Religious Level List

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        {
            "id": 51,
            "polity": {
                "id": 111,
                "name": "in_achik_1",
                "long_name": "Early A'chik",
                "start_year": 1775,
                "end_year": 1867
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>(1) Village Priest (Kamal)<br>‘A Garo religious practitioner is known as KAMAL. The word is used to mean 'specialist'; thus a midwife may be a kamal. A kamal has neither special privilege nor prestige from his service to the society.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§ The village priest or healer dealt with misfortune caused by malicious sprites: ‘These mite live in many places. Some dwell in the village, others in the jungle, near a tree, or by a stream or waterfall. A fork in a road is a favorite place, and powerful mite are said to live on mountain tops. All are dealt with in the same general fashion, though the details of the sacrifices differ. Several men usually spend about two hours building an altar. Most altars are built of bamboo and leaves, but the precise form depends upon the particular spirit to whom the sacrifice is to be directed. Once the altar is built, a ritually skilled man must offer an egg, a chicken, a pig, or even a cow, depending upon the seriousness of the disease and the demands of the mite. This priest kills the animal in a ritually prescribed manner, and smears the blood on to the altar. He recites a number of chants while standing or squatting before the altar, and usually pours a bit of rice beer on to the ground as an additional offering. At a sacrifice to cure disease, as on other occasions when animals are ceremoniously killed, the priest inspects their viscera for omens. If the proper portion of a chicken’s intestines prove to be filled, for instance, the prognosis is good; otherwise it is bad. While the priest is performing the ritual, the men who have helped build the altar sit around, chatting and joking, with no outward signs of respect or attention. There is no ecstasy and no sleight of hand, and the sick person is not even necessarily present. When the formalities are completed, the helpers prepare the animal and cook it into a curry. Rice is boiled, and all of the helpers share in the ensuing meal. Typically, the entire sacrifice, from the time the participants first assemble to the time they finish the feast, takes three or four hours. Afterward the participants go to their own houses. They are not supposed to go to their fields for the whole day, though they may do chores about the house. Sacrifices of this sort are the commonest kind of ceremony performed by the people of Rengsanggri. They involve only a half dozen or so neighbors and relatives, and they are held whenever the need arises. Occasionally two or three may even be held on the same day if several people in the village are sick. Altogether several hundred sacrifices are likely to be performed in the village of Rengsanggri in a single year.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 55§REF§ They also officiated at village festivals: ‘Wangala is one of the three festivals at which group dancing takes place. This occurs in the courtyards in front of the houses, where people like to keep a sizable cleared space for this very purpose. Both married and unmarried people take part, though dancing is generally felt to be most appropriate for the young, especially those who are unmarried. Group dancing is almost exclusively a night pastime, and may continue intermittently until dawn.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 66§REF§ During the pre-colonial period, some missionary contact took place, but Christianization itself only accelerated after the British occupation: ‘The third major influence on the Garos, and in some ways the most important, has been that of Christianity. American Baptist missionaries began to have a few peripheral contacts with the Garos even before their hills were occupied by the British. Missionaries were stationed in Goalpara, a town on the Brahmaputra just north of the Garo Hills, and some of their work was with Garos. However, intensive Christianization began only after the occupation of the hills. American missionaries followed the government officers into the hills and like them set up their headquarters in the town of Tura, which remains the center of Garo Christian activities today. The missionaries not only evangelized, but from the beginning carried out extensive medical and educational work.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 312§REF§ Accordingly, this variable was coded for A’chik practitioners rather than Christian missionaries."
        },
        {
            "id": 52,
            "polity": {
                "id": 112,
                "name": "in_achik_2",
                "long_name": "Late A'chik",
                "start_year": 1867,
                "end_year": 1956
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>(1) Village Priest (Kamal)<br>‘A Garo religious practitioner is known as KAMAL. The word is used to mean 'specialist'; thus a midwife may be a kamal. A kamal has neither special privilege nor prestige from his service to the society.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§ The village priest or healer deals with misfortune caused by malicious sprites: ‘These mite live in many places. Some dwell in the village, others in the jungle, near a tree, or by a stream or waterfall. A fork in a road is a favorite place, and powerful mite are said to live on mountain tops. All are dealt with in the same general fashion, though the details of the sacrifices differ. Several men usually spend about two hours building an altar. Most altars are built of bamboo and leaves, but the precise form depends upon the particular spirit to whom the sacrifice is to be directed. Once the altar is built, a ritually skilled man must offer an egg, a chicken, a pig, or even a cow, depending upon the seriousness of the disease and the demands of the mite. This priest kills the animal in a ritually prescribed manner, and smears the blood on to the altar. He recites a number of chants while standing or squatting before the altar, and usually pours a bit of rice beer on to the ground as an additional offering. At a sacrifice to cure disease, as on other occasions when animals are ceremoniously killed, the priest inspects their viscera for omens. If the proper portion of a chicken’s intestines prove to be filled, for instance, the prognosis is good; otherwise it is bad. While the priest is performing the ritual, the men who have helped build the altar sit around, chatting and joking, with no outward signs of respect or attention. There is no ecstasy and no sleight of hand, and the sick person is not even necessarily present. When the formalities are completed, the helpers prepare the animal and cook it into a curry. Rice is boiled, and all of the helpers share in the ensuing meal. Typically, the entire sacrifice, from the time the participants first assemble to the time they finish the feast, takes three or four hours. Afterward the participants go to their own houses. They are not supposed to go to their fields for the whole day, though they may do chores about the house. Sacrifices of this sort are the commonest kind of ceremony performed by the people of Rengsanggri. They involve only a half dozen or so neighbors and relatives, and they are held whenever the need arises. Occasionally two or three may even be held on the same day if several people in the village are sick. Altogether several hundred sacrifices are likely to be performed in the village of Rengsanggri in a single year.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 55§REF§ They also officiate at village festivals: ‘Wangala is one of the three festivals at which group dancing takes place. This occurs in the courtyards in front of the houses, where people like to keep a sizable cleared space for this very purpose. Both married and unmarried people take part, though dancing is generally felt to be most appropriate for the young, especially those who are unmarried. Group dancing is almost exclusively a night pastime, and may continue intermittently until dawn.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 66§REF§ During the colonial period, the A’chik population became the target of missionary activities: ‘The third major influence on the Garos, and in some ways the most important, has been that of Christianity. American Baptist missionaries began to have a few peripheral contacts with the Garos even before their hills were occupied by the British. Missionaries were stationed in Goalpara, a town on the Brahmaputra just north of the Garo Hills, and some of their work was with Garos. However, intensive Christianization began only after the occupation of the hills. American missionaries followed the government officers into the hills and like them set up their headquarters in the town of Tura, which remains the center of Garo Christian activities today. The missionaries not only evangelized, but from the beginning carried out extensive medical and educational work.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 312§REF§ But the process of Christianization was initially slow and statistically insignificant for most of the colonial period, the majority of the population remaining Songsarek (i.e., attached to indigenous beliefs and rituals), although the subsequent decades experienced a rapid growth of the Christian population: ‘As per the census report, prior to 1941 in the Garo Hills none claimed as Christians. The presence of Buddhists in the Garo Hills was first reported in the 1941 census report and the presence of Muslim in the 1961 census report. Islam in the Garo Hills was spread by traders much before 1961, and Christianity by the British as early as 1847. By 1911, there were 5314 people enrolled as Christians. There was steady rise in the Christian population after independence. The rise in the Christian population was very high. After 1961 there was rise in the Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist population but, their increase has not been significant as compared with the rise in Christian population.’ §REF§Pandey, M. C. 1995. “Demographic Profile Of The Garo Hills”, 26§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 53,
            "polity": {
                "id": 388,
                "name": "in_gupta_emp",
                "long_name": "Gupta Empire",
                "start_year": 320,
                "end_year": 550
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 5,
            "religious_level_to": 5,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>_Hinduism_<br>There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&amp;id=1864556\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&amp;id=1864556</a>§REF§. However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g. §REF§G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4§REF§), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels.<br>_Jainism_<br>NOTE: I have found two equally authoritative sources on Jain hierarchy:<br>(1) §REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319§REF§<br>1. <i>Arihants</i> (ones who have conquered their inner enemies)2. <i>Siddhas</i> (Liberated Ones)3. <i>Acharyas</i> (who head the Order)4. <i>Upadhyays</i> (who teach the message)5. <i>Sadhus</i> (Monks/Seekers)<br>(2) §REF§M. Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka (2006), pp. 269-276§REF§<br>1. Guru (teacher)2. Monks<br>2. Male figure (not specified by author whether a monk) in charge of nuns3. <i>Pravartini</i> or <i>ganini</i> (aides to the male figure in charge of nuns)4. Nuns<br>_Buddhism_<br>\"Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to 'pure' teachings and exemption from 'impure' duties.\" §REF§P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628§REF§."
        },
        {
            "id": 54,
            "polity": {
                "id": 95,
                "name": "in_hoysala_k",
                "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom",
                "start_year": 1108,
                "end_year": 1346
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 2,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>Estimate based on Buddhist and Jain hierarchies known from other polities"
        },
        {
            "id": 55,
            "polity": {
                "id": 132,
                "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1",
                "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I",
                "start_year": 750,
                "end_year": 946
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 2,
            "religious_level_to": 2,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "1. Caliph as head of the Sunni Muslim umma.<br>2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the muslim world.<br>In theory the Caliphate and governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) and aesthetics (Sufis) increasingly attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths were not clearly hierarchical and all were equal before Allah. §REF§Lapidus, History of Islamic Society p. 82,p. 215§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 56,
            "polity": {
                "id": 342,
                "name": "iq_babylonia_2",
                "long_name": "Kassite Babylonia",
                "start_year": -1595,
                "end_year": -1150
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 3,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. At least three: (1) Sanga/Shangum (2) Senior staff (diviners, exorcists, lamentation priests), (3) Snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, singers, barbers, chefs.<br>\"The more important or specialist cultic officials (“priests,” although there was no blanket Mesopotamian term with this meaning), administrative staff, scribes, and artisans would have been permanent employees of the temple[...] At their head was the sanga / shangum (chief priest), whose role was as much administrative as religious. Others had a more exclusively ritual role, headed by the en priest or en / entum priestess, who was the spouse of the city deity: This post lapsed after the OB period, although it was revived by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadrezzar II. Other cultic personnel included snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, and singers, and more senior staff included diviners, exorcists, and lamentation priests\".§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 57,
            "polity": {
                "id": 481,
                "name": "iq_bazi_dyn",
                "long_name": "Bazi Dynasty",
                "start_year": -1005,
                "end_year": -986
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 3,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. At least three: (1) Sanga/Shangum (2) Senior staff (diviners, exorcists, lamentation priests), (3) Snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, singers, barbers, chefs.<br>\"The more important or specialist cultic officials (“priests,” although there was no blanket Mesopotamian term with this meaning), administrative staff, scribes, and artisans would have been permanent employees of the temple[...] At their head was the sanga / shangum (chief priest), whose role was as much administrative as religious. Others had a more exclusively ritual role, headed by the en priest or en / entum priestess, who was the spouse of the city deity: This post lapsed after the OB period, although it was revived by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadrezzar II. Other cultic personnel included snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, and singers, and more senior staff included diviners, exorcists, and lamentation priests\".§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 58,
            "polity": {
                "id": 482,
                "name": "iq_dynasty_e",
                "long_name": "Dynasty of E",
                "start_year": -979,
                "end_year": -732
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 3,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. At least three: (1) Sanga/Shangum (2) Senior staff (diviners, exorcists, lamentation priests), (3) Snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, singers, barbers, chefs.<br>\"The more important or specialist cultic officials (“priests,” although there was no blanket Mesopotamian term with this meaning), administrative staff, scribes, and artisans would have been permanent employees of the temple[...] At their head was the sanga / shangum (chief priest), whose role was as much administrative as religious. Others had a more exclusively ritual role, headed by the en priest or en / entum priestess, who was the spouse of the city deity: This post lapsed after the OB period, although it was revived by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadrezzar II. Other cultic personnel included snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, and singers, and more senior staff included diviners, exorcists, and lamentation priests\".§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 59,
            "polity": {
                "id": 480,
                "name": "iq_isin_dynasty2",
                "long_name": "Second Dynasty of Isin",
                "start_year": -1153,
                "end_year": -1027
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 3,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. At least three: (1) Sanga/Shangum (2) Senior staff (diviners, exorcists, lamentation priests), (3) Snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, singers, barbers, chefs.<br>\"The more important or specialist cultic officials (“priests,” although there was no blanket Mesopotamian term with this meaning), administrative staff, scribes, and artisans would have been permanent employees of the temple[...] At their head was the sanga / shangum (chief priest), whose role was as much administrative as religious. Others had a more exclusively ritual role, headed by the en priest or en / entum priestess, who was the spouse of the city deity: This post lapsed after the OB period, although it was revived by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadrezzar II. Other cultic personnel included snake charmers, acrobats, musicians, and singers, and more senior staff included diviners, exorcists, and lamentation priests\".§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 60,
            "polity": {
                "id": 478,
                "name": "iq_isin_larsa",
                "long_name": "Isin-Larsa",
                "start_year": -2004,
                "end_year": -1763
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 4,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. Copied from IqUrIII."
        },
        {
            "id": 61,
            "polity": {
                "id": 106,
                "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp",
                "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire",
                "start_year": -911,
                "end_year": -612
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 3,
            "religious_level_to": 3,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"The god Aššur and the city of Aššur are inseparable, as the deity is the personification of the rocky crag that towers high above a bend of the river Tigris.\" §REF§(Radler 2014)§REF§<br>1. KingAssur’s representative on Earth and the highest priest. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 75-76)§REF§<br>2. High Priests<br>3. Other priestsPriests and astrologers. §REF§(Davidson 2012, 28)§REF§ Priests and diviners. Sacrifices. Sheep livers examined for omens. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 77)§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 62,
            "polity": {
                "id": 477,
                "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3",
                "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III",
                "start_year": -2112,
                "end_year": -2004
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 4,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>Coded 4 for Akkadian period.<br>\"Ur-Nammu and his successors continued the tradition of deifying the ruling king. However, the king was not seen as a hero, like in the Akkadian period, but as a central cultic and administrative figure.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 157) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"The deified kings of Ur consequently replaced the city-gods as ultimate heads of the land.;"
        },
        {
            "id": 63,
            "polity": {
                "id": 487,
                "name": "ir_susiana_archaic",
                "long_name": "Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar",
                "start_year": -7000,
                "end_year": -6000
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>\"Communities were united and motivated by common religious beliefs, visible from the various cultic artefacts and objects found ... This religiosity had two main complementary aspect: a funerary aspect, linked, through ancestral cults, to the patriarchal structure of these communities (an aspect that was already visible in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B); and a fertility aspect (human, animal and agrarian), brought to the fore by the development of food production techniques.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 42) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>In the later Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\" c3800-3000 BCE that the following quote refers to religious ideology became more complex, so can infer still low level religious complexity in this period: \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 64,
            "polity": {
                "id": 486,
                "name": "ir_susiana_formative",
                "long_name": "Formative Period",
                "start_year": -7200,
                "end_year": -7000
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 0,
            "religious_level_to": 0,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>In the 7000-6000 BCE period we get first reference that: \"Communities were united and motivated by common religious beliefs, visible from the various cultic artefacts and objects found ... This religiosity had two main complementary aspect: a funerary aspect, linked, through ancestral cults, to the patriarchal structure of these communities (an aspect that was already visible in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B); and a fertility aspect (human, animal and agrarian), brought to the fore by the development of food production techniques.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 42) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 65,
            "polity": {
                "id": 488,
                "name": "ir_susiana_a",
                "long_name": "Susiana A",
                "start_year": -6000,
                "end_year": -5700
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>In the later Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\" c3800-3000 BCE that the following quote refers to religious ideology became more complex, so can infer still low level religious complexity in this period: \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 66,
            "polity": {
                "id": 500,
                "name": "ir_elam_6",
                "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period",
                "start_year": -1399,
                "end_year": -1200
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 2,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>Estimate. Sounds quite extensive religious organization so slightly higher top end of range than earlier periods.<br>1. Chief Priest<br>there was a priestess of Susa§REF§(Potts 2016, 190) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>2. Assistant Priest3.4<br>Temples like the ziggurat of Choga Zanbil§REF§(Potts 2016, 216) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ attest to the religious complexity in this period.<br>\"During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, 'the great mother of the gods to the Elamites' and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 67,
            "polity": {
                "id": 485,
                "name": "ir_susiana_pre_ceramic",
                "long_name": "Pre-Ceramic Period",
                "start_year": -7800,
                "end_year": -7200
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 0,
            "religious_level_to": 0,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>In the 7000-6000 BCE period we get first reference that: \"Communities were united and motivated by common religious beliefs, visible from the various cultic artefacts and objects found ... This religiosity had two main complementary aspect: a funerary aspect, linked, through ancestral cults, to the patriarchal structure of these communities (an aspect that was already visible in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B); and a fertility aspect (human, animal and agrarian), brought to the fore by the development of food production techniques.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 42) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 68,
            "polity": {
                "id": 128,
                "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1",
                "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I",
                "start_year": 205,
                "end_year": 487
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 4,
            "religious_level_to": 5,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "_Zoroastrianism_ \"or more exactly Mazdaism\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 204) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Third-century CE Zoroastrian two priests were highly influential in the development of Zoroastrianism as the Sasanid state religion (three if we include Pabag, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, who was a priest).<br>Kerdir \"may be considered the father of the Zoroastrian church in this period, as he was the one who attempted to make Zoroastrianism into a uniform body, with a unified doctrine, attached to the state.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 188-189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The Sasanian sources state that Tosar was responsible for the codification of the Avesta ... Kerdir brought about the organization of the church and a religious hierarchy.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 188-189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>1. King of Kings (until Shapur II)<br>2. Ohrmaz mowbed (chief priest)§REF§(Daryaee 2009) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ mowbedan mowbed§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§mowbedan mowbed was the \"head of the religious order\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Kerdir was one powerful Zoroastrian priest, caretaker of the Anahid fire temple at time of Wahram II (274-293 CE).§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>\"When Sassanid kings were raised to the throne they received the insignia of royal authority from the chief Mobedh who held the highest religious office.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 186) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. mowbed (district level) (head priest)§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§\"important functions and carried out legal as well as religious and administrative duties.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. mow/mogThe magus (mow/mog) had a higher status and later was also involved in economic and legal matters. Above him was the chief magus (mowbed), who held an important position and was probably the main religious authority throughout the empire.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4-5. herbeds (teacher priests)§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§\"instructed the people in daily ritual, prayer, and tradition and tended the fire.\"<br>\"Three major fire-temples were established for the three classes ... Smaller fire-temples existed in the villages and towns, attended by a teacher-priest (herbed).\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 189) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"Magians had a hierarchy parallel to that of the state, a hierarchical judicial administration specifically for Zoroastrians, a cult, scriptures, religious laws, and distinctive customs. It was the religion of the elite and rulers.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 16) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Eight different priests required for some Zoroastrian rituals e.g. vispered ritual and the videvad sade purification ritual \"who took up specific positions in the ritual area, also described in the Nirangestan.\"§REF§(Skjaervo 2012, 89) Skjaervo, Prods Oktor. Avestan Society. in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>haoma-pressing priest (hawanan)<br>fire-lighting priest (atr-wakhsh)<br>presenting priest (frabertar)<br>tending priest, who brings water (abert or danu-uzwaza, which refers to the river Danu)<br>washing priest (asnatar)<br>mingling priest (raethwish-kar)<br>auditing priest (sraoshawarz)<br>one who brings sacrificial animal (pasu-wazah)<br>Comprehensive source on Zoroastrian religion: Moazami (2016) \"Zoroastrianism: Religious texts, theology, history and culture.\"§REF§Moazami, Mahnaz. 2016. Zoroastrianism: Religious texts, theology, history and culture. Encylopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.biblioiranica.info/zoroastrianism-religious-texts-theology-history-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.biblioiranica.info/zoroastrianism-religious-texts-theology-history-and-culture/</a>§REF§<br>_Nestorian Christianity_<br>\"first synod of the Nestorian Church was convened in 410\" during reign of Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE).§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon; he and the Jewish exilarch became responsible for their coreligionists.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The Sasanian state used the churches as intermediaries to regulate and tax the population.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 18) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. Patriach<br>\"Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon\".§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>the Sasanid king \"organized a Christian Persian church that grew in number, and many in the royal family and the nobility, especially the women, gravitated toward this religion.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 205) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>2. Catholicos in province\"The Christian community was headed by the Catholicos\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The Catholicos in each province oversaw the Christian congregation and provided money and guidance for the community.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 205) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Metropolitan\"The Sasanians appointed a catholicos or patriarch and a metropolitan to preside over the bishops in parallel with the Sasanian administrative hierarchy.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 16) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>4. Bishops of Bishoprics\"According to al-Biruni, Christianity had reached Merv within 200 years of the birth of Christ and the first reference to a Merv bishopric dates to the year 334.\"§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 474) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>5. Heads of Churches\"by the end of the Sasanian period there were churches and bishoprics established throughout the empire, and many from the royal family also converted to Christianity.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 198) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"Royal permission was required for the election of the heads of churches, for construction of buildings, for burials, and even for the issue of monastic rules.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 18) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>6.<br>_Judaism_<br>1. Exilarch (Resh Galut)§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>2. Rabbis§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§3.<br>_Buddhism_<br>\"The Buddhas of Bamiyan and a number of Iranian texts in the Sogdian and Khotanese languages are testaments to the importance of Buddhism in eastern Iran.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 205) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>_Manicheanism_<br>\"Manicheans moved east and westward, through some still remained in Iran, to write down their tradition and spread it among all people.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 205) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Manichaean community in Merv mid-3rd CE.§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 474) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 69,
            "polity": {
                "id": 498,
                "name": "ir_elam_4",
                "long_name": "Elam - Late Sukkalmah",
                "start_year": -1700,
                "end_year": -1500
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 2,
            "religious_level_to": 3,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>No data. This is the estimate for the early periods and temples existed in this period e.g. temple of Shilkhak-In-Shushinak§REF§Hinz 1971, 659§REF§<br>\"During the third millennium B.C.E., the most important deity in Elam was the goddess Pinikir, 'the great mother of the gods to the Elamites' and the great mistress of heaven. Later, another goddess, Kirrisha, surpassed her, but many goddesses were gradually demoted and replaced in rank by male gods. Yet Kirrisha never lost her title as the main goddess of Elam, and it is significant for later developments that she married two of her brothers who were major gods. Kings often built temples to honor her and appear to her for protection. Despite being demoted, Elamite goddesses retained a higher status than goddesses in Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Nashat 2003, 14) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 70,
            "polity": {
                "id": 115,
                "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth",
                "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth",
                "start_year": 930,
                "end_year": 1262
            },
            "year_from": 930,
            "year_to": 1055,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>(2) Bishops; (1) Priests<br>'At the start of the Icelandic Commonwealth the dominant religious tradition was Nordic paganism. There is no data on the number of religious levels for Nordic paganism. Christianity (in the form of Catholicism) was introduced around 1000 CE. In 1056 CE Christianity was officially accepted as the official religion. The conversion was largely the result of a top-down decision. There is no data available on a popular Christian movement in the years before 1056 CE. The Church followed the standardized Catholic hierarchy consisting of a bishop, (deacons), and priests. Before 1056 the code should probably be 1 as we have no indications of religious hierarchy in either pagan or early Christian times.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ Christianity was introduced around 1000ce: 'Iceland was settled before any significant impact of Christianity in Scandinavia and the early Icelanders were pagans. Many of the Celtic people incorporated in the foundational population were probably Christian but this appears to have had little impact in the society in general. Pre-Christian religious practices are known largely by poetic and literary sources, all recorded during the Christian era, and some traces of material culture. These sources depict a rich cosmology including the Norse pantheon of gods and giants. Thor held a place of special significance based on his frequent inclusion in person and place names. The Icelanders inhabited an environment rich in supernatural entities including trolls, elves, and ghosts. Prescience and magical abilities were often attributed to individuals. In 1000 A.D., responding to a combination of internal and foreign pressure exerted by the Norwegian king, the Icelanders meeting at the General Assembly decided to adopt Christianity as the common religion. Hencefor th Iceland was officially Christian although many of the traditional beliefs remained.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beirle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ 'By the end of the 10th century, the Norwegians were forced by their king, Olaf I Tryggvason, to accept Christianity. The king also sent missionaries to Iceland who, according to 12th-century sources, were highly successful in converting the Icelanders. In 999 or 1000 the Althing made a peaceful decision that all Icelanders should become Christians. In spite of this decision, the godar retained their political role, and many of them probably built their own churches. Some were ordained, and as a group they seem to have closely controlled the organization of the new religion. Two bishoprics were established, one at Skálholt in 1056 and the other at Hólar in 1106. Literate Christian culture also transformed lay life. Codification of the law was begun in 1117-18. Later the Icelanders began to write sagas, which were to reach their pinnacle of literary achievement in the next century.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10088\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10088</a>§REF§ During the pagan period, chiefs frequently fulfilled religious functions: 'Pagan ceremonies were varied, and the details handed down by later Christian texts are not clear. Sacrificial rites performed by household heads or chieftains played a part in the ritual. Certain rituals seeking the intercession of spirits for divination or assistance (SEIÐR) were largely performed by women. Special cultic sites or buildings (HOFS) existed but religious ceremonies were not limited to these settings. Sacrificial activities were banned shortly after the conversion and Christian ceremonies such as baptism and communion were introduced.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beirle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ The offices of priest and bishop were introduced after the formal adoption of Christianity, but chiefs and farmers remained primary actors in the performance of rituals: 'The political institution of chieftaincy (GOÐORÐ) was rooted in religious function, a priestly office of intermediary between the community and supernatural forces. It is unclear the degree to which the role of chieftains had been secularized by the occupation of Iceland, but it is likely chiefs played a continued role in local religious activities by performing rites and sacrifices. Religious activities were not exclusive to chieftains. Individuals played a variety of intermediary between the mundane and supernatural roles including private devotions, divination, and sorcery. The conversion to Christianity brought with it the institutions of priest and bishop to Iceland. Throughout much of the early period, the institutional power of the church was weak. Churches were located on privately owned farmlands and were built and maintained by the local farmers who maintained a priest or served as priest himself. The early farm churches were small and probably served little more than the household and immediate neighbors.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beirle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ The few Icelandic bishops of the Commonwealth period resembled chiefs in their reliance on additional household labour: 'Although I would prefer to flout the conventional wisdom that slavery had all but died out by the eleventh century (Karras 1988a), the household laborers that replaced them in the Commonwealth period were numerous. When Þórðr kakali returns to Iceland Kolbeinn ungi immediately sends out thirty húsmenn to look for him in Eyjafjörðr. Þorsteinn Cod-biter had sixty free men in his household (Eyrbyggja saga, ÍF 4, ch. 11); Guðmundr the Mighty had one hundred (Brennu-Njáls saga, ÍF 12, ch. 113); Sörla þáttr (Ljósvetninga saga), ÍF 10, ch. 1:109); Bishop Páll's household at Skálholt (ca 1200) had seventy to eighty residents, and a household with eighty has been discussed above. It is probably not unfair to say that by the Commonwealth period the majority of the wealth of great bœndur and goðar was the product of teams of house-men and women.' §REF§Samson, Ross 1992. “Goðar: Democrats Of Despots?”, 179§REF§ The interests of the church and the 'secular' elites were in conflict during the phase of intensified internal strife that preceded the Norwegian period: 'As I have mentioned earlier, the era of the Sturlungs was a period bordering on civil war, in which the Sturlunga family was central. What kinds of sentiments would the author of the Eyrbyggja saga, who must have been close to the Sturlungs, be likely to express? Although some of the Sturlung family's most prominent members in Norway had solemnly obliged themselves to further the king's cause, they nevertheless tended to forget the vow when they returned to Iceland. As also was the case with other chieftains, they preferred to act independently of the king. Some of the Sturlungs clearly harbored dreams of being Icelandic kings; others preferred a society governed by an oligarchy of Icelandic [Page 144] chieftains. In both cases sentiments would have been against the Norwegian king's growing influence in Iceland. The Sturlungs were therefore likely to express anti-royal feelings, even though they might admire the king's person. As the aristocracy was competing with the Church, we may also assume that the Sturlungs were against the ascending dominance of the Church in juridical, economic, and moral matters (Hastrup 1985, ch. 7). Two of the Sturlungs had in fact been instrumental in removing bishop Ari Guðmundsson from his bishopric in northern Iceland in 1222 (ST 1:287-298). As representatives of the dominant class, the Sturlungs were also likely to express contempt towards the lower classes. We find all these structurally determined resentments in Eyrbyggja saga.' §REF§Odner, Knut 1992. “Þógunna’S Testament: A Myth For Moral Contemplation And Social Apathy”, 143§REF§ The bishops received seats in the parliament of the general assembly: 'One of the peculiarities of early Iceland was the lack of formal state institutions. The legislature, extensive law code, and judicial system of local and higher courts left prosecution and the enforcement of settlements in the hands of individuals. From an early date, the country was divided into Quarters. Each quarter constituted a broad community with three assemblies (ÞINGS), with the exception of the Northern Quarter that had four, and a system of local courts. Once a year the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) met in the southwest of Iceland. Judicial cases that could not be resolved in local quarters were heard and the parliament (LÖGRÉTTA) convened. The parliament was the principal legislative institution and was responsible for the introduction and maintanence of law. It consisted of chieftains (GOÐAR) from the local quarters. After the conversion to Christianity, the two Icelandic bishops were each given a seat in the parliament. The institution of chieftaincy (GOÐORÐ) was the main locus of political leadership in the country. Originally there were 36 but this number was later expanded. Chieftaincies themselves were a form of property and could be alienated and even divided among multiple individuals. In some cases, individuals asserted power beyond the scope of the political system and controlled multiple chieftaincies. All independent farmers had to be affiliated with a chieftain, although they could choose among any of the chieftains in their quarter and could switch allegiances if they did not feel that their needs were being met. Other than a seat on the parliament, chieftains had few rights beyond those of other independent farmers and few institutional means of dominating others. Chieftains derived much of their authority from their ability to broker support as advocates for their constituents in legal disputes or feuds.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 71,
            "polity": {
                "id": 115,
                "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth",
                "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth",
                "start_year": 930,
                "end_year": 1262
            },
            "year_from": 1056,
            "year_to": 1262,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 2,
            "religious_level_to": 2,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>(2) Bishops; (1) Priests<br>'At the start of the Icelandic Commonwealth the dominant religious tradition was Nordic paganism. There is no data on the number of religious levels for Nordic paganism. Christianity (in the form of Catholicism) was introduced around 1000 CE. In 1056 CE Christianity was officially accepted as the official religion. The conversion was largely the result of a top-down decision. There is no data available on a popular Christian movement in the years before 1056 CE. The Church followed the standardized Catholic hierarchy consisting of a bishop, (deacons), and priests. Before 1056 the code should probably be 1 as we have no indications of religious hierarchy in either pagan or early Christian times.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ Christianity was introduced around 1000ce: 'Iceland was settled before any significant impact of Christianity in Scandinavia and the early Icelanders were pagans. Many of the Celtic people incorporated in the foundational population were probably Christian but this appears to have had little impact in the society in general. Pre-Christian religious practices are known largely by poetic and literary sources, all recorded during the Christian era, and some traces of material culture. These sources depict a rich cosmology including the Norse pantheon of gods and giants. Thor held a place of special significance based on his frequent inclusion in person and place names. The Icelanders inhabited an environment rich in supernatural entities including trolls, elves, and ghosts. Prescience and magical abilities were often attributed to individuals. In 1000 A.D., responding to a combination of internal and foreign pressure exerted by the Norwegian king, the Icelanders meeting at the General Assembly decided to adopt Christianity as the common religion. Hencefor th Iceland was officially Christian although many of the traditional beliefs remained.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beirle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ 'By the end of the 10th century, the Norwegians were forced by their king, Olaf I Tryggvason, to accept Christianity. The king also sent missionaries to Iceland who, according to 12th-century sources, were highly successful in converting the Icelanders. In 999 or 1000 the Althing made a peaceful decision that all Icelanders should become Christians. In spite of this decision, the godar retained their political role, and many of them probably built their own churches. Some were ordained, and as a group they seem to have closely controlled the organization of the new religion. Two bishoprics were established, one at Skálholt in 1056 and the other at Hólar in 1106. Literate Christian culture also transformed lay life. Codification of the law was begun in 1117-18. Later the Icelanders began to write sagas, which were to reach their pinnacle of literary achievement in the next century.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10088\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10088</a>§REF§ During the pagan period, chiefs frequently fulfilled religious functions: 'Pagan ceremonies were varied, and the details handed down by later Christian texts are not clear. Sacrificial rites performed by household heads or chieftains played a part in the ritual. Certain rituals seeking the intercession of spirits for divination or assistance (SEIÐR) were largely performed by women. Special cultic sites or buildings (HOFS) existed but religious ceremonies were not limited to these settings. Sacrificial activities were banned shortly after the conversion and Christian ceremonies such as baptism and communion were introduced.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beirle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ The offices of priest and bishop were introduced after the formal adoption of Christianity, but chiefs and farmers remained primary actors in the performance of rituals: 'The political institution of chieftaincy (GOÐORÐ) was rooted in religious function, a priestly office of intermediary between the community and supernatural forces. It is unclear the degree to which the role of chieftains had been secularized by the occupation of Iceland, but it is likely chiefs played a continued role in local religious activities by performing rites and sacrifices. Religious activities were not exclusive to chieftains. Individuals played a variety of intermediary between the mundane and supernatural roles including private devotions, divination, and sorcery. The conversion to Christianity brought with it the institutions of priest and bishop to Iceland. Throughout much of the early period, the institutional power of the church was weak. Churches were located on privately owned farmlands and were built and maintained by the local farmers who maintained a priest or served as priest himself. The early farm churches were small and probably served little more than the household and immediate neighbors.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beirle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ The few Icelandic bishops of the Commonwealth period resembled chiefs in their reliance on additional household labour: 'Although I would prefer to flout the conventional wisdom that slavery had all but died out by the eleventh century (Karras 1988a), the household laborers that replaced them in the Commonwealth period were numerous. When Þórðr kakali returns to Iceland Kolbeinn ungi immediately sends out thirty húsmenn to look for him in Eyjafjörðr. Þorsteinn Cod-biter had sixty free men in his household (Eyrbyggja saga, ÍF 4, ch. 11); Guðmundr the Mighty had one hundred (Brennu-Njáls saga, ÍF 12, ch. 113); Sörla þáttr (Ljósvetninga saga), ÍF 10, ch. 1:109); Bishop Páll's household at Skálholt (ca 1200) had seventy to eighty residents, and a household with eighty has been discussed above. It is probably not unfair to say that by the Commonwealth period the majority of the wealth of great bœndur and goðar was the product of teams of house-men and women.' §REF§Samson, Ross 1992. “Goðar: Democrats Of Despots?”, 179§REF§ The interests of the church and the 'secular' elites were in conflict during the phase of intensified internal strife that preceded the Norwegian period: 'As I have mentioned earlier, the era of the Sturlungs was a period bordering on civil war, in which the Sturlunga family was central. What kinds of sentiments would the author of the Eyrbyggja saga, who must have been close to the Sturlungs, be likely to express? Although some of the Sturlung family's most prominent members in Norway had solemnly obliged themselves to further the king's cause, they nevertheless tended to forget the vow when they returned to Iceland. As also was the case with other chieftains, they preferred to act independently of the king. Some of the Sturlungs clearly harbored dreams of being Icelandic kings; others preferred a society governed by an oligarchy of Icelandic [Page 144] chieftains. In both cases sentiments would have been against the Norwegian king's growing influence in Iceland. The Sturlungs were therefore likely to express anti-royal feelings, even though they might admire the king's person. As the aristocracy was competing with the Church, we may also assume that the Sturlungs were against the ascending dominance of the Church in juridical, economic, and moral matters (Hastrup 1985, ch. 7). Two of the Sturlungs had in fact been instrumental in removing bishop Ari Guðmundsson from his bishopric in northern Iceland in 1222 (ST 1:287-298). As representatives of the dominant class, the Sturlungs were also likely to express contempt towards the lower classes. We find all these structurally determined resentments in Eyrbyggja saga.' §REF§Odner, Knut 1992. “Þógunna’S Testament: A Myth For Moral Contemplation And Social Apathy”, 143§REF§ The bishops received seats in the parliament of the general assembly: 'One of the peculiarities of early Iceland was the lack of formal state institutions. The legislature, extensive law code, and judicial system of local and higher courts left prosecution and the enforcement of settlements in the hands of individuals. From an early date, the country was divided into Quarters. Each quarter constituted a broad community with three assemblies (ÞINGS), with the exception of the Northern Quarter that had four, and a system of local courts. Once a year the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) met in the southwest of Iceland. Judicial cases that could not be resolved in local quarters were heard and the parliament (LÖGRÉTTA) convened. The parliament was the principal legislative institution and was responsible for the introduction and maintanence of law. It consisted of chieftains (GOÐAR) from the local quarters. After the conversion to Christianity, the two Icelandic bishops were each given a seat in the parliament. The institution of chieftaincy (GOÐORÐ) was the main locus of political leadership in the country. Originally there were 36 but this number was later expanded. Chieftaincies themselves were a form of property and could be alienated and even divided among multiple individuals. In some cases, individuals asserted power beyond the scope of the political system and controlled multiple chieftaincies. All independent farmers had to be affiliated with a chieftain, although they could choose among any of the chieftains in their quarter and could switch allegiances if they did not feel that their needs were being met. Other than a seat on the parliament, chieftains had few rights beyond those of other independent farmers and few institutional means of dominating others. Chieftains derived much of their authority from their ability to broker support as advocates for their constituents in legal disputes or feuds.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 72,
            "polity": {
                "id": 179,
                "name": "it_latium_ba",
                "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age",
                "start_year": -1800,
                "end_year": -900
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. \"There are very few signs of status differentiation amongst the few burials known. Most settlements were simple collections of huts with no evidence for internal differentiation in architecture or material culture than might suggest clear-cut divisions in society.\" §REF§G. Barker, Mediterranean Valley (1995), p. 156§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 73,
            "polity": {
                "id": 178,
                "name": "it_latium_ca",
                "long_name": "Latium - Copper Age",
                "start_year": -3600,
                "end_year": -1800
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>Only possible form of hierarchy visible is military §REF§R. Whitehouse, Underground Religion (1992), p. 21§REF§."
        },
        {
            "id": 74,
            "polity": {
                "id": 180,
                "name": "it_latium_ia",
                "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age",
                "start_year": -1000,
                "end_year": -580
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>1. Holy manThe cremated remains of what appears to have been a ritual specialist at Osteria dell'Osa have been found, accompanied by a small figurine depicting a human making an offering, as well as a miniaturised sacrificial knife, a ritually broken pot and miniaturised vessels of the kind that were used to make ritual offerings §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 52§REF§."
        },
        {
            "id": 75,
            "polity": {
                "id": 186,
                "name": "it_ostrogoth_k",
                "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom",
                "start_year": 489,
                "end_year": 554
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 5,
            "religious_level_to": 5,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Theodoric was an Arian Christian but the people remained Roman Catholic. Bishop Epiphanius moderated Theodoric's view of Romans §REF§(Bradley 2005, 153)§REF§ The Arian church had \"bishops, priests, even a few scholars commenting on the scriptures\" §REF§(Burns 1991, 161)§REF§ However, Burns argues, due to retention of pagan belief system among nobility and commoners, \"it is necessary to understand their Arianism as a tribal religion and not as some lingering form of Alexandrian heresy.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 160-161)§REF§<br>_Catholic Church_<br>1. Emperor in Constantinople<br>\"The first seven \"ecumenical\" ... councils were gathered by the Roman (or, later, Byzantine) emperors.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 21)§REF§<br>1. Bishop of a patriarchate<br>\"The churches organized themselves along the lines laid down by the geography and political order of the empire. A city (civitas), along with its surrounding rural perimeter, the foundation of imperial organization, also formed the basic unit of ecclesiastical structure. Virtually every Roman city, many of them quite small, had its own bishop. He exercised his authority over a \"diocese\" that ordinarily coincided with the boundaries of the civitas. These dioceses were then grouped into provinces, over which a metropolitan, the bishop of a province's principal city, held sway. Eventually, provinces themselves were organized into large \"patriarchates,\" each lead by one of the five preeminent bishops of the church: those in Rome, Constantinople (called \"New Rome,\" second in prestige to the Old), Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 21)§REF§<br>2. Metropolitan, with authority over a province<br>3. Bishop in civitas, with authority over a diocese<br>4. Presbyters or priests (elders)\"Evidence from the second century suggests that a wide variety of models for local clergy existed throughout the Roman Empire. Yet the one to prevail was a three-tiered, hierarchical. In this model, the bishop served as leader of the local community and was assisted by presbyters or priests (elders) and deacons. Again, this model was established in the Antioch of Ignatius, as he underscores emphatically the necessity of gathering for learning, ritual, and teaching around a single bishop. By the end of the century this three-tiered form of ministry had spread to most early Catholic communities throughout the empire, and it would soon become the sole authoritative manner of organizing local ecclesial communities.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 14)§REF§<br>5. Deacons"
        },
        {
            "id": 76,
            "polity": {
                "id": 192,
                "name": "it_papal_state_3",
                "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I",
                "start_year": 1527,
                "end_year": 1648
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 6,
            "religious_level_to": 6,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. Pope; cardinals; archbishops; bishops, abbots, and directors of the religious orders; parish priests and rank and file of the religious orders; deacons<br>1. Pope: The undisputed head of the Roman Catholic Church, and <i>pontifex maximus</i><br>2. Cardinals: Since the Middle Ages, they had assumed ever-greater powers in the Church, electing popes, overseeing dioceses in some cases, and handling theological disputes<br>3. Archbishops: Overseers of suffragan bishoprics; some archbishops were cardinals<br>4. Bishops, abbots, directors of the religious orders: Bishops of individual dioceses (such as the bishop of Lucca); abbots, heads of abbeys; directors of the religious orders: The leaders of orders such as the Jesuits, Carmelites, and Franciscans.<br>5. Parish priests and the rank and file of the orders: The quotidian representatives of the Church, corresponding to the parish.<br>6. deacons: usually, charged with the upkeep of churches; the Roman deacons still probably played a role in the upkeep of the city."
        },
        {
            "id": 77,
            "polity": {
                "id": 193,
                "name": "it_papal_state_4",
                "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II",
                "start_year": 1648,
                "end_year": 1809
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 6,
            "religious_level_to": 6,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Pope; cardinals; archbishops; bishops, abbots, and directors of the religious orders; parish priests and rank and file of the religious orders; deacons<br>1. Pope: The undisputed head of the Roman Catholic Church.<br>2. Cardinals: Since the Middle Ages, they had assumed ever-greater powers in the Church, electing popes, overseeing dioceses in some cases, and handling theological disputes<br>3. Archbishops: Overseers of suffragan bishoprics; some archbishops were cardinals<br>4. Bishops, abbots, directors of the religious orders: Bishops of individual dioceses (such as the bishop of Lucca); abbots, heads of abbeys; directors of the religious orders: The leaders of orders such as the Carmelites and Franciscans.<br>5. Parish priests and the rank and file of the orders: The quotidian representatives of the Church<br>6. deacons: usually, charged with the upkeep of churches; the Roman deacons still probably played a role in the upkeep of the city."
        },
        {
            "id": 78,
            "polity": {
                "id": 191,
                "name": "it_papal_state_2",
                "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period",
                "start_year": 1378,
                "end_year": 1527
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 5,
            "religious_level_to": 5,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Pope; Cardinals and legates; archbishops; bishops and abbots; parish priests and members of the religious orders; deacons.<br>1. Pope: The pope was, of course, the universally-acknowledged leader of Latin Christendom. This does not contradict the fact that who exactly was the legitimate pope was often contested during the period 1378-1418, during the Great Schism. During this period the papacy arrogated to itself the right to appoint bishops, negating the tradition of bishops being elected by their flock in conjunction with the priesthood.§REF§Peterson,§REF§<br>2. Cardinals and legates: The cardinalate was crucial in theological decision-making and the religious aspects of papal government; legates, similarly, handled religious matters abroad on occasion.<br>3. Archbishops: To a certain extent, archbishops were equivalent to cardinals, but there were more of them, distributed throughout Christendom. They supervised their suffragan bishops and bishoprics, while also overseeing their own (a good example is the Archbishop of Milan).<br>4. Bishops and abbots: Bishops were the crucial link between local religion and the papacy. There were 263 bishoprics in 14th century Italy.§REF§Najemy, 62§REF§ Abbots sometimes played a role beyond the walls of their monasteries, although by this point once-powerful regional centers such as Farfa were in decline in Lazio.<br>5. Parish priests and members of the religious orders: These constituted the mundane religious level. Parish priests embodied Christianity for their flock, for the most part, since they said Mass, heard confession and, in general, were (supposed to) serve as the quotidian face of the organized Church. Members of the religious orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, and so forth) also were a common part of the Church's presence, especially in the towns.§REF§For Franciscan activity in the Tuscan countryside in a slightly early period, see de La Roncière.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 79,
            "polity": {
                "id": 182,
                "name": "it_roman_rep_1",
                "long_name": "Early Roman Republic",
                "start_year": -509,
                "end_year": -264
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 4,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "§REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§§REF§(Rives 2007)§REF§§REF§(North and Price 2011)§REF§<br>1. Pontifex maximus<br>2. Colleges (flamines, augurs, pontifices, vestals)Three colleges of religious officials. 1. augurs 2. decemviri sacris faciundis 3. pontifices<br>3. high priests of imperial cult in provinces4. priests for a deity (running a specific temple or sanctuary)<br>\"Freelance\" religious officials (soothsayers, oracles, seers, etc). This hierarchy refers to the state religion only.<br>Six Vestals, appointd by pontifex maximus. Girls 6-10 with two living parents served 30 years during which time had to remain chaste. After 30 released and free to marry. Duties included: tend sacred fire and sacred objects \"on which the survival of Rome depended (such as the 'palladium')\"; making salt cakes used at sacrifices; various rituals and ceremonial appearances. Vestals had unique \"old-fashioned and heavy\" costumes and impressive hairstyles \"which other women only wore on their wedding\".<br>\"Because a vestal's person was sacrosanct, she could not be executed. Instead, she was entombed in an underground chamber with a bed, a lamp, and some food and water, and left to die. Male accomplices were publicly flogged to death.\"§REF§(McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"The vestal virgins were responsible for maintaining the temple of Vesta and performing the rites of the goddess. They ensured that her holy flame, said to have been brought from Troy, was not extingished.\"§REF§(McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>The vestal virgins had many privileges: \"Wills and treaties were in their keeping, and they themselves could make a will. They could conduct business in their own name. They could give evidence in court without taking an oath. ... If they accidentally met a criminal on his way to execution, he was spared.\"§REF§(McKeown 2010, 13) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§; \"any injury to them was punishable by death; they could own and administer their own property ...; when they went out they were preceded by a lictor and had complete right of way on the streets; they could even drive in carriages within the city limits (otherwise only permitted to empresses).\"§REF§(Claridge 1998, 103) Claridge, Amanda. 1998. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§; given prominent seats at games.§REF§(McKeown 2010, 15) McKeown, J. C. 2010. A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 80,
            "polity": {
                "id": 544,
                "name": "it_venetian_rep_3",
                "long_name": "Republic of Venice III",
                "start_year": 1204,
                "end_year": 1563
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 5,
            "religious_level_to": 5,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " The Venetian religious policy \"expected the Greeks to abandon their traditional form of Christianity and accept Latin rites and doctrines.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 33-34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br><i>Using same code as for Papal States of this period, which was coded and referenced by our expert Joe Figliulo-Rosswurm.</i><br>Pope; Cardinals and legates; archbishops; bishops and abbots; parish priests and members of the religious orders; deacons.<br>1. Pope: The pope was, of course, the universally-acknowledged leader of Latin Christendom. This does not contradict the fact that who exactly was the legitimate pope was often contested during the period 1378-1418, during the Great Schism. During this period the papacy arrogated to itself the right to appoint bishops, negating the tradition of bishops being elected by their flock in conjunction with the priesthood.§REF§Peterson,§REF§<br>2. Cardinals and legates: The cardinalate was crucial in theological decision-making and the religious aspects of papal government; legates, similarly, handled religious matters abroad on occasion.<br>3. Archbishops: To a certain extent, archbishops were equivalent to cardinals, but there were more of them, distributed throughout Christendom. They supervised their suffragan bishops and bishoprics, while also overseeing their own (a good example is the Archbishop of Milan).<br>4. Bishops and abbots: Bishops were the crucial link between local religion and the papacy. There were 263 bishoprics in 14th century Italy.§REF§Najemy, 62§REF§ Abbots sometimes played a role beyond the walls of their monasteries, although by this point once-powerful regional centers such as Farfa were in decline in Lazio.<br>5. Parish priests and members of the religious orders: These constituted the mundane religious level. Parish priests embodied Christianity for their flock, for the most part, since they said Mass, heard confession and, in general, were (supposed to) serve as the quotidian face of the organized Church. Members of the religious orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, and so forth) also were a common part of the Church's presence, especially in the towns.§REF§For Franciscan activity in the Tuscan countryside in a slightly early period, see de La Roncière.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 81,
            "polity": {
                "id": 545,
                "name": "it_venetian_rep_4",
                "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV",
                "start_year": 1564,
                "end_year": 1797
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 5,
            "religious_level_to": 5,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " The Venetian religious policy \"expected the Greeks to abandon their traditional form of Christianity and accept Latin rites and doctrines.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 33-34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br><i>Using same code as for Papal States of this period, which was coded and referenced by our expert Joe Figliulo-Rosswurm.</i><br>Pope; Cardinals and legates; archbishops; bishops and abbots; parish priests and members of the religious orders; deacons.<br>1. Pope: The pope was, of course, the universally-acknowledged leader of Latin Christendom. This does not contradict the fact that who exactly was the legitimate pope was often contested during the period 1378-1418, during the Great Schism. During this period the papacy arrogated to itself the right to appoint bishops, negating the tradition of bishops being elected by their flock in conjunction with the priesthood.§REF§Peterson,§REF§<br>2. Cardinals and legates: The cardinalate was crucial in theological decision-making and the religious aspects of papal government; legates, similarly, handled religious matters abroad on occasion.<br>3. Archbishops: To a certain extent, archbishops were equivalent to cardinals, but there were more of them, distributed throughout Christendom. They supervised their suffragan bishops and bishoprics, while also overseeing their own (a good example is the Archbishop of Milan).<br>4. Bishops and abbots: Bishops were the crucial link between local religion and the papacy. There were 263 bishoprics in 14th century Italy.§REF§Najemy, 62§REF§ Abbots sometimes played a role beyond the walls of their monasteries, although by this point once-powerful regional centers such as Farfa were in decline in Lazio.<br>5. Parish priests and members of the religious orders: These constituted the mundane religious level. Parish priests embodied Christianity for their flock, for the most part, since they said Mass, heard confession and, in general, were (supposed to) serve as the quotidian face of the organized Church. Members of the religious orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, and so forth) also were a common part of the Church's presence, especially in the towns.§REF§For Franciscan activity in the Tuscan countryside in a slightly early period, see de La Roncière.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 82,
            "polity": {
                "id": 146,
                "name": "jp_asuka",
                "long_name": "Asuka",
                "start_year": 538,
                "end_year": 710
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 2,
            "religious_level_to": 3,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>The council of Kami affairs was responsible for appointing and promoting priests§REF§Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 250.§REF§."
        },
        {
            "id": 83,
            "polity": {
                "id": 151,
                "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama",
                "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama",
                "start_year": 1568,
                "end_year": 1603
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 2,
            "religious_level_to": 3,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "‘High office in one of the gozan monasteries brought distinction to a monk, his family, and patrons. Clearly, many monks wanted the title of abbot or senior administrator but not the obligations that went with the office. Finding and maintaining talented monastic leadership thus remained a critical problem for the gozan institution and its secular sponsors. And the problem was compounded by the fact that the shogunate collected a fee each time it issued a certificate of appointment to an abbot.’ §REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press [sixth edition]. p.544§REF§<br><br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 84,
            "polity": {
                "id": 147,
                "name": "jp_heian",
                "long_name": "Heian",
                "start_year": 794,
                "end_year": 1185
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 3,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. (<span style=\"color:blue\">Thomas Cressy: how was this calculated? What is this figure based on?</span>)<br>_ Buddhist _<br>_ Shinto_<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 85,
            "polity": {
                "id": 142,
                "name": "jp_jomon_5",
                "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon",
                "start_year": -2500,
                "end_year": -1200
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>Earliest evidence for the existence of ritual specialists dates to this period."
        },
        {
            "id": 86,
            "polity": {
                "id": 143,
                "name": "jp_jomon_6",
                "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon",
                "start_year": -1200,
                "end_year": -300
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>Earliest evidence for the existence of ritual specialists dates to the Late Jomon."
        },
        {
            "id": 87,
            "polity": {
                "id": 152,
                "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate",
                "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate",
                "start_year": 1603,
                "end_year": 1868
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 2,
            "religious_level_to": 2,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels<br>levels. In Buddhism. Inferred continuity with previous polities.<br>1. Master<br>2. Disciple<br>and/or<br>1. Abbot<br>2. Monk<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 88,
            "polity": {
                "id": 144,
                "name": "jp_yayoi",
                "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period",
                "start_year": -300,
                "end_year": 250
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Level 1: shamanistic local figures, having religious and social authority, mediating the relationship between the commoners and \"the supernaturalas an Other\"§REF§Mizoguchi, K., 2002. An archaeological history of Japan, 30,000 B.P. to A.D. 700Mizoguchi, K., 2002. An archaeological history of Japan, 30,000 B.P. to A.D. 700. University of Pennsylvania Press, 153-154.§REF§."
        },
        {
            "id": 89,
            "polity": {
                "id": 41,
                "name": "kh_angkor_2",
                "long_name": "Classical Angkor",
                "start_year": 1100,
                "end_year": 1220
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 4,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>(1) purohita (chief priest of the king)(2) royal hotar (sacrificer)(3) religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas(4) local priests<br>'Because all the Classic inscriptions deal with matters that are fundamentally religious in nature [...] we have much information on the central religious hierarchy, but little about the secular one. [...] The religious authorities and functionaries in the royal court were certainly almost entirely Brahmin caste [Level 2], although some priests in the provinces and villages [Level 1] may not have been so. Most of them may have received the honorific Khmer title of sten an, reserved for learned men. We already run across the purohita [Level 4]. In peninsular India, this Sanskrit word indicated a family priest or chaplain; in Classic Angkor, this important individual was the chaplain and chief priest of the king and, at least according to the self-serving Sdok Kak Thom stela, was a hereditary officer charged with maintaining the cult of the devajara. The Sanskrit title of hotar or 'sacrificer' occurs frequently in the texts; this is also supposed to indicate 'royal chaplain' - but the exact scope of the term is unclear since while the royal purohita of the devaraja was a hotar, there were other hotars [Level 3]. Most of these may have had important administrative roles. There were many religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas [Level 2]. As with many Classic Khmer titles, there is little information on whether these were or were not interchangeable.'§REF§(Coe 2003, 144)§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 90,
            "polity": {
                "id": 40,
                "name": "kh_angkor_1",
                "long_name": "Early Angkor",
                "start_year": 802,
                "end_year": 1100
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 4,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>(1) purohita (chief priest of the king)(2) royal hotar (sacrificer)(3) religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas(4) local priests<br>'Because all the Classic inscriptions deal with matters that are fundamentally religious in nature [...] we have much information on the central religious hierarchy, but little about the secular one. [...] The religious authorities and functionaries in the royal court were certainly almost entirely Brahmin caste [Level 2], although some priests in the provinces and villages [Level 1] may not have been so. Most of them may have received the honorific Khmer title of sten an, reserved for learned men. We already run across the purohita [Level 4]. In peninsular India, this Sanskrit word indicated a family priest or chaplain; in Classic Angkor, this important individual was the chaplain and chief priest of the king and, at least according to the self-serving Sdok Kak Thom stela, was a hereditary officer charged with maintaining the cult of the devajara. The Sanskrit title of hotar or 'sacrificer' occurs frequently in the texts; this is also supposed to indicate 'royal chaplain' - but the exact scope of the term is unclear since while the royal purohita of the devaraja was a hotar, there were other hotars [Level 3]. Most of these may have had important administrative roles. There were many religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas [Level 2]. As with many Classic Khmer titles, there is little information on whether these were or were not interchangeable.'§REF§(Coe 2003, 144)§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 91,
            "polity": {
                "id": 42,
                "name": "kh_angkor_3",
                "long_name": "Late Angkor",
                "start_year": 1220,
                "end_year": 1432
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 4,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. levels. Inferred continuity with previous stages.<br>(1) purohita (chief priest of the king)(2) royal hotar (sacrificer)(3) religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas(4) local priests<br>'Because all the Classic inscriptions deal with matters that are fundamentally religious in nature [...] we have much information on the central religious hierarchy, but little about the secular one. [...] The religious authorities and functionaries in the royal court were certainly almost entirely Brahmin caste [Level 2], although some priests in the provinces and villages [Level 1] may not have been so. Most of them may have received the honorific Khmer title of sten an, reserved for learned men. We already run across the purohita [Level 4]. In peninsular India, this Sanskrit word indicated a family priest or chaplain; in Classic Angkor, this important individual was the chaplain and chief priest of the king and, at least according to the self-serving Sdok Kak Thom stela, was a hereditary officer charged with maintaining the cult of the devajara. The Sanskrit title of hotar or 'sacrificer' occurs frequently in the texts; this is also supposed to indicate 'royal chaplain' - but the exact scope of the term is unclear since while the royal purohita of the devaraja was a hotar, there were other hotars [Level 3]. Most of these may have had important administrative roles. There were many religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas [Level 2]. As with many Classic Khmer titles, there is little information on whether these were or were not interchangeable.'§REF§(Coe 2003, 144)§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 92,
            "polity": {
                "id": 43,
                "name": "kh_khmer_k",
                "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom",
                "start_year": 1432,
                "end_year": 1594
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 6,
            "religious_level_to": 6,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. 'Because all the Classic inscriptions deal with matters that are fundamentally religious in nature [...] we have much information on the central religious hierarchy, but little about the secular one. [...] The religious authorities and functionaries in the royal court were certainly almost entirely Brahmin caste [Level 2], although some priests in the provinces and villages [Level 1] may not have been so. Most of them may have received the honorific Khmer title of sten an, reserved for learned men. We already run across the purohita [Level 5]. In peninsular India,this Sanskrit word indicated a family priest or chaplain; in Classic Angkor, this important individual was the chaplain and chief priest of the king and, at least accordant tot he self-serving steal, was a hereditary officer charged with maintaining the cult of the devajara [Level 6]. The Sanskrit title of hotter or 'sacrificer' occurs frequently in the texts; this is also supposed to indicate 'royal chaplain' - but the exact scope of the term is unclear since while the royal hotar of the devaraja was a hotar, there were other hotter. Most of these may have had important administrative roles [Level 4]. There were many religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor leaned in the vedas. As with many Classic Khmer titles, there is little information on whether these were or were not interchangeable. [Level 3]'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 143)§REF§ Coe (2003), citing Zhou, states, 'The highest dignitaries use palanquins with golden shafts and four parasols with handles of gold [Level 5]; those next in rank have a palanquin with golden shafts and two golden-handled parasols [Level 4]; then come those entitled to one palanquin with gold shafts and one golden-handled parasol [Level 3]. Further down the line come those permitted only a silver-handled parasol [Level 2], and there are others who use a palanquin with silver shafts [Level 1]... All parasols are made of red Chinese taffeta...' [and, continues Coe] the great Suryavarman [Level 6] received the honour of fourteen parasols.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 144)§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 93,
            "polity": {
                "id": 39,
                "name": "kh_chenla",
                "long_name": "Chenla",
                "start_year": 550,
                "end_year": 825
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 4,
            "religious_level_to": 4,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. As the complexity of the religious system grows, it is likely that there would be more religious levels that would lead into Angkor's 6 religious levels. So even though, as Vickery points out, that it is difficult to know about the religion in the Pre-Angkorian era, we can assume that at this stage there are more levels than in the previous period. <br>(4) purohita (chief priest of the king)(3) royal hotar (sacrificer)(2) religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas(1) local priests<br>'Because all the Classic inscriptions deal with matters that are fundamentally religious in nature [...] we have much information on the central religious hierarchy, but little about the secular one. [...] The religious authorities and functionaries in the royal court were certainly almost entirely Brahmin caste [Level 2], although some priests in the provinces and villages [Level 1] may not have been so. Most of them may have received the honorific Khmer title of sten an, reserved for learned men. We already run across the purohita [Level 4]. In peninsular India, this Sanskrit word indicated a family priest or chaplain; in Classic Angkor, this important individual was the chaplain and chief priest of the king and, at least according to the self-serving Sdok Kak Thom stela, was a hereditary officer charged with maintaining the cult of the devajara. The Sanskrit title of hotar or 'sacrificer' occurs frequently in the texts; this is also supposed to indicate 'royal chaplain' - but the exact scope of the term is unclear since while the royal purohita of the devaraja was a hotar, there were other hotars [Level 3]. Most of these may have had important administrative roles. There were many religious functionaries who received the Sanskrit title of acharya, a learned priest who acted as teacher and spiritual guide; or pandit, someone versed in sacred lore; or of upadhyaya, a teacher and preceptor learned in the vedas [Level 2]. As with many Classic Khmer titles, there is little information on whether these were or were not interchangeable.'§REF§(Coe 2003, 144)§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 94,
            "polity": {
                "id": 37,
                "name": "kh_funan_1",
                "long_name": "Funan I",
                "start_year": 225,
                "end_year": 540
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 2,
            "religious_level_to": 2,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. There was a progressive change in religious cults in the area of Funan, the most radical one being the abandonment of inhumation practices in favour of cremation. The funerary practices incorporated gold leaves decorated with human forms with raised hands, one of which appears to represent Harihara, the combined image of Shiva and Vishnu. §REF§(Higham 2004b, p. 29-31)§REF§ This change seems to be in effect toward the 5th century CE, at the same time that Funanese rulers started to take on the Sanskrit honorific title of -varman (protected by, protege of). Indian gods were incorporated into the Funanese pantheon, particularly Siva, Visnu, and Buddha. The phallic symbol that represented Siva, the linga, was perceived as being the essence of the mandala. §REF§(Higham 1989, p. 248)§REF§. NOTE: data from ethnographic studies suggest that there was a pre-Indian religious strata that was eventually merged with Indian religions to become what today comprises the Khmer world view. In Khmer culture the world is divided into two landscapes that are marked by physical and psychological borders: the landscape of the village (srok) and the landscape of the wilderness (prei). The srok is the domesticated space of humans; the village, the paddy rice fields, a space of social organization §REF§(Ang Choulean 2004, p. 58)§REF§ that is under the control of a Buddhist king §REF§(Aransen 2012, p. 54)§REF§. The prei, on the other hand, is the forest, a place of uncertainty dominated by wild and dangerous spirits §REF§(Forest 1992, p. 15-16)§REF§§REF§(Forest 1992, p. 15-16)§REF§ beyond the control of Buddhism. This division is not immutable: forests can be cleared to create new srok, and a village may be overtaken by the forest and regain its position as prei. This perception of the world has been identified as the pre-Indian stratum of Khmer culture §REF§(Forest 1992)§REF§. The term srok is recorded in the inscriptions as sruk, and defines a geographical/administrative entity. §REF§(Vickery 2003, p. 127)§REF§ Currently, the person in charge of establishing dialogues and interactions with the spirits is known as rup §REF§(Forest 1992, p.51)§REF§. It is therefore possible to suggest that before merging Indian and local religions, the early Funanese people may have had a structured religious world view with levels, that is, with the presence of particular people who could act as intermediaries with the spirits. These hierarchical levels increased as the cult to Indian gods were incorporated. "
        },
        {
            "id": 95,
            "polity": {
                "id": 38,
                "name": "kh_funan_2",
                "long_name": "Funan II",
                "start_year": 540,
                "end_year": 640
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 2,
            "religious_level_to": 2,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. There was a progressive change in religious cults in the area of Funan, the most radical one being the abandonment of inhumation practices in favour of cremation. The funerary practices incorporated gold leaves decorated with human forms with raised hands, one of which appears to represent Harihara, the combined image of Shiva and Vishnu. §REF§(Higham 2004b, p. 29-31)§REF§ This change seems to be in effect toward the 5th century CE, at the same time that Funanese rulers started to take on the Sanskrit honorific title of -varman (protected by, protege of). Indian gods were incorporated into the Funanese pantheon, particularly Siva, Visnu, and Buddha. The phallic symbol that represented Siva, the linga, was perceived as being the essence of the mandala. §REF§(Higham 1989, p. 248)§REF§. NOTE: data from ethnographic studies suggest that there was a pre-Indian religious strata that was eventually merged with Indian religions to become what today comprises the Khmer world view. In Khmer culture the world is divided into two landscapes that are marked by physical and psychological borders: the landscape of the village (srok) and the landscape of the wilderness (prei). The srok is the domesticated space of humans; the village, the paddy rice fields, a space of social organization §REF§(Ang Choulean 2004, p. 58)§REF§ that is under the control of a Buddhist king §REF§(Aransen 2012, p. 54)§REF§. The prei, on the other hand, is the forest, a place of uncertainty dominated by wild and dangerous spirits §REF§(Forest 1992, p. 15-16)§REF§§REF§(Forest 1992, p. 15-16)§REF§ beyond the control of Buddhism. This division is not immutable: forests can be cleared to create new srok, and a village may be overtaken by the forest and regain its position as prei. This perception of the world has been identified as the pre-Indian stratum of Khmer culture §REF§(Forest 1992)§REF§. The term srok is recorded in the inscriptions as sruk, and defines a geographical/administrative entity. §REF§(Vickery 2003, p. 127)§REF§ Currently, the person in charge of establishing dialogues and interactions with the spirits is known as rup §REF§(Forest 1992, p.51)§REF§. It is therefore possible to suggest that before merging Indian and local religions, the early Funanese people may have had a structured religious world view with levels, that is, with the presence of particular people who could act as intermediaries with the spirits. These hierarchical levels increased as the cult to Indian gods were incorporated. (RA's guess)."
        },
        {
            "id": 96,
            "polity": {
                "id": 104,
                "name": "lb_phoenician_emp",
                "long_name": "Phoenician Empire",
                "start_year": -1200,
                "end_year": -332
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 5,
            "religious_level_to": 6,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " “Il re occupa di fatto una posizione strategica di intermediario fra la sfera divina e quella umana. Partecipa a modo suo, pur non essendo divinizzato, a entrambe le condizioni: umano e divino, svolge nelle pratiche rituali un ruolo di spicco, come sacerdote della divinta’ poliade, as esempio di Astarte a Sidone o della Baalat Gubal a Biblo.” §REF§Bonnet, C. 2004. <i>I Fenici</i> p. 102. Roma: Carrocci.§REF§ TRANSLATION: “The ruler occupied a strategic intermediary position between the divine sphere and the human. Though he was not himself a god, he did in his own way partake of both spheres: human and god-like, the ruler played a prominent role in ritual, and was seen as the chief priest in charge of his city’s patron deity, such as Astarte in Sidonia and Baalat Gubal in Biblos.” \"Gli uffici del culto regolare, invece, erano affidati a un apposito personale, che le iscrizioni ci mostrano strutturato gerarchicamente e articolato in vari livello di ministero. Nei vari culti il clero era guidato da un sommo sacerdote e comprendeva, oltre agli altri sacerdoti e alle sacerdotesse, una schiera numerosa di personale minore, dai macellatori ai profumieri, dagli scribi agli schiavi. [...] Due cariche sembrano di particolare importanza: quella del 'sacrificatore', probabilmente scelto con incarico pubblico e rinnovabile, dai compiti forse analoghi al ruolo del <i>mageiros</i> nella religione greca; e quella, meno chiara, del <i>mqmlm</i>, forse il sacredote 'risuscitatore della divinita', frequente nelle inscrizioni di Cartagine, Cipro, Rodi, Tripolitania. Conosciamo anche l'esistenza di collegi sacerdotali e associazioni a sfondo religioso.\" §REF§Ribichini, S. 1988. Le credenze e la vita religiosa. In Moscati, S. (ed) <i>I Fenici</i> pp. 104-125. Milano: Bompiani.§REF§ TRANSLATION: \"Regular cult duties fell under the purview of specialised personnel, which, according to inscriptions, was organised hierarchically. Religious personnel was led by a chief priest and, besides regular priests and priestesses, it also included a host of minor figures, such as butchers, perfumers, scribes, and slaves. [...] It seems that two roles were particularly important among the clergy: the 'sacrificer', possibly a publicly elected and renewable office, possibly one similar to that of a Greek <i>mageiros</i>; inscriptions found in Carthage, Cyprus, Rodes, and Tripolitania often mention the <i>mqmlm</i>, whose function is less clear than the sacrificer's, though he may have been tasked with 'reviving the deity'. We also know of the existence of priestly assemblies and religious associations.\"<br>(1) King;<br>(2) Chief priest;(3) Sacrificer and <i>mqmlm</i>, perhaps;(4) other priests and priestesses;(5) minor temple personnel (e.g. butchers, perfumers, scribes);(6) temple slaves."
        },
        {
            "id": 97,
            "polity": {
                "id": 433,
                "name": "ml_segou_k",
                "long_name": "Segou Kingdom",
                "start_year": 1650,
                "end_year": 1712
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>Bambara means 'rejection of a master' - they took the name in the 13th century from their rejection of Islam. The chief of the village was the religious authority.§REF§(Keil 2012, 108) Sarah Keil. Bambara. Andrea L Stanton. ed. 2012. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§ No mention of religious buildings or institutions. Prayers were given within household and in ceremonies.§REF§(Keil 2012, 108) Sarah Keil. Bambara. Andrea L Stanton. ed. 2012. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§<br>Marka towns were semi-autonmous towns that \"enjoyed some autonomy from direct state intervention.\"§REF§(Monroe and Ogundiran 2012, 25) J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa. J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. eds. 2012. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives.Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ Populated by Islamic Soninke and other Mande-speakers: \"most Marka towns have assumed two roles as (1) 'eternal cities' ancestral to all Mande civilization, and (2) as 'holy cities,' which to differing degrees mix Islamic scholarship (large Koranic schools and ancient mosques) and traditional sorcery. Their supernatural status has served as protection from attack because most Marka towns never had defences or standing armies.\"§REF§(MacDonald and Camara 2012, 174) Kevin C MacDonald. Seydou Camara. Segou, Slavery, and Sifinso. J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. eds. 2012. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives.Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 98,
            "polity": {
                "id": 267,
                "name": "mn_mongol_emp",
                "long_name": "Mongol Empire",
                "start_year": 1206,
                "end_year": 1270
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 3,
            "religious_level_to": 3,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.<br>1) Khan - He was \"declared to have a mandate from Möngke Tengri (Everlasting Heaven). §REF§Bira, Sh. “THE MONGOLS AND THEIR STATE IN THE TWELFTH TO THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century. Part I The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by C. E. Bosworth, Muhammad S. Asimov, and Yar Muhammad Khan, Paris: Unesco, 1998. pp.255-256.§REF§<br>2) The chief shaman - The office of beki, the highest religious authority. Instructed ‘to ride on a white horse, wear white raiment’ and ‘choose a good year and moon’. §REF§Bira, Sh. “THE MONGOLS AND THEIR STATE IN THE TWELFTH TO THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century. Part I The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by C. E. Bosworth, Muhammad S. Asimov, and Yar Muhammad Khan, Paris: Unesco, 1998. pp.255-256.§REF§<br>3) Shaman. Inferred from there being a chief shaman. §REF§Bira, Sh. “THE MONGOLS AND THEIR STATE IN THE TWELFTH TO THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century. Part I The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by C. E. Bosworth, Muhammad S. Asimov, and Yar Muhammad Khan, Paris: Unesco, 1998. pp.255-256.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 99,
            "polity": {
                "id": 442,
                "name": "mn_mongol_early",
                "long_name": "Early Mongols",
                "start_year": 1000,
                "end_year": 1206
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels.(1) Shamans"
        },
        {
            "id": 100,
            "polity": {
                "id": 278,
                "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate",
                "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate",
                "start_year": 300,
                "end_year": 555
            },
            "year_from": 300,
            "year_to": 499,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Religious_level",
            "religious_level_from": 1,
            "religious_level_to": 1,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " levels. Shamans. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§ Buddhism was also present, probably more levels: \"The Juan-juan khagans and nobles were well acquainted with Buddhist teachings and were probably Buddhists as early as the beginning of the sixth century. It is known that in 511 they sent a Buddhist monk and preacher to China with the gift of an image of the Buddha ornamented with pearls for the emperor.\" §REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§"
        }
    ]
}