000 was far from that ideal, ordered, hierarchical model. Instead, many different (often competing) churches, structures, and people overlapped in the organization of local religious life.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 80-81)§REF§ \"Actually, the most common type of church in the year 1000 was one founded - and governed - by a local lay lord rather than a bishop. ... It is impossible to calculate precisely how many of these churches there were, but they surely numbered in the tens of thousands. Indeed, they far outnumbered the Baptismal churches controlled by the bishops (many of which had passed into the hands of lay lords). ... Because of the force exerted by the ancient, hierarchical, episcopal Roman tradition, this model, which was based on German property law, never took root in central and southern Italy. ... Proprietary churches served very small communities, encompassing perhaps a village or two.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 81-83)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>The ruler was a \"quasi-divine figure\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 591)§REF§<br>\"After Islam became the royal cult, rulers built mosques and adopted Islamic law, and the king and the entire court took part in public prayers held on the great Islamic festivals.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 592)§REF§<br>2. Someone who helped the king become a \"quasi-divine figure\" <i>inferred level</i><br>" }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>3 was the code for Abbasid Caliphate. \"The new rulers accepted the nominal authority of the Abbasid caliphs and directly or indirectly promoted the spread of Islam among the populace of Transoxania, Kashgar, and the Tarim basin.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 230) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. Caliph as head of the Sunni Muslim umma.<br>2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the muslim world.<br>3. The Umma, i.e all Muslims.<br>" }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Islam. Earlier polities coded 3.<br>" }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "Very little is known about religious system during Old Assyrian Colony period in Anatolian kingdoms. Published cuneiform tablets often mention names of gods, but as the role of temples in the economic system is unclear, and hardly ever spoken about, there is not much trace of religious hierarchy. Priests are called <i>kumurum</i> and knowledge about their existence comes from tablet on which they are mentioned as witnesses to the economic transactions. §REF§Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 139§REF§" }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 6, "religious_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. King<br>\"temples and Hwt were part of a network of economic and production centers spread all over the country and controlled by the crown.\" §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 198)§REF§<br>\"In contrast to the temples, the Hwt was seldom a path to social promotion to the highest offices of the state during the Sixth Dynasty.\"§REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 201)§REF§<br>\"temples or Hwt never became private possessions, and the revenues of the local dominant families seem to have been dependent, in a significant way, on their ties with the state and its institutions.§REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 202)§REF§<br>_ Sun-temple levels _<br>Starting from the 5th Dynasty, \"The building of sun-temples was the outcome of a gradual rise in importance of the sun-god. Ra now became Egypt's closest equivalent to a state god. Each king built a new sun-temple and their proximity to the pyramid complexes, as well as their similarity to the royal funerary monuments in plan, suggest that they were built for the afterlife rather than the present. A sun-temple consisted of a valley temple linked by a causeway to the upper temple. The main feature of the upper temple was a massive pedestal with an obelisk, a symbol of the sun-god. An alter was placed in a court open to the sun. ... Like pyramid complexes, sun-temples were endowed with land, received donations in kind on festival days, and had their own personnel.\" §REF§(Malek 2000, 99)§REF§<br>High Priest or Overseer of the Estate<br>Larger cult complexes with numerous \"Servants of God\" had a high priest (jmj-r3 hmw-ntr). In the 4th, 5th and 6th Dynasty this role was often filled by more than one person. In some complexes this role had a special title. §REF§(Shafer 2005, 10)§REF§<br>\"In Old Kingdom royal cult complexes (including sun temples), the hmw-ntr were organized into five phyles, or companies. Each phyle had two sub-groups lead by a shd, inspector, and each of the ten sub-groups served the royal cult complex in rotation for one thirty-day month.\"<br>Servant of God (hm-ntr) from 1st Dynasty.<br>Servant of God \"prepared offerings, performed rituals, had access to the sanctuary of the divine image, and controlled entrance to the temple.\" §REF§(Shafer 2005, 10)§REF§<br>Servant of God (hmt-ntr)<br>Female priestesses Servant of God (hmt-ntr) was under the authority of a man. Associated with goddesses Hathor and Neith, and music making. Within the temple there was a female head (wrt-hnr) of a musical troupe (hnr). §REF§(Shafer 2005, 11)§REF§<br>W'b Priest<br>The w'b priest (w'b) assisted the Servants of God (hmw-ntr). They performed \"the lesser tasks requisite to maintaining the temples and rituals. Their leader was called the Great W*b.\" W'b priests \"handled ritual instruments and cultic objects.\" Certainly from 5th Dynasty a W'b could be promoted to hm-ntr \"at either the same temple or a different one.\" §REF§(Shafer 2005, 11-12)§REF§<br>Lector Priest<br>The lector priest hrj-hb(t) was \"the skillful reader who carried the ritual book and recited the formulas of cultic performance. No woman held this title.\" The titles Chief Lector Priest and Senior Lector Priest \"may have connoted not so much degree of command as length of service.\" §REF§(Shafer 2005, 12)§REF§<br>hntj-s<br>\"Ann Macy Roth, following Paule Posener-Kreiger, finds that in papyri from Abusir (Dynasty 5 and early Dynasty 6) hntjw-s perform the same duties as Servants of God, save for particular functions relative to the divine image and transporting offerings to and from the temple. She concludes that hmw-ntr served the deceased king's divine aspect while the hntjw-s served his human aspect.\"§REF§(Shafer 2005, 12)§REF§<br><br>2. High Priest or Overseer of the Estatecould also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)<br>3. Servant of God (hmw-ntr)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)<br>4. Servant of God (hmw-ntr) - Inspector (shd)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)<br>5. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Female head (wrt-hnr)6. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Musicians<br>5. Great W*b (w'b '3)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)6. W'b Priest (w'b)7. ... ? ...inferred level - scribes? guards? lay workers attached to the temple estate?<br>_ Pyramid complex levels _<br>2. High Priest or Overseer of the Estatecould also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)<br>3. Servant of God (hmw-ntr)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)<br>4. Servant of God (hmw-ntr) - Inspector (shd)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)<br>5. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Female head (wrt-hnr)6. Servant of God (hmt-ntr) - Musicians<br>5. Great W*b (w'b '3)could also be a Lector Priest hrj-hb(t)6. W'b Priest (w'b)7. ... ? ...inferred level - scribes? guards? lay workers attached to the temple estate?<br>_ Local cult complex _<br>\"Religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians was locally diverse and socially stratified. Practically every area of Egypt had its local god, which for its inhabitants was the most important deity, and the elevation of Ra to the level of state god had little effect on this. If anything, the annals show that the kings now began to pay even greater attention to local deities in all parts of the country by making donations, often of land, to their shrines, or exempting them from taxes and forced labour.\" §REF§(Malek 2000, 101)§REF§<br>1. Servant of God<br>In the Old Kingdom a local government official was usually appointed to this role in the local cult complex. §REF§(Shafer 2005, 10)§REF§<br>2. ... ? ...3. ... ? ...<br>_ Mortuary complex _<br>\"some priests were not associated with temples. These were the mortuary priests who served cultuses at tombs.\" §REF§(Shafer 2005, 12)§REF§<br>1. Mortuary Priest §REF§(Shafer 2005, 12)§REF§<br>2. ... ? ...3. ... ? ...<br>" }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "The introduction of professional priesthood occurred during the New Kingdom§REF§Doxey, D. M. 2001. \"Priesthood\". [in:] Redford, D. B. [ed.]. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pg: 77.§REF§<br>Gerzean Period characterized \"larger, more elaborate tombs containing richer and more abundant offerings.\" for example§REF§(Midant-Reynes 2000, 50)§REF§:<br>Cemetery T at Naqada<br>Tomb 100 \"Painted Tomb\" at Hierakonpolis<br>Mudbrick structure at Naqada 50x20m speculated to be a temple or royal residence. §REF§(Midant-Reynes 2000, 52)§REF§<br>\"In Naqada IIIB the country became politically unified (if not earlier) and essentially similar elite and sub-elite burial practices are known throughout the country. That translates to around 3100 BCE. One could also go back a century or so to Naqada IIIA. Of course, royal burials came in, and they are known from only a few sites, so that they don’t give one a handle on how uniform practices were. But there are cemeteries of Naqada III from the Aswan area to the north-eastern delta, so that seems relatively clear.\" <br>" }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Ritual Specialists3. Priests<br>3. Monks<br>\"Taoism the personal religious creed of all the later T'ang emperors.\"§REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 119)§REF§<br>843 CE all Manichaean \"temples were destroyed, their books burned, some of their priestesses slain, the religion proscribed and all their property consficated.\" by Taoist Emperor Wu-tsung (841-846 CE). §REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 131)§REF§<br>845 CE Buddhists, Zoroastrians and Nestorians were persecuted by Taoist Emperor Wu-tsung (841-846 CE). \"4600 temples and monastries, 40,000 smaller shrines were ordered to be destroyed; 260,000 monks and nuns were secularized; 150,000 temple slaves turned over to the state; all statues melted down and the metal confiscated and, what was most important, all the vast amount of land in the hands of the Buddhist establishment was taken over by the government.\" §REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 131-132)§REF§<br>Under Emperor Hsuan-tsung (847-859 CE), who was a Buddhist, the persecution was lifted \"but it never fully regained its position, wealth and prestige. Any possibility that it had of becoming a state church in the future was thus eliminated.\"§REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 132)§REF§" }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Same as earlier period as no new information to code higher.<br>" }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Same as earlier period as no new information to code higher.<br>" }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Pope<br>Christian state after baptism Clovis 508 CE. Catholic church. §REF§(Wood 1994, 72)§REF§<br>1. King (\"Like Constantine, the Merovingian King was considered the reflection of God on Earth. The succession to the kingship could never been anything but the expression of a higher will\" §REF§(Schutz 2004, 18) Schutz, H. 2004. The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900. BRILL§REF§<br>Kings involved in ecclesiastical legislation §REF§(Wood 1994, 105)§REF§<br>Kings gave money for shrines of saints. §REF§(Wood 1994, 66)§REF§<br>\"Many bishops owed their position to the king\" and \"were royal servants with no known connections with their sees.\" §REF§(Wood 1994, 78)§REF§<br>2. Bishop in diocesesBishop in every civitas. Bishop's church called ecclesia, other churches were basilicae. City had complex of religious buildings, usually included a number of churches, a baptistery, and the bishop's home (domus ecclesiae). Other religious officials were the clergy. Outside the city were funerary basilicas, sacred sites (shrines called loca sancta), mausoleums, tombs and cemeteries. Authorities secular and often came into conflict with religious authorities. §REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 252-253)§REF§<br>Dioceses provided basic structure of Merovingian Church, \"the ecclesiastical counterparts of the civitates\" and in the same place, except in the north and east. §REF§(Wood 1994, 71)§REF§<br>3. Subordinate bishopsDioceses had provinces (like civitates) §REF§(Wood 1994, 71)§REF§<br>4. Priests5. Lesser clergy<br>" }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": 1576, "year_to": 1690, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. “In 1576 Tümen Jasaghtu Khan invited the head of the Red Hat sect, the Karma-pa Lama (bLama), to his headquarters and agreed with him that Tibetan Buddhism should be adopted as the state religion of Mongolia. In implementation of this decision, Altan Khan and Khutughtai Sechen Khongtaiji received the head of the Yellow Hat sect, the third Dalai Lama, with great pomp in 1577. The Tümed and Ordos Mongols con- verted simultaneously to Buddhism. On meeting the Dalai Lama at Altan Khan’s head- quarters, Abtai Khan also declared his desire to convert the whole of northern Mongolia to the Buddhist faith. » §REF§(Ishjamts 2003, 215)§REF§<br>Before 1576 CE, shamanism:\"While ruling China as the Yüan Dynasty, Qubilay and his successors began to abandon their people’s ancestral shamanism, which was marked by religious indifference or tolerance, and to display a growing interest in Buddhism.\" §REF§(Soucek 2000, 167)§REF§<br>1. Shaman<br>\"In all three cases the form adopted was the Tibetan denomination of the Yellow Hat, better known as Lamaism - and more correctly, in scholarly terminology, given its Tibetan name Gelugpa. It was famous for its extreme monasticism, theocracy eventually symbolized by the person of the Dalai Lama reigning from Lhassa, and a complex system of reincarnations. This also meant a lasting and mutually supportive relationship between the Mongol and Tibetan churches, which began in 1578 when Sonam-Gyatso (or bSod-nams rgya-mts’o, if we follow the generally accepted scholarly transliteration), chief of the Tibetan church, came to Mongolia to organize the new junior branch. It was at that point that the title Dalai Lama appeared for the first time - a Mongolian-Tibetan hybrid with the connotation of “Universal Lama” - apparently bestowed upon the Tibetan prelate by Altan Khan and from then on assumed by the spiritual and temporal chief of the Tibetan church. Sonam-Gyatso then returned to Tibet, but not without leaving in Mongolia a substitute of sorts, a “Living Buddha” who then resided at the aforementioend Köke-khoto or Huehot, a city in Inner Mongolia near the northeastern bend of the Yellow River and now the capital of China’s Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region.\" §REF§(Soucek 2000, 168)§REF§<br>1. Dalai Lama - head of the Tibetan church<br>2. Living Buddha in Mongolia - a local substitute for the Dalai Lama3. Lama(4. Novice?)" }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " level. State religion existed during this period, based on evidence for two multi-room temples in neighbouring polity at El Palenque.§REF§Sherman, R. J., et al. (2010). \"Expansionary dynamics of the nascent Monte Alban state.\" Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 29(3): 278-301, p282§REF§ Standardised two-room temples were however not yet present at Monte Alban, and so a permanent state religion with more than one organisational level cannot be inferred.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p161§REF§" }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Priest-King<br>2. Other priests appointed by the king?3. Did large temples contain a priestly hierarchy?<br>\"The temple was the physical, administrative and symbolic centre of the city. Its sheer size, as well as its facade and furnishings separated it from any other building in the settlement. ... acted as the place in which the community comunicated with a deity, as well as the place in which the ruling class presented itself to the rest of the population.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"The priesthood took care of daily and private cultic activities, as well as public festivals. It managed that relation with the divine that provided the ideological justification for the unequal stratification of society. The urban community was already used to justifying events outside human control through its belief in divine entitites, and to propitiate them through human acts such as offerings and sacrifices. Consequently, these ideas were applied by the socio-economic organisation of the State and its centralised political structure.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"A nobleman might donate up to 10,000 horses for a single religious service or requisition his subjects to become bandi (novices) or lay servants in the monasteries. The clergy and their “disciples” were protected from both violence and state duties. Novices who had married without taking the major vows were probably common although legally discouraged. The monasteries were mostly nomadic, although in 1638 a Zünghar ruler requested pigs from Russia to give to the monasteries. At its height the Kalmyk chief lama’s estate of shabinar (disciples, or serfs), for example, reached 3,000-4,000 households. Galdan-Tseren organized the entire clergy into nine jisai (Mongolian, jisiya), with 9,000 lamas and 10,600 households of shabinar. To improve the clergy, he requisitioned 500 pupils, each with two yurts, three servants, two horses, and 100 sheep to be trained by a respected Tibetan lama. One special otog, or camp district, named Altachin, “goldsmiths,” was dedicated to making Buddhist images.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 422)§REF§<br>1. Lamas, divided into 9 jisai.<br>2. Novices (bandi)<br>" }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "<br>_ Abydos cult centre _<br>Abydos was the most significant cult centre. Kings of the 1st Dynasty were buried in the royal cemetery in the Umm el-Qa'ab area. There were funerary enclosures and a mortuary cult that supported an ideology of divine kingship. In the funerary enclosures priests and other personnel practiced king-cults. §REF§(Bard 2000, 64-69)§REF§<br>1. King.<br>2. Priests<br>3. Other<br>_Town cult complex_<br>In the 1st Dynasty there were probably cult temple compounds within towns which \"served a different function from those associated with the funerary complexes, which were located outside the towns.\"§REF§(Bard 2000, 78)§REF§<br>1.<br>2.<br>3.<br>" }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Askia Mohammed requested a \"Sherif, i.e., the descendant of the Prophet\" to be sent to live with in the Sudan. Caliph Mulay Abbas obliged and the Sherif became an important figure, \"exempt from all the duties of citizenship (taxes, etc.), but they received gifts of impressive value.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 186-187) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§<br>1. Sherif<br>\"The Sherifs, in oder to hold and increase their prestige, make consummate use of drugs (opium and hashish) which they discreetly mix with tobacco for smoking or give to their followers (the talebs) to chew. This gives rise to wonderful visions. The believer who comes back to his senses when the effects of the drug wear off is thus convinced that the gates of heaven were opened to him for a moment, and that he was thus miraculously, divinely transported to paradise.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 186-187) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§<br>1. Caliph of the Land of Takrur<br>The sharif of Mecca made Askiya Muhammad Toure \"caliph of the land of Takrur\" however the masses were still pagan §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§<br>Askiya Muhammad Toure made Islam the official state religion, \"built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars ... to Gao.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§<br>2. Imams<br>3.<br>" }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "tr_konya_lca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "Many sources suggest that the people living in that era were worshiping their ancestors. There is also evidence for a cult linked with anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines. This was a common cult and the figurines related to this are found in many places. These figurines were made of clay and stone, sometimes painted with precision to show as many features as possible, and other times made schematically, not putting much emphasis on the details. The height of such figurines could vary from a few centimeters to even a meter or more. Interestingly, some of them do not have heads, and could have been intentionally deprived of them - thus suggesting a link with the cult of the skull, which started in the areas of Anatolia already in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A era.<br>" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": "There were many different sizes/classes of temples and a multi-level prestige hierarchy. However, a prestige hierarchy does not represent hierarchical levels of authority within a religious organization. The code therefore might look like this \"5 King, 4 High Priest of Ptah of Memphis, 3 regional chief priest, 2 Lector Priest, 1 Wab priest\" but in fact these were only titles; the lower ranked priests were independent and did not take orders from those higher in rank. Since this code does not code prestige hierarchy only hierarchical levels of authority we code 1.<br>Certain priesthoods, e.g. the High Priest of Ptah at Memphis, exerted considerable political influence. Functioned as a virtual centralized priesthood in Egypt; several of the synodal meetings of priests from throughout Egypt met at Memphis, from which emanated the trilingual decrees, e.g. the Rosetta Stone. These priests were closely associated with the priests at Letopolis. See D. Thompson, Memphis under the Ptolemies. 2d. ed. Princeton, 2012.<br>The dynastic cult was founded by Ptolemy II. The annually selected priesthoods of the cult were based in Alexandria, and later also in the southern capital at Ptolemais. Within the dynastic cult there is not much of a hierarchy as there is not a command structure. The Egyptian cults are completely separated. Here each temple functions autonomously. There is a clear hierarchy within each temple.<br>Alexandria: \"In the religious sphere, there is evidence - as Arrian observed (3.1.5) - for the worship of the Olympian and other Greek gods, as well as the \"Egyptian\" gods, especially Sarapis. Of the Olympian gods, the worship of Dionysos, Demeter, and Aphrodite in particular received royal support. There is also evidence for a founder cult of Alexander and a (dynastic) cult of Alexander and the Ptolemies. The priests of the latter were eponymous priests. In addition, we know of, among other things, cults of individual dynastic members, such as that of Ptolemy Soter (the Ptolemaieia), Berenike (a temple - the Berenikeion), Ptolemy Soter and Berenike (the \"Theoi Soteres\"), Arsinoe Philadelphos (the Arsinoeia), Ptolemy Philadelphos and Arsinoe (the \"Theoi Adelphoi\"), and the commemoration of Philadelphos's birthday (the Basileia). Although evidence is sparse, it is clear that - as was usual in Greek festivals - competitions and processions were an important part of the various cults. The best attested is, of course, the great procession of Ptolemy Philadelphos.\" §REF§(Cohen 2006, 358)§REF§<br>At Ptolemais in the Thebaid \"evidence for the worship of Zeus (OGIS 103), Dionysos (OGIS 51), and Isis (OGIS 52).\" §REF§(Cohen 2006, 350)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Shamans. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "1. Pontifex maximus<br>2. Colleges (flamines, augurs, pontifices, vestals)Three colleges of religious officials. 1. augurs 2. decemviri sacris faciundis 3. pontifices<br>3. high priests of imperial cult in provinces <span style=\"color:blue\">This level is present for the Middle Roman Republic. Is this not true of the Late Roman Republic? Principate?</span><br>4. priests for a deity (running a specific temple or sanctuary)<br>\"Freelance\" religious officials (soothsayers, oracles, seers, etc).<br>_Mithraism_<br>Cult of Mithra spread from the Parthian Empire to Rome (originated in India? bronze age?). \"Contrary to other religions of the same type, such as the cults of Isis and Osiris, Serapis, Dionysus (all well-known examples), Mithraicism eschewed any external manifestations and depended only on its initiatory nature to recruit its followers. ... it gradually became a common faith for soldiers, civil servants, merchants ... The members joined a spirituality of an initiatory type ... shared with a large group of solar faiths ... that promised both a life near to the deity and a personal redemption.\"§REF§(Decharneux (2004, 94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"From the end of the first century B.C.E. we have evidence of a cult coming from the East and gradually and discretely conquering the Roman army and administration (Daniels). This god, previously unknown to the Romans, was called Mithra. Some historians believe (see Plutarch, Pomp. 24.7) that the notorius Cilician pirates defeated by Pompeius propagated this cult when deported in Calabria. We now believe that it was a late transformation of the god Mithra, the friendly protector of contracts .... and defender of true and just causes.\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 93) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"We must also stress that this god retained, in his manifestation in the Roman Empire, his essential characteristics of friend and guardian of contracts.\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 93-94) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"Mithra probably won over even the imperial house. We are wary about the well-known initiation of the emperor Nero to the mysteries of the Magi through Tiridates (see Turcan 1989:237). However, it seems that the emperor Commodus (192) was an unworthy adept of the mysteries, because he was suspected of having killed a fellow-adept during a ceremony simulating a ritual sacrifice. The imperial house had a much worthier adept in Diocletian and his colleagues of the Tetrarchy: Galerius and Licinius. The god is then called the fautor imperii sui, the \"protector of the imperial power\" (Inscription of Carnuntum in 307).\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§<br>Mithraism: \"on the social level people learned, in the 'Persic Cavern', to respect the contract linking the human being to the cosmos and to the gods, and then, at least in an implicit way, to respect the emperors, who were divine beings, as intermediaries between the sky and the earth. The faithfulness to a vivifying cosmic order was thus accompanied by faithfulness to the one representing this order on earth. It is not surprising, then, that Mithra was invoked as Jupiter Dolichenus for the salvation of the emperor. In time, a cult ascribed to the enemies gets mixed up with the worship of the protecting gods of Rome!\"§REF§(Decharneux 2004, 100) Decharneux, Baudouin. Mithra's Cult: An Example of Religious Colonialism in Roman Times. Draper, Jonathan A. ed. 2004. Orality, Literacy, and Colonialism in Antiquity. BRILL.§REF§" }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Estimate. Sounds quite extensive religious organization so slightly higher top end of range than earlier periods.<br>1. Chief Priest<br>there was a priestess of Susa§REF§(Potts 2016, 190) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>2. Assistant Priest3.4<br>At Haft Tepe, mound Haft Tepe B massive construction might be terrace area for temple precinct \"where, as in the great precincts of southern Mesopotamia, a wide range of craft activities were housed, including pottery manufacture, stoneworking and metalsmithhing, which served to manufacture goods for the gods, the priesthood, and the large number of dependents attached to the temple. In addition, the temple almost certainly incorporated a scribal school (see the school texts amongst the Haft Tepe tablets) and a corpus of scribes (see the economic text and letters found as well), as well as a staff of specialized priests, some of whom performed acts of extispicy...\"§REF§(Potts 2016, 189) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, 'the great mother of the gods to the Elamites' and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana.§REF§" }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 2, "religious_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor<br>\"The emperor was first and foremost the primary religious officer of the Sung state. His function in this capacity was unique and irreplaceable. He was the principal officiant at a series of rituals that regulated time; offered sacrifices to deities; paid homage to stars, mountains, and rivers; and worshipped ancestors.\"§REF§(Hartman 2015, 83)§REF§<br>\"The state also used both Buddhist and Taoist institutions to funnel financial and spiritual aid to the population after natural disasters and warfare.\" §REF§(Hartman 2015, 96)§REF§<br>2.3.Buddhism. \"The great temples of the capital and other major cities, often patronized by the rulers, housed in some cases thousands of monks.\"§REF§(Mote 2003, 161) Mote, Frederick W. 2003. Imperial China: 900-1800. Harvard University Press.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 353, "name": "ye_himyar_1", "long_name": "Himyar I", "start_year": 270, "end_year": 340 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 3, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Up until about the fourth century AD almost all the inhabitants of Arabia were polytheists.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 139) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>The cult of Athtar was widespread throughout Arabia, where the pantheon of gods known from surviving inscriptions contains over one hundred names (altough \"many of these probably represent different aspects or manifestations of the same god\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 140) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§). \"'Athtar almost always occupies first place in lists and his cult was spread throughout the region.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 140) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§ Different polities/people had their own god. \"The patron deity (shym) of a people was of more immediate significance in south Arabia than the remoter figure of 'Athtar. The four principal peoples had as their patrons Almaqah (Sabaeans), Wadd (Minaeans), 'Amm (Qatabanians) and Sayin (Hadramites), and each people was collectively termed the 'chrildren of their respective patron deity.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 140) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§ The pagan religion of South Arabia \"was in its essence a planetary astral system in which the cult of the moon-god prevailed. The moon, known in Hadramawt as Sin, to the Minaeans as Wadd (love or lover, father), to the Sabaeans as Almaqah (the health-giving god?) and to the Qatabanians as 'Amm (paternal uncle), stood at the head of the pantheon. He was conceived of as a masculine deity and took precedence over the sun, Shams, who was his consort. 'Athtar (Venus, corresponding to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, Phoenician 'Ashtart), their son, was the third member of the triad. From this celestial pair sprang the many other heavenly bodies considered divine.\"§REF§(Hitti 2002, 60-61) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>The pagan Himyarites likely worshipped Almaqah from the time the kingdom was combined with Saba. Hitti writes that the \"Himyarites were close kinsmen of the Sabaeans and, as the youngest branch of the sock, became the inheritors of the Minaeo-Sabaean culture and trade.\"§REF§(Hitti 2002, 56) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ The Himyarites worshipped Almaqah, 'Athtar and other deities.§REF§(Finegan 1965, 478) Jack Finegan. 1965. The Archaeology of World Religions. Volume 3. Princeton University Press.§REF§ Philostorgius said of the Himyarites: 'They sacrifice to the sun and moon and spirits of the land.'\"§REF§(Finegan 1965, 478) Jack Finegan. 1965. The Archaeology of World Religions. Volume 3. Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>The pagan Himyarites practiced dedications to temples§REF§(Kaye 2007, 168) L E Kogan. A V Korotayev. Epigraphic South Arabian Morphology. Alan S Kaye ed. 2007. Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake.§REF§ which were likely sufficiently complex to archive papyrus legal statements concerning the usage of tombs.§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 126) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.§REF§ Minaean carvings in the temple ruins of al-Hazm, from the first millennium BCE, suggest dancing girls may have been included among the temple servants.§REF§(Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ Sabaean temples are known to have received tithes at the federal and local levels and its financing may been the \"divine assistance\" behind construction projects. \"Some Middle 'Sabaean' temples may have acted as 'insurance companies' ... Hence the presence of some kind of insurance company which would provide assistance (to build, say, a house after it had been destroyed) was really very practical and useful for most clans. By paying their tithe ('s2r) to the local temples, the tribesmen paid a sort of 'premium' to this insurance company', whereby they could expect to get their 'compensation' when they needed it.\"§REF§(Korotayev 1996, 65-66) Andrey Vitalyevhich Korotayev. 1996. Pre-Islamic Yemen. Socio-political Organization of the Sabaean Cultural Area in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD. Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§<br>The religion of the Himyarites was pagan and polytheistic in the period 270-375 CE and Jewish or Judaistic monotheism in the period 375-525 CE when they \"fell under the influence of Jewish proselytizers\"§REF§(Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§ and by the late 4th century CE were rapidly converting from their pagan polytheistic belief system to monotheistic religious doctrines.§REF§(Kaye 2007, 168) L E Kogan. A V Korotayev. Epigraphic South Arabian Morphology. Alan S Kaye ed. 2007. Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake.§REF§ \"There is significant archaeological evidence of the abandonment of pagan temples toward the conclusion of the fourth century and of the almost complete disappearance of expressions of devotion to the old tribal gods shortly thereafter.\"§REF§(Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§<br>_Pagan_<br>1. King<br>\"Southerners worshiped a triad of sun, star and moon gods, and their kings in early times also served as priests.\"§REF§(16-17) Ted Byfield ed. 2004. The Christians. Their First Two Thousand Years. The Sword of Islam: A.D. 565 to 740 : the Muslim Onslaught All But Destroys Christendom. Christian History Project.§REF§<br>2. Priest3. Lower priests<br>3. Financial officialCollected, managed tithe revenue<br>3. Dancing girls<br>3. Sacred park managerMinaeans first millennium BCE: \"Carvings in the temple ruins of al-Hazm, provincial capital of al-Jawf, represent suspended vessels, probably wine offerings, gazelles and other sacrificial animals, snakes which were divine symbols, dancing girls who were temple servants, and ostriches evidently kept in sacred parks.\"§REF§(Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 1, "religious_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>" }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 170, "name": "tr_cappadocia_2", "long_name": "Late Cappadocia", "start_year": -330, "end_year": 16 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 4, "religious_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. These levels apply to the temple state in Cappadocia, as described by Strabo: “It is a considerable city; its inhabitants, however, consist mostly of ‘divinely inspired’ people and the sacred slaved who live in it. Its inhabitants are Kataonians, who, though in a general way classified as subjects of the king, are in most respects subject to the priest. The priest is master of the temple, and also of the sacred slaved, who, on my sojourn there, were more than six thousand in number, both men and women together. Also, considerable territory belongs to the temple, and the revenue is enjoyed by the priest. He is second in rank in Cappadocia after the king. (12.2.3)” §REF§Potter, D. (2003) Hellenistic Religion. In, Erskine, A. (ed.) A Companion to the Hellenistic World. Blackwell: Malden, Oxford, pp 407-430. p424-425§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Priests, of the temple state, who ruled over the temple servants and were second only to the king §REF§Sökmen, E. (2009) Characteristics of the Temple States in Pontos. In, Højte, J. M. (ed.) Mithridates VI and the Pontic Kingdom. Aarhus University Press. p279-280§REF§3. Temple servants4. Sacred slaves (hierodouloi) - the slaves belonged to the temple state (not even the priests could sell them) §REF§Sökmen, E. (2009) Characteristics of the Temple States in Pontos. In, Højte, J. M. (ed.) Mithridates VI and the Pontic Kingdom. Aarhus University Press. p280§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 7, "religious_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§(Potter 1995, 207-250)§REF§<br>\"The struggles over the institutional government of the church were shaped by the formation of two main strands of thinking about the church in France which can be classified as \"Gallician\": the theological, which sought to make of the universal church a limited monarchy and to undertake a profound \"reformation\" of its structure; and the political, the doctrine above all of the Parlement of Paris, which invoked the king's supreme jurisdiction in its refusal to allow the free exercise of papal jurisdiction in France. These two strands of thought came together in the idea of hostility to Rome...\" §REF§(Potter 1995, 220)§REF§<br>1. Pope<br>de jure #1<br>1. King<br>de facto #1. made ecclesiastical appointments<br>2. Parlement of Paris\"issued orders in January 1535 offering rewards for those who denounced heretics and punishments for concealments.\" §REF§(Potter 1995, 247)§REF§<br>3. Council of the French ChurchCardinals, Papal legates<br>4. Archbishop in archbishopric5. deputy called vicar-general?<br>5. Bishop in Diocese1551 CE diocese of Lombez had 154 priests in 91 parishes (low density priests to parishes) where as diocese of Leon (Brittany) had \"an exceptionally dense concentration of clergy.\"<br>under Francis I \"only six known commoners promoted as bishops who in fact owed their positions to their scholarship and close relationship to the royal household.\"6. Archdeacon7. Parish priestPriest / Cures / Vicaires. \"in the 392 parishes of Beauvais, there were only 80 resident cures ... distributed unevenly, the rest replaced by vicaires.\"<br>" }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Religious_level", "religious_level_from": 5, "religious_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>_Hinduism_<br>There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556</a>§REF§. However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. §REF§G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4§REF§), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels.<br>_Jainism_<br>NOTE: I have found two equally authoritative sources on Jain hierarchy:<br>(1) §REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319§REF§<br>1. <i>Arihants</i> (ones who have conquered their inner enemies)2. <i>Siddhas</i> (Liberated Ones)3. <i>Acharyas</i> (who head the Order)4. <i>Upadhyays</i> (who teach the message)5. <i>Sadhus</i> (Monks/Seekers)<br>(2) §REF§M. Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka (2006), pp. 269-276§REF§<br>1. Guru (teacher)2. Monks<br>2. Male figure (not specified by author whether a monk) in charge of nuns3. <i>Pravartini</i> or <i>ganini</i> (aides to the male figure in charge of nuns)4. Nuns<br>_Buddhism_<br>\"Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to 'pure' teachings and exemption from 'impure' duties.\" §REF§P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628§REF§." } ] }