Professional Military Officer List
A viewset for viewing and editing Professional Military Officers.
GET /api/sc/professional-military-officers/?format=api&page=9
{ "count": 473, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/professional-military-officers/?format=api&page=10", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/professional-military-officers/?format=api&page=8", "results": [ { "id": 402, "polity": { "id": 774, "name": "mw_early_maravi", "long_name": "Early Maravi", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 403, "polity": { "id": 775, "name": "mw_northern_maravi_k", "long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1621 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 405, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 406, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 407, "polity": { "id": 223, "name": "ma_almoravid_dyn", "long_name": "Almoravids", "start_year": 1035, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Not amongst the highest-ranking officials, but presumably in the lowest levels of the military hierarchy. AD. In the early period the Almoravids ruled by \"appointing members of their extended family to positions of power. Abu Bakr appointed his cousin Yusuf Ibn Tashfin to command the garrison of Sijilmasa.\" §REF§(Messier 2013, 62)§REF§ Yusuf (and later, Ali) \"was constantly rotating the ablest and most trusted military commanders from his own tribe all over the empire\" §REF§(Messier 2013, 66)§REF§" }, { "id": 408, "polity": { "id": 284, "name": "hu_avar_khaganate", "long_name": "Avar Khaganate", "start_year": 586, "end_year": 822 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": "no data.", "description": null }, { "id": 409, "polity": { "id": 210, "name": "et_aksum_emp_2", "long_name": "Axum II", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 599 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": "\"high-quality grave goods, have been interpreted as those of 'middle-class' Aksumites ... It might be expected that such a class would include ... middle-ranking members of the army ...\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a> Military expeditions lead by the king's brother or other kinsmen. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 385]</a> This does not mean there were no professional officers.<br>\"The first Aksumite king to put his own coinage into circulation was Endybis (in the second half of the third century).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 386]</a> The introduction of coinage may have coincided with a shift to a more professional armed forces as the coinage could be used to pay the army.", "description": null }, { "id": 410, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": "\"high-quality grave goods, have been interpreted as those of 'middle-class' Aksumites ... It might be expected that such a class would include ... middle-ranking members of the army ...\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a> Military expeditions lead by the king's brother or other kinsmen. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 385]</a> This does not mean there were no professional officers.<br>\"The first Aksumite king to put his own coinage into circulation was Endybis (in the second half of the third century).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 386]</a> The introduction of coinage may have coincided with a shift to a more professional armed forces as the coinage could be used to pay the army.", "description": null }, { "id": 411, "polity": { "id": 226, "name": "ib_banu_ghaniya", "long_name": "Banu Ghaniya", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Banu Ghaniya had a fleet which was lost against the Almohads.§REF§(Saidi 1997, 19) O Saidi. The Unification of the Maghrib under the Almohads. UNESCO. 1997. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Paris.§REF§ Commander of the fleet? The ancestral polity the Almoravids are currently coded inferred present for this variable." }, { "id": 412, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Top commanders appear to have been nobles who were also officials.<br>Around 813 CE an inscription records \"the names and titles of the state and army's (saract) two chief officials, the kavhan and the ichurgu-boila\".§REF§(Petkov 2008, 7) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"Dukum was an experienced military military commander and administrator\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Khan was surrounded by a warrior aristocracy.§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 413, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Top commanders appear to have been nobles who were also officials.<br>Around 813 CE an inscription records \"the names and titles of the state and army's (saract) two chief officials, the kavhan and the ichurgu-boila\".§REF§(Petkov 2008, 7) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"Dukum was an experienced military military commander and administrator\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Khan was surrounded by a warrior aristocracy.§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 414, "polity": { "id": 312, "name": "bg_bulgaria_medieval", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Middle", "start_year": 865, "end_year": 1018 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Top commanders appear to have been nobles who were also officials.<br>Around 813 CE an inscription records \"the names and titles of the state and army's (saract) two chief officials, the kavhan and the ichurgu-boila\".§REF§(Petkov 2008, 7) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"Dukum was an experienced military military commander and administrator\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Khan was surrounded by a warrior aristocracy.§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 415, "polity": { "id": 312, "name": "bg_bulgaria_medieval", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Middle", "start_year": 865, "end_year": 1018 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Top commanders appear to have been nobles who were also officials.<br>Around 813 CE an inscription records \"the names and titles of the state and army's (saract) two chief officials, the kavhan and the ichurgu-boila\".§REF§(Petkov 2008, 7) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"Dukum was an experienced military military commander and administrator\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Khan was surrounded by a warrior aristocracy.§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 266) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 416, "polity": { "id": 321, "name": "es_castile_k", "long_name": "Castile Kingdom", "start_year": 1065, "end_year": 1230 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": "Full-time specialists", "description": null }, { "id": 417, "polity": { "id": 246, "name": "cn_chu_dyn_spring_autumn", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Spring and Autumn Period", "start_year": -740, "end_year": -489 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "uncoded", "comment": "Unknown. However, early expansionary wars must have required some professional soldiers. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NTSIVZX6\">[Major_Cook 1999, p. 15]</a> Were they commanded by professional officers?", "description": null }, { "id": 418, "polity": { "id": 249, "name": "cn_chu_k_warring_states", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Warring States Period", "start_year": -488, "end_year": -223 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": "Generals existed in contemporary polities: \"Wu Qi, a military general who arrived [in Chu] from Wei in 390 BC....\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSPZPNV5\">[Hui 2005]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 419, "polity": { "id": 299, "name": "ru_crimean_khanate", "long_name": "Crimean Khanate", "start_year": 1440, "end_year": 1783 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "In 1484 Khan Mengli Girei \"led Crimean Tatar forces in their first joint operation with and Ottoman army - to retake the fortresses of Kilia and Akkerman from the Moldavians.\"§REF§(Davies 2007, 7) Brian L Davies. 2007. Warfare, State And Society On The Black Sea Steppe. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 420, "polity": { "id": 307, "name": "fr_aquitaine_duc_1", "long_name": "Duchy of Aquitaine I", "start_year": 602, "end_year": 768 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": "Full-time specialists", "description": null }, { "id": 421, "polity": { "id": 774, "name": "mw_early_maravi", "long_name": "Early Maravi", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "Inferred continuity with succeeding polities. \"What Pedro de Barreto de Rezende observed in the early seventeenth century could still be confirmed two centuries later by A. C. P. Garmitto: the Maravi polities had no standing army and no formal recruitment system. If and when armed men were needed, a chiefdom's war drum would be sounded to call them up, and in case of a more general alarm, the surrounding chiefdoms would do the same.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/A88E23E4\">[Schoeffeleers 1992]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 422, "polity": { "id": 533, "name": "ug_early_nyoro", "long_name": "Early Nyoro", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1449 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "Referring to a late-19th century monarch: \"Kabarega is also credited with military reforms that created a standing army with companies (barusura) of soldiers who were often under the leadership of foreign mercenaries appointed directly by the king.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WMEMW3T7\">[Robertshaw_Espinova_Lane 2016, p. 211]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 423, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "The following quote suggests that the professionalization of the military in Zanzibar began in the 19th century, meaning that the same may have been the case in other Swahili Coast city-states. \"While Christian converts in the Sultanate of Zanzibar were in a very difficult position which British protection could revert only with the utmost difficulty, for liberated persons an opportunity to raise one’s social status was to join the Sultan’s regular army. It was created in 1877 under the direction and command of a British officer.\" (Pawełczak 2020: 64) NB can no longer reconstruct the full reference!", "description": null }, { "id": 424, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "The following quote suggests that the professionalization of the military in Zanzibar began in the 19th century, meaning that the same may have been the case in other Swahili Coast city-states. \"While Christian converts in the Sultanate of Zanzibar were in a very difficult position which British protection could revert only with the utmost difficulty, for liberated persons an opportunity to raise one’s social status was to join the Sultan’s regular army. It was created in 1877 under the direction and command of a British officer.\" (Pawełczak 2020: 64) NB can no longer reconstruct the full reference!", "description": null }, { "id": 425, "polity": { "id": 218, "name": "ma_idrisid_dyn", "long_name": "Idrisids", "start_year": 789, "end_year": 917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"...one particular genre of Arabic geographical literature that is the most relevant to studies of settlement systems. The genre in question was named al-Masalik wa-l-mamalik (routes and kingdoms) by Blachere (1957:112)... In fact, the earliest example of the Masalik wa-l-mamalik literature is the masalik of Ibn Khurdadhbah (A.D. 885). It was intended for the use of secretaries and military officials in the ‘Abbasid bureaucracy\" §REF§Said Ennahid. 2001. POLITICAL ECONOMY AND SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS OF MEDIEVAL NORTHERN MOROCCO: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL-HISTORICAL APPROACH. pg. 14-15§REF§" }, { "id": 426, "polity": { "id": 407, "name": "in_kakatiya_dyn", "long_name": "Kakatiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1175, "end_year": 1324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": "Implied by the following: \"Not all of the men I am calling warriors would have been occupied full‐time with military activities, obviously.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R67IJ9XP\">[Talbot 2001, p. 69]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 427, "polity": { "id": 273, "name": "uz_kangju", "long_name": "Kangju", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"During the period of its apex, which coincided with the 'opening up' of the SR [Silk Road], the Kangju state had a population of about 600,000 and an army of 120,000.\"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 37) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer International Publishing.§REF§ \"The Kangju further developed a partly urban civilization with clay houses, palaces, and fortified walls. The semisedentary tribal aristocracy lived in the centers of the towns and settlements.\"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 37) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer International Publishing.§REF§ Did warrior aristocracy they also have other responsibilities, like judging or administration?" }, { "id": 428, "polity": { "id": 298, "name": "ru_kazan_khanate", "long_name": "Kazan Khanate", "start_year": 1438, "end_year": 1552 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Officers.§REF§(Shpakovsky and Nicolle 2013, Plate G) Viacheslav Shpakovsky. David Nicolle. 2013. Armies of the Volga Bulgars & Khanate of Kazan. 9th-16th Centuries. Osprey Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 429, "polity": { "id": 241, "name": "ao_kongo_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Congo", "start_year": 1491, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred absent on the basis that governors headed soldiers in battle: \"In times of war, the governors accompanied the king into battle, each at the head of his respective provincial army.\"§REF§(Gondola 2002, 28) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br>Inferred present on the basis that when the Portuguese Rui de Pina visited in 1491 CE the Kingdom of Kongo maintained a fleet.§REF§(Newitt 2010, 100) Malyn Newitt ed. 2010. The Portuguese in West Africa, 1415–1670: A Documentary History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ Unlikely that a naval fleet could be commanded by a non-specialist like a governor." }, { "id": 430, "polity": { "id": 290, "name": "ge_georgia_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Georgia II", "start_year": 975, "end_year": 1243 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Commander in chief of the army called the amirspasalar. Second in command of the army was the protostratori. (later amirakhori).§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§" }, { "id": 431, "polity": { "id": 326, "name": "it_sicily_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties", "start_year": 1194, "end_year": 1281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 432, "polity": { "id": 355, "name": "iq_lakhmid_k", "long_name": "Lakhmid Kigdom", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 611 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The Lakhmids had warrior kings.§REF§(Bosworth et al 1982, 633) C E Bosworth. E Van Donzel. B Lewis. Ch Pellat. eds. 1982. The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Volume V. E J BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Probably a warrior aristocracy." }, { "id": 433, "polity": { "id": 56, "name": "pa_cocle_3", "long_name": "Late Greater Coclé", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1515 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "uncoded", "comment": "Spanish accounts refer to two longhouses, 'each 220 paces by 50 paces, built to shelter warriors' at the chiefly centre (bohío) of chief Tubanama (or Tumanama). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 9]</a> If these sources are accurate and if these large structures were permanent, this might indicate the presence of professional military officers and/or soldiers. According to Helms, 'warriors' of commoner status in Precolumbian Panama could achieve the elite rank of cabra by demonstrating 'outstanding bravery in battle'. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 55]</a> More information is needed to be able to code this variable.", "description": null }, { "id": 434, "polity": { "id": 257, "name": "cn_later_qin_dyn", "long_name": "Later Qin Kingdom", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 417 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Yao Chang appointed his brother to the position of colonel.§REF§Rachel Meakin. 2012? Annotated translation regarding the the Qiang state of the Later Qin. Jin Shu Chapter 116: Chronicles of Minor States, No. 16. Yao Yizhong, Yao Xiang, Yao Chang. www.qianghistory.co.uk.§REF§<br>Pacifying the Distant Regions official could command troops.§REF§Rachel Meakin. 2012? Annotated translation regarding the the Qiang state of the Later Qin. Jin Shu Chapter 116: Chronicles of Minor States, No. 16. Yao Yizhong, Yao Xiang, Yao Chang. www.qianghistory.co.uk.§REF§ Guarding the Distant Regions official could command troops.§REF§Rachel Meakin. Annotated translation regarding the the Qiang state of the Later Qin. Jin Shu Chapter 116: Chronicles of Minor States, No. 16. Yao Yizhong, Yao Xiang, Yao Chang. www.qianghistory.co.uk.§REF§ Stabilising the West general.§REF§Rachel Meakin. 2012? Annotated translation regarding the the Qiang state of the Later Qin. Jin Shu Chapter 116: Chronicles of Minor States, No. 16. Yao Yizhong, Yao Xiang, Yao Chang. www.qianghistory.co.uk.§REF§" }, { "id": 435, "polity": { "id": 256, "name": "cn_later_yan_dyn", "long_name": "Later Yan Kingdom", "start_year": 385, "end_year": 409 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Despite the conventional English label 'Sixteen Kingdoms,' moreover, these dynasties were also usually really still empires in the sense of being relatively large, multiethnic, military-conquest regimes ruled by men claiming the Chinese title 'emperor' (huangdi). Unlike previous Chinese dynasties, however, these were now typically organized around identifiably non-Chinese-ruled armies.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 58) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 436, "polity": { "id": 815, "name": "es_castile_crown", "long_name": "Crown of Castile", "start_year": 1231, "end_year": 1515 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": "Full-time specialists", "description": "" }, { "id": 437, "polity": { "id": 212, "name": "sd_makuria_k_1", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom I", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 438, "polity": { "id": 215, "name": "sd_makuria_k_2", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom II", "start_year": 619, "end_year": 849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": "References to son and nephew appointed as commanders of the army for various battles. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 74]</a> \"Nauarchos is the early Byzantine title of an admiral, an inscription dating to 1322 can be reasonably securely translated as 'the admiral supreme on the water'. On the Debeira inscription, dated 1069, the title may be meizonauarchos 'admiral supreme'. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 96]</a> The nauarchos was likely a professional officer.", "description": null }, { "id": 439, "polity": { "id": 219, "name": "sd_makuria_k_3", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom III", "start_year": 850, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": "References to son and nephew appointed as commanders of the army for various battles. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 74]</a> \"Nauarchos is the early Byzantine title of an admiral, an inscription dating to 1322 can be reasonably securely translated as 'the admiral supreme on the water'. On the Debeira inscription, dated 1069, the title may be meizonauarchos 'admiral supreme'. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 96]</a> The nauarchos was likely a professional officer.", "description": null }, { "id": 440, "polity": { "id": 383, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1396, "end_year": 1511 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"He conceded that since the days of the Melaka Sultanate 'no native ruler or chief in Malaya appeared to have maintained a force of trained Malay regulars' (except the Sultan of Johor who raised his own small regular army, Timbalan Setia Negeri [the country's loyal deputies], in 1885, based on a system of European organisation). Traditionally, however, when war occurred, 'the Sultan gave orders through the Bendahara (Chief Minister) to the various Malay rajah and chiefs to rally and lead their men - fuedal retainers - who assembled their own arms and equipment.'\"§REF§(Blackburn 2006, 289) Kevin Blackburn. Colonial forces as postcolonial memories: the commemoration and memory of the Malay Regiment in modern Malaysia and Singapore. Tobias Rettig. Karl Hack. ed. 2006. Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 441, "polity": { "id": 235, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate_22222", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1415 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"Ifat had an infantry of about 20,000 and cavalry of some 15,000.\"§REF§(Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 225) David H Shinn. Thomas P Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. 2nd Edition. Scarecrow Press. Lanham.§REF§ \"Muslim sultanates were formed, and were dominated by a hereditary aristocracy which purported to be of Arab origin, while the mass of the population was Ethiopian\".§REF§(Cerulli 1992, 281) E. Cerulli. Ethiopia's relations with the Muslim world. I Hrbek ed. 1992. General History of Africa. Abridged Edition. III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. James Currey. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 442, "polity": { "id": 776, "name": "mw_maravi_emp", "long_name": "Maravi Empire", "start_year": 1622, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "\"What Pedro de Barreto de Rezende observed in the early seventeenth century could still be confirmed two centuries later by A. C. P. Garmitto: the Maravi polities had no standing army and no formal recruitment system. If and when armed men were needed, a chiefdom's war drum would be sounded to call them up, and in case of a more general alarm, the surrounding chiefdoms would do the same.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/A88E23E4\">[Schoeffeleers 1992]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 443, "polity": { "id": 209, "name": "ma_mauretania", "long_name": "Mauretania", "start_year": -125, "end_year": 44 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"A chieftain, Baga - the First Mauretanian known by name - was wealthy enough during the Second Punic War to give Massinissa [king of Numidia] an escort of 4,000 men across Mauretania to the Numidian border, when Massinissa was in the process of successfully seizing the throne of Numidia.\"§REF§(Roller 2003, 46) Duane W Roller. 2003. The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier. Routledge. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 444, "polity": { "id": 531, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_b", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Late Postclassic", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Descriptions in the Spanish relaciones (Spanish written documents from the time of the Spanish conquest) provide evidence for the presence of military officers in charge of competing armies at the end of this period. Their presence in the centuries before the Spanish conquest is inferred.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383. p376§REF§§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p217-8§REF§" }, { "id": 445, "polity": { "id": 775, "name": "mw_northern_maravi_k", "long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1621 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "\"What Pedro de Barreto de Rezende observed in the early seventeenth century could still be confirmed two centuries later by A. C. P. Garmitto: the Maravi polities had no standing army and no formal recruitment system. If and when armed men were needed, a chiefdom's war drum would be sounded to call them up, and in case of a more general alarm, the surrounding chiefdoms would do the same.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/A88E23E4\">[Schoeffeleers 1992]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 446, "polity": { "id": 313, "name": "ru_novgorod_land", "long_name": "Novgorod Land", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "<br>If the job also had judicial responsibilities then the commander of the urban militia sounds like he had policing responsibilities which is not the same thing as a professional army officer. Did Novgorod have an army?<br>\"in later times, and especially in Novgorod, the tysiatskii became one of the highest urban officials. Orignally, the tysiatskie were appointed by the prince and were primarily the commanders of the urban militia.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 431) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"In Novgorod and Pskov the office (which also included judicial responsibilities) had become elective at an early stage\".§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 431) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 447, "polity": { "id": 206, "name": "dz_numidia", "long_name": "Numidia", "start_year": -220, "end_year": -46 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Scipio had divided the sovereign functions [among the princes] ... in such a way that ... the second the charge of war\".§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ King Micipsa \"could raise a powerful army of infantry and cavalry, and a considerable force of war-elephants. There was even a small Numidian fleet, originally created by Masinissa.\"§REF§(Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ Likely the top officials were aristocracy/chiefs but it is hard to imagine a navy without specialist professional officers." }, { "id": 448, "polity": { "id": 542, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy", "long_name": "Yemen - Ottoman period", "start_year": 1873, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Full-time specialists The Imams often had to rely on armed groups of tribesmen raised by supportive shaykhs, even after the departure of the Ottomans: 'The Zaidi Imamate could not build its power solely upon a union of non-agricultural specialists: it required the support of the militarily powerful northern landowning shaikhs and the groups of fighting men that they could muster, usually from the poorer village families. The development of shaikhly constellations of power, in the manner described by Montagne for the Moroccan Berbers, was curtailed by exporting shaikhly leaders to tax prebends in richer areas. In this way the tribe was sanctioned as a status group within the state. The Imamic state rested on an alliance of the farmer (the fighter) with the preacher (the judge) and on the symbolic and political suppression of mercantile and craft interests more generally. The union of religious leaders and martial farmers from agriculturally marginal areas formed a loose prebendal dominion over the more productive, largely Shafi'i, peasant areas of the west and south. Whether collected by regular employees of the government or by irregulars from the north, taxes were paid by those who produced most, by the peasants of the richer areas. For example, Goitein reports that the Jewish villagers of al-Gades in lower Yemen called the local landlord 'askari, \"soldier\", noting, however, that he and his like came from the eastern pastoral region and should be distinguished from the regular 'askari who accompanied the local government officer on his tax levies.' §REF§Mundy, Martha 1995. \"Domestic Government: Kinship, Community and Polity in North Yemen\", 14§REF§ 'To enforce this system, many tribesmen were posted elsewhere in Yemen, to the west or south, and stationed in groups of three or four with the local 'amil or district governor . A form of petty corruption grew up which has not altogether vanished nowadays. When these tribesmen were sent out on tanafidh ('executive duties'), to bring someone to court or to the presence of the Imam's officials, they would charge their prisoners a riyal a head for their trouble. The practic eof 'selling orders' (mabi' al-awamir) became widespread. The official would sell to the tribesman the job of bringing someone in, and the tribesman would turn a profit by charging the prisoner. Northern tribesmen began to attach them-selves to officials in the west and south without any appointment by the state but as khabitis, freelance policemen and bailiffs. Numerous men from the north drifted to the south and west in this way and stayed there permanently.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen\", 229§REF§ The Imams later trained a force of regulars based on the Ottoman system and its remaining experts: 'In 1919, two thousand men were levied from tribes near Sanaa and trained \"according to the rules of the Turkish army\". (A good many Turks individually had elected to stay on.) A Yemeni historian does justice to the novelty: \"The army was divided into numbered taburs, or \"detachments\", so the first was called the first tabur, the second called the second tabur, and so one. Three taburs togethere were called a liwa', and three liwa's were called a firqah, and the whole together was called the Victorious Regular Army. Every tabur was made up of four blocs...and each of them had its number, the first and the second and so forth.\" Unlike tribal levies, this army had a fixed pay scale. The officers were mainly Turkish -indeed, instruction remained in Turkish until the 1930s; some, though, were Yemenis who had been to Turkish schools and command was given to 'Abdullah Dumayn, a sayyid from the Jawf who had served with the Turks in the rank of bekbashi. \"The Imam expended the utmost effort on this and showed enormous interest\", and in the next year four taburs more were raised around Ta'izz. The number of regulars rose to 15-20,000. A school for telegraphists was opened, allowing the Imam's care for detail to reach everywhere.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 2002. \"A History of Modern Yemen\", 30§REF§ Ottoman and British armed forces were stationed in Yemen during the colonial period: 'Yemen resisted foreign rule, but two occupations by the Ottoman Turks occurred?between the mid-sixteenth to early seventeenth centuries and from the 1870s to 1918. The imams then sought to reassert their political authority over the tribes of Yemen and against Saudi Arabia. The assassination of Iman Yahya in 1948 was eventually followed by a successful revolt of dissident army officers, intellectuals, and businessmen in 1962. Civil warfare lasted into the 1970s and reerupted in the 1990s.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ 'Developments in the 19th century were fateful for Yemen. The determination of various European powers to establish a presence in the Middle East elicited an equally firm determination in other powers to thwart such efforts. For Yemen, the most important participants in the drama were the British, who took over Aden in 1839, and the Ottoman Empire, which at mid-century moved back into North Yemen, from which it had been driven by the Yemenis two centuries earlier. The interests and activities of these two powers in the Red Sea basin and Yemen were substantially intensified by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the reemergence of the Red Sea route as the preferred passage between Europe and East Asia. As the Ottomans expanded inland and established themselves in Sanaa and Taʿizz, the British expanded north and east from Aden, eventually establishing protectorates over more than a dozen of the many local statelets; this was done more in the interest of protecting Aden’s hinterland from the Ottomans and their Yemeni adversaries than out of any desire to add the territory and people there to the British Empire. By the early 20th century the growing clashes between the British and the Ottomans along the undemarcated border posed a serious problem; in 1904 a joint commission surveyed the border, and a treaty was concluded, establishing the frontier between Ottoman North Yemen and the British possessions in South Yemen. Later, of course, both Yemens considered the treaty an egregious instance of non-Yemeni interference in domestic affairs. The north became independent at the end of World War I in 1918, with the departure of the Ottoman forces; the imam of the Zaydīs, Yaḥyā Maḥmūd al-Mutawwakil, became the de facto ruler in the north by virtue of his lengthy campaign against the Ottoman presence in Yemen. In the 1920s Imam Yaḥyā sought to consolidate his hold on the country by working to bring the Shāfiʿī areas under his administrative jurisdiction and by suppressing much of the intertribal feuding and tribal opposition to the imamate. In an effort to enhance the effectiveness of his campaigns against the tribes and other fractious elements, the imam sent a group of Yemeni youth to Iraq in the mid-1930s to learn modern military techniques and weaponry. These students would eventually become the kernel of domestic opposition to Yaḥyā and his policies.' §REF§<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/History#toc45273\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/History#toc45273</a>§REF§ Turkish garrisons were established: ‘Al-Mansur suffered a stroke, and in September 1904 he died (ibid. 393-403). His son Yahya took the Imamate, which he was to hold until his death in 1948. As a number of authors have noted […], the success of his claim was very probably due to the support of Nasir Mabkhut al-Ahmar, who had (at least most of the time) supported al-Mansur. With al-Ahmar’s backing, Yahya took binding agreements (qawa’id wa-dawabit) from the shaykhs about the conduct of the jihad, stipulating that the weak be protected, looting be controlled, and any artillery captured be surrendered to the public treasury (Zabahrah 1956: ii. 8). Almost immediately after his accession he dispatched forces to the west and south, the outlying Turkish garrisons fell, and San’a’ was again besieged […]. In the midst of an atrocious famine the Turkish garrison withdrew under safe conduct in April 1905. ‘San’a’ after the surrender was a ruin. Its markets were destroyed, its houses empty, and only a few of its inhabitants were left’, but when the tribes saw the victory that had been won ‘every tribe wanted to control some province or another of Yemen as a fief…’ (al-Wasi’I 928: 203).’ §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. “Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen”, 221p§REF§" }, { "id": 449, "polity": { "id": 237, "name": "ml_songhai_1", "long_name": "Songhai Empire", "start_year": 1376, "end_year": 1493 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 450, "polity": { "id": 237, "name": "ml_songhai_1", "long_name": "Songhai Empire", "start_year": 1376, "end_year": 1493 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": "\"mounted lancers of the Songhay aristocracy\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB9BAFGM\">[Oliver_Atmore 2001, p. 67]</a> Askia Muhammed Toure (r.1493-1529 CE) \"created a professional full-time army\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4YF5GBBK\">[Conrad 2010, p. 66]</a> Since 1464 (Sonni Ali's accession) the army became a standing army, and it distinguished itself from the population, forming its own corps. \"Mais depuis 1464 (avènement de Sonni Ali) l'armée s'est transformée en armée de métier et elle se distingue du peuple et forme désormais un corps à part.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HWWEX34G\">[Niane 1975, p. 182]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 451, "polity": { "id": 259, "name": "cn_southern_qi_dyn", "long_name": "Southern Qi State", "start_year": 479, "end_year": 502 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Army general.§REF§(Bauer 2010, 166) Susan Wise Bauer. 2010. The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W W Norton & Company. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 452, "polity": { "id": 380, "name": "th_sukhotai", "long_name": "Sukhotai", "start_year": 1238, "end_year": 1419 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"From the viewpoint of administrative theory, the early Thai administration at Sukhothai was far from centralized. The administrative system gives us a clear picture of strong and powerful provincial governors who ruled their provinces more or less like feudal lords, raising their armies, controlling their own finances, and managing their own internal affairs.\"§REF§(Meksawan 1962, 63) Arsa Meksawan. 1962. The Role of the Provincial Governor in Thailand. Institute of Public Administration. Thammasat University.§REF§" } ] }