Professional Military Officer List
A viewset for viewing and editing Professional Military Officers.
GET /api/sc/professional-military-officers/?format=api
{ "count": 473, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/professional-military-officers/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The founder of the Dynasty himself had originally been the head officer of Nadir Shah's personal bodyguard and took the four thousand-strong horse cavalry he had commanded with him when he defected to Afghanistan. He also had access to the Turkish Shiite Qizilbash. §REF§Barfield, Thomas, <i>Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History</i> pp. 98-99§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": 1200, "year_to": 1200, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In the Greco-Bactrian Kingdoms, Iranian aristocrats were members of a permanent elite cavalry. The military officers were a combination of Persian and Greek military thought. §REF§Daryaee, Touraj, <i>The Oxford handbook of Iranian history</i>. p. 158§REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§encyclopedia iranica Vol. III, Fasc. 4, pp. 344-349§REF§Seals in Bactrian seem to indicate that there were professional officers and officials." }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Clan and tribal organizations traditional to nomadic peoples were likely \"reflected in the administrative structure of the state and in the organization of the army\".§REF§(Zeimal 1996, 136) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ Presumably a military aristocracy. inferred present for full-time and trained." }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " These may have also acted as civil or judicial officials. Probably covered by profession of <i>Mahadandanyaka</i> or <i>Dandanayaka</i>.§REF§B. N. Mukherjee, 'The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire' (Calcutta, 1988), p. 338§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " present for Greco-Bactrians in 200 BCE but the invading Tocharian tribes may not have been, at least not initially.s" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Western Han: Conscripts spent a year of service in training. §REF§(Peers 1995, 13)§REF§ Trained for one year in their home commandery. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 512)§REF§ \"The so-called Northern Army (Pei-chun) consisted of professional soldiers who were stationed at the capital for its defense.\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 512)§REF§" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Less senior officers may have been professionals who were full-time specialists.<br>army run by aristocrats and members of the ruling family<br>\"The Ts'in inherited the Wei system after AD 265, until Ssu-ma Yen deliberately abandoned the centralised system of command and placed members of his family in control of private armies.\" §REF§(Peers 1995, 21)§REF§<br>from 290 CE \"dudu were once again allowed to hold provincial governorships concurrently with their military offices, giving them full control of both civil and military affairs in their assigned regions\"§REF§(Graff 2002, 44)§REF§<br>\"The military was constituted from a Capital Army that was garrisoned in and around the capital, the armies of the princedoms and imperial clansmen, and private armies (buqu) of the magnates that were scattered throughout the empire and often represented a challenge for the central government in cases of rebellion.\" §REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>\"... begun during the Tang dynasty... The rise of religious professionals and soldiers as clearly separate groups was contrary to the previous normative view of society divided into knights (shi, the term that would later be applied to the literati or gentry), farmers, artisans and merchants.\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 7)§REF§" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Grave of a warrior \"chief\" or \"lord\" found at Dayangzhou, contained many weapons.§REF§(Thorp 2013, 110) Thorp, Robert L. 2013. China in the Early Bronze Age: Shang Civilization.University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§ Likely full-time, but whether paid by the state in land or salary is unknown. Officers may have been members of the elite and not full-time, paid warriors." }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"Even though most military historians confidently assert that the Hsia did not maintain a standing army, it would be highly unlikely for the ruler not to have been protected by a body of men with pronounced martial abilities who would form the core of any broader combat effort.\"§REF§(Sawyer 2011, 149)§REF§ Regiments of 100-125 men.§REF§(Sawyer 2011, 151)§REF§<br>more conservative view<br>\"While the Erlitou ceramic tradition was widespread, the mechanisms of this expansion are probably only indirectly related to political activity (if pots don’t equal people, they are even less representative of conquering armies or “state” administrators). The degree of centralization, mechanisms of political control, and social organization can only be guessed at or extrapolated through comparison with Zhengzhou and Anyang.\" §REF§(Campbell 2014, 62)§REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists Chinese administrators installed military garrisons in the Hmong area long before the onset of the republican period: 'From the middle of the Ming period up to the beginning of the Ch'ing period, soldiers were sent into the Miao area. The most important duty of the military garrisons was to keep the communication lines open for troops and food supplies. So the construction of roads and bridges in the area appears monumental. There are four kinds of land routes: the main road connecting Yunnan with Kweichow is the official road; the roads connecting the various military posts are military roads; the roads traversed by the Chinese people are civilian roads; and the small winding paths leading to Miao settlements are Miao roads. Taking Feng-huang as the center, the official road leads to Ch'en-chou, Mo-yang, and Chih-chiang; the military roads lead to Kan-ch'eng, Yung-sui, and T'ung-jen; the civilian roads lead to P'u-shih and Kan-ch'eng; and the Miao roads are on both sides of the military routes, threading out in all directions so numerous that they defy enumeration. The official and the military roads are all paved with stone slabs (Illus. 20), requiring considerable construction work. The civilian roads were not constructed in a uniform way, those passing prosperous areas being much better than others. The Miao paths generally follow the contours of the mountains and require very little human labor. As to the means of transportation, travelers /Illustrations 18-26 occur on pp. 45-52/ generally ride horses or ride in sedan chairs (Illus. 21), while cargo is carried by carriers on their backs.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 70§REF§ The military administration was organized bureaucratically, as evidenced in primary sources and clerical documents: '2. Regulations for the organization and administration of the T'un Bureau from the headquarters of the newly organized Thirty-Fourth Division of the Army. Article 1. The said Bureau is to be organized on the order of Divisional Commander Ch'en of the newly organized Thirty-Fourth Division. Article 2. The said Bureau shall set up, according to the temporary organization regulations of the Division, a chief and a deputy chief, three department heads, a number of departmental staff, clerks, and copyists. Article 3. The chief of the Bureau will receive orders from the Commander of the Division, and will have general superintendence over the t'un army west of the Hsiang River, and Miao defense officials and soldiers, t'un grain supplies, and the keeping in order of t'un properties, and coordinate everything, with the authority to direct and supervise all the Bureau's personnel. Article 4. The said Bureau shall have three departments, Departments One, Two, and Three. Each department head shall receive his orders from the chief of the Bureau, to assist him by dividing control over military matters, t'un matters, and general matters, with the responsibility to direct and manage his particular department's responsibilities.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 177§REF§ Chinese officers and Hmong staff in lower-ranking or intermediate roles were salaried officials or otherwise compensated in the form of produce or arable land, which was also rented out to tenants in order to generate government income: 'The t'un fields in the Miao frontier were divided into people's /i.e. Chinese/ t'uns and Miao t'uns, the two being entirely different in nature. The t'un males working on the Chinese t'uns were also divided into t'un men and fighting men. The t'un men received fields to cultivate, and guarded the t'un guard houses. The fighting men, also called home guards, were solely trained for military operations, and did not farm. In the five sub-prefectures and hsiens of the Miao frontier there are 7,000 t'un men, from among whom are appointed hsiao-ch'i, tsung-ch'i, and pe-tsung to facilitate control. The distribution of fields was as follows: the men /san ting/ are each given 4.5 mu; the hsiao-ch'i, 5.5 mu; the tsung-ch'i, 6.5 mu; and the pe-tsung, 7.5 mu. There are 1,000 fighting men, each being given 3 shih, 6 tou of rice per year. The non-fighting men are also each given annually 10.8 liang of silver for salt and vegetables. The hsiao-ch'i receives each year 12 liang of silver; the tsung-ch'i, 13.2 liang of silver; the pe-tsung, 16.8 liang of silver. Therefore, in the Chinese t'un, the fields and land left over after the t'un men have received their fields to plant and care for are leased out for the collection of rent. Granaries (Illus. 57) have been built to store the grain, and general t'un leaders are set up to manage these matters. There are no t'un men in the Miao t'uns, and the t'un fields are allotted to people to cultivate /Illus. 57 and 58 on pages 124 and 125/ for the collection of rent, in order to feed the Miao soldiers, under the control of the Miao officials. The t'un fields in the Miao frontier region, at the inception of the system, totaled 150,000 mu of arable land, of which barely a third was directly cultivated by t'un personnel, the rest being allotted out as rented fields. Today, the t'un army in the Miao frontier region is about 1,000 strong. The maintainance of the Black Flag Battalion of the Miao troops (Illus. 58) largely comes from the rented fields. T'un fields were set up to support troops on the spot as a defense against the Miao. Today, the Miao have been largely acculturated by the Chinese and the boundary line between the Miao and the Chinese is gradually becoming obliterated. There is no longer the need for this kind of system of t'un defense against the Miao. In fact, unrest in the Miao area today is often due to the maladministration of the t'un fields system. The Miao petty officers and the t'un leaders often are oppressive in collecting rent and sometimes are corrupt in their methods, thus causing dissatisfaction and disturbances. In the twenty-sixth year of the Republic /1937/ the Miao rebellion in western Hunan arose because of the t'un land system. It resulted in the burning of t'un granaries and killing of t'un officers. Although the rebellion was pacified only after bloody and expensive campaigns, it is imperative to change the t'un and enter the newly opened or reclaimed land as available for taxation, so as to reach a fundamental solution.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 182§REF§ Hmong communities also had their own informal village security: 'The drum tower is also the post for the night watch. Every night three or four able-bodied men, bearing arms, hunting rifles, ammunition, etc., would keep vigil at the drum tower, crying every hour /lit., several tens of minutes/: “Bandits are coming - do not fall asleep.” All through the night one hears these intermittent strange calls, the idea being to prevent the guards themselves from falling asleep, and the bandits, from coming if they should hear such calls and know that the whole village is on the alert. This is like beating the grass with a stick to scare the snakes away. But if the bandits actually come, the watchmen would then climb up the tower to beat the drum, awaking all the able-bodied men in the village to give the bandits a good fight.' §REF§Che-lin, Wu, Chen Kuo-chün, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Studies Of Miao-I Societies In Kweichow”, 110§REF§ We have assumed that these observations are true for the A-Hmao as well, despite of historical differences. [The A-Hmao group doesn't appear to have been directly involved in the more eastern Hmong rebellions, but it appears to have been increasingly subsumed by the Late Qing/Early Chinese in the aftermath of these rebellions.]" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred present for contemporary polities §REF§(Blakeley 1999, 10) Blakeley, Barry B. in Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. 1999. eds. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai'i Press. Honolulu.§REF§." }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "cn_longshan", "long_name": "Longshan", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No evidence for military so one could infer that regularly paid professional military officers were absent. Would there have been a full-time trained and paid personal retainer/bodyguard to a king?" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"By the tenth century, soldiers, to the intense consternation of statesmen, were wholly divorced from any productive activities and earned their livings by skill at arms. Despite many attempts to replace this \"mercenary\" system, it remained in place until the end of imperial times.\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 7)§REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"While the army itself had changed from a mostly hereditary, financially independent force into a paid, professional force, now heavily dependent upon firearms, the officer corps remained dependent on hereditary leaders. These hereditary leaders were not the families of the early Ming...\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 139)§REF§<br>\"By the tenth century, soldiers, to the intense consternation of statesmen, were wholly divorced from any productive activities and earned their livings by skill at arms. Despite many attempts to replace this \"mercenary\" system, it remained in place until the end of imperial times.\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 7)§REF§<br>\"The problem Chinese statesmen had with the standing army was how to keep it out of politics and isolate its functions to a static, reliable instrument of dynastic stability ...The answer for the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties was to fuedalize much of the army into a hereditary class with attached lands that would support them in peacetime.\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 8)§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"There were many salaried ranks for officers and men and also several specific types of allowance. Most of the military personnel, however, received very small allowances, thus making it difficult for them to maintain a living. ... Serving in the military was a kind of profession, and the soldiers and their family dependants usually lived together in military camps.\" §REF§(Tseng-yü and Wright 2009, 219)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Palace guard command called dianzhong shangshu. §REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.63)§REF§<br>Northern Wei \"re-established the old Han system of frontier garrisons supported by agricultural colonies.\"§REF§(Peers 1995, 34)§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Lorge 2005, 161)§REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. Green Standard officers §REF§(McCord 1993, 21-22)§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Chariots allowed commanders to supervise their troops efficiently and across great distances.\"§REF§(The Shang Dynasty, 1600 to 1050 BCE. Spice Digest, Fall 2007. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Troops of the Northern Chou reorganized \"into twelve units - four guards (wei) and eight army headquarters offices (fu). In addition to his central command structure, regional military commands (tsung-kuan fu), which had overall control of an area, sometimes of a few prefectures (chou) and in other cases more than ten, were established in areas of major strategic importance. These districts were officered by ranked military officials appointed from the capital; in some cases the generals appointed were made concurrently civil governors of the regions in which they were to serve.\"§REF§(Wright 1979, 100)§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Officers were permanently employed, but the rank-and-file had to report to duty and training at the capital on a rotation system, depending upon how far away they lived.\" §REF§(Peers 2002, 12)§REF§ Professional military officers. §REF§(Peterson 1979, 467)§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Professional military officers. §REF§(Peterson 1979, 467)§REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Wu Qi, a military general who arrived [in Chu] from Wei in 390 BC....\"§REF§(Tin-bor Hui 2005, n90 85) Tin-bor Hui, Victoria. 2005. War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " According to Herrlee G. Creel, \"functional\" military officials. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 14)§REF§ However, there may be from the same pool of aristocrats-with-fiefs who run the administrative system." }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No evidence for military so one could infer that regularly paid professional military officers were absent." }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " standing army §REF§(Lorge 2005, 8)§REF§" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1300, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " <span style=\"color:blue\">Only at the time of Conquest AD</span>\"Besides caciques, Spanish sources mention capitanes, principales (nobles), mandadores (commanders), and capitanes de guerra. Fray Pedro Simón (1882-92, 5: 197) also lists a pregonero (speaker or crier) who was second only to the chief. Spanish accounts do not list the duties and powers of all these off icials, but it seems clear that there was a hierarchy of civil and military off ice- holders.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 203)§REF§ \"Capitanes de guerra\" means \"war captains\". There is no confirmation from Bray on whether these military officers had any other occupation and whether they were full-time professionals.\"There is also the question concerning the social positioning of people living in these different residential areas. Were they full time attached specialists such as warriors, masons, featherworkers, bead manufacturers, goldsmiths, or religious specialists as Groot (1985) argues?\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 304)§REF§Reichel-Dolmatoff refers to 16th century wars, highlighting that the Tairona were prone on guerilla warfare when resisting the Spaniards and that only on two occasions did they have a more substantial organised force, with military chiefs. This lack of organisation led to their eventual demise. §REF§(Reichel-Dolmatoff 1951, 91)§REF§ Note by RA: However the situation could have been different before contact (population decrease and other factors could have altered the social fabric)." }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1300, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " <span style=\"color:blue\">Only at the time of Conquest AD</span>\"Besides caciques, Spanish sources mention capitanes, principales (nobles), mandadores (commanders), and capitanes de guerra. Fray Pedro Simón (1882-92, 5: 197) also lists a pregonero (speaker or crier) who was second only to the chief. Spanish accounts do not list the duties and powers of all these off icials, but it seems clear that there was a hierarchy of civil and military off ice- holders.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 203)§REF§ \"Capitanes de guerra\" means \"war captains\". There is no confirmation from Bray on whether these military officers had any other occupation and whether they were full-time professionals.\"There is also the question concerning the social positioning of people living in these different residential areas. Were they full time attached specialists such as warriors, masons, featherworkers, bead manufacturers, goldsmiths, or religious specialists as Groot (1985) argues?\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 304)§REF§Reichel-Dolmatoff refers to 16th century wars, highlighting that the Tairona were prone on guerilla warfare when resisting the Spaniards and that only on two occasions did they have a more substantial organised force, with military chiefs. This lack of organisation led to their eventual demise. §REF§(Reichel-Dolmatoff 1951, 91)§REF§ Note by RA: However the situation could have been different before contact (population decrease and other factors could have altered the social fabric)." }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": 1400, "year_to": 1524, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "<span style=\"color:blue\">Only at the time of Conquest AD</span>\"Besides caciques, Spanish sources mention capitanes, principales (nobles), mandadores (commanders), and capitanes de guerra. Fray Pedro Simón (1882-92, 5: 197) also lists a pregonero (speaker or crier) who was second only to the chief. Spanish accounts do not list the duties and powers of all these off icials, but it seems clear that there was a hierarchy of civil and military off ice- holders.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 203)§REF§ \"Capitanes de guerra\" means \"war captains\". There is no confirmation from Bray on whether these military officers had any other occupation and whether they were full-time professionals.\"There is also the question concerning the social positioning of people living in these different residential areas. Were they full time attached specialists such as warriors, masons, featherworkers, bead manufacturers, goldsmiths, or religious specialists as Groot (1985) argues?\" §REF§(Giraldo 2010, 304)§REF§Reichel-Dolmatoff refers to 16th century wars, highlighting that the Tairona were prone on guerilla warfare when resisting the Spaniards and that only on two occasions did they have a more substantial organised force, with military chiefs. This lack of organisation led to their eventual demise. §REF§(Reichel-Dolmatoff 1951, 91)§REF§ Note by RA: However the situation could have been different before contact (population decrease and other factors could have altered the social fabric)." }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists Blood-vengeance and warfare were organized by community members: 'The terrible custom demands ever new, ever more victims, all security must disappear, every individual constantly lives in danger of being ambushed; there is a general and permanent state of war. Hence the arrangement of the houses, one door of which can be used for flight, while the battle rages at the other; hence the customs mentioned at the beginning in connection with approaching a dwelling, for the protection of which, in addition, a pack of half-wild dogs are kept. A quarrel between two families must lead to battles between whole tribes; larger groups of tribes become hostile to one another; war and battle become customary, a man's lifework. A longer period of quiet, of peace, must be unbearable for such a nation of warriors. Ambitious, bold leaders will easily find companions for joint war expeditions; the neighboring nations are attacked and plundered. Thus, these Indians are carrying on among themselves a war of annihilation which must gradually bring about their own downfall. Severe depopulation is already noticeable in the region of the Jívaros, and it is being accelerated by epidemics, of the diseases introduced by the Europeans, which appear with great violence at times.' §REF§Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians”, 13§REF§ 'The primary motivation for warfare is to secure as many human heads as possible from an alien tribe, and secondarily to capture women. The acquisition of territory had never been a motive for engaging in warfare. The war party, consisting of approximately thirty or forty men, is recruited from the community itself or from friendly neighborhoods nearby, and is usually led by the or as war leader or chief. Actual warfare consists of preliminary ceremonies involving ritualized chanting, surprise attacks against one or two enemy houses, the killing and decapitation of the inhabitants or the occasional capture of a girl or woman as an extra wife, and the preparation of the on the return to the home village. Unlike many of the warlike Amazon tribes captives are not tortured or sacrificed, nor is cannibalism practiced.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'It therefore behooves any Achuarä contemplating revenge upon someone to discuss his plans with potential allies, aligning them in his camp in advance of his action. The recruitment of military support among the Achuarä and other Jivaroans (cf. Harner 1972:98) is a rather insecure business. This derives, in part, from the fact that social relations are organized within a framework of cognatic, bilateral kinship, in which the only people sharing the same personal kindreds, and the rights and obligations associated with them, are siblings. Furthermore, the only military support of which one truly can be assured, once a contemplated or actual homicide develops, comes from persons obligated by affinal ties-sons-in-law or brothers-in-law-who often reside together. Where branching kin ties are overridden by divergent affinal obligations, relatives may very likely be drawn into enemy camps.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 102§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists. Blood-vengeance and warfare were organized by community members: 'The terrible custom demands ever new, ever more victims, all security must disappear, every individual constantly lives in danger of being ambushed; there is a general and permanent state of war. Hence the arrangement of the houses, one door of which can be used for flight, while the battle rages at the other; hence the customs mentioned at the beginning in connection with approaching a dwelling, for the protection of which, in addition, a pack of half-wild dogs are kept. A quarrel between two families must lead to battles between whole tribes; larger groups of tribes become hostile to one another; war and battle become customary, a man's lifework. A longer period of quiet, of peace, must be unbearable for such a nation of warriors. Ambitious, bold leaders will easily find companions for joint war expeditions; the neighboring nations are attacked and plundered. Thus, these Indians are carrying on among themselves a war of annihilation which must gradually bring about their own downfall. Severe depopulation is already noticeable in the region of the Jívaros, and it is being accelerated by epidemics, of the diseases introduced by the Europeans, which appear with great violence at times.' §REF§Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians”, 13§REF§ 'The primary motivation for warfare is to secure as many human heads as possible from an alien tribe, and secondarily to capture women. The acquisition of territory had never been a motive for engaging in warfare. The war party, consisting of approximately thirty or forty men, is recruited from the community itself or from friendly neighborhoods nearby, and is usually led by the or as war leader or chief. Actual warfare consists of preliminary ceremonies involving ritualized chanting, surprise attacks against one or two enemy houses, the killing and decapitation of the inhabitants or the occasional capture of a girl or woman as an extra wife, and the preparation of the on the return to the home village. Unlike many of the warlike Amazon tribes captives are not tortured or sacrificed, nor is cannibalism practiced.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'It therefore behooves any Achuarä contemplating revenge upon someone to discuss his plans with potential allies, aligning them in his camp in advance of his action. The recruitment of military support among the Achuarä and other Jivaroans (cf. Harner 1972:98) is a rather insecure business. This derives, in part, from the fact that social relations are organized within a framework of cognatic, bilateral kinship, in which the only people sharing the same personal kindreds, and the rights and obligations associated with them, are siblings. Furthermore, the only military support of which one truly can be assured, once a contemplated or actual homicide develops, comes from persons obligated by affinal ties-sons-in-law or brothers-in-law-who often reside together. Where branching kin ties are overridden by divergent affinal obligations, relatives may very likely be drawn into enemy camps.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 102§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Middle rank officers, Iqta holders.<br>\"Others were rewarded with an iqta or government fief. ... Some iqtas were also put aside to maintain the fleet and its personnel. The Ayyubid ranking system was quite a simple three tier system of amirs, amir kabirs and amir al isfahsalar. Above these field ranks were five or so specialist senior posts from garrison commander to army chief.\"§REF§(Nicolle 1986, 20-21) Nicolle, D. 1986. Saladin and the Saracens. Osprey Publishing Ltd. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"high commander\" §REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 26)§REF§ (professional officers inferred present)" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Army funded by Mamluk elite through their iqta (estates). These iqta holders formed an aristocracy, and they usually lived in Cairo or Damascus (rather than on their estates). §REF§(Nicolle 1996,135-181)§REF§<br>\"‘Iqta fiefs were allocated to those of senior or sometimes middle rank. These men were called muqtas. In the Mamluk Sultanate a muqta maintained a certain number of soldiers, his own mamluks and sometimes other lesser troops. He and his military household then owed military service to the sultan. The muqta also paid his troops’ expenses from the revenues of his ‘iqta. The men would then purchase what they required on campaign from the suq al-‘askar ‘soldiers’ market’. Each regular soldier was also paid, either by his muqta or by the sultan.\" §REF§(Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd.§REF§<br>\"Army officers came from the Mamluk ranks.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 113)§REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Army funded by Mamluk elite through their iqta (estates). These iqta holders formed an aristocracy, and they usually lived in Cairo or Damascus (rather than on their estates). §REF§(Nicolle 1996,135-181)§REF§<br>\"‘Iqta fiefs were allocated to those of senior or sometimes middle rank. These men were called muqtas. In the Mamluk Sultanate a muqta maintained a certain number of soldiers, his own mamluks and sometimes other lesser troops. He and his military household then owed military service to the sultan. The muqta also paid his troops’ expenses from the revenues of his ‘iqta. The men would then purchase what they required on campaign from the suq al-‘askar ‘soldiers’ market’. Each regular soldier was also paid, either by his muqta or by the sultan.\" §REF§(Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd.§REF§<br>\"Army officers came from the Mamluk ranks.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 113)§REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Army funded by Mamluk elite through their iqta (estates). These iqta holders formed an aristocracy, and they usually lived in Cairo or Damascus (rather than on their estates). §REF§(Nicolle 1996,135-181)§REF§<br>\"‘Iqta fiefs were allocated to those of senior or sometimes middle rank. These men were called muqtas. In the Mamluk Sultanate a muqta maintained a certain number of soldiers, his own mamluks and sometimes other lesser troops. He and his military household then owed military service to the sultan. The muqta also paid his troops’ expenses from the revenues of his ‘iqta. The men would then purchase what they required on campaign from the suq al-‘askar ‘soldiers’ market’. Each regular soldier was also paid, either by his muqta or by the sultan.\" §REF§(Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd.§REF§<br>\"Army officers came from the Mamluk ranks.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 113)§REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 5)§REF§ Permanent, specialized only by time of the New Kingdom. In earlier periods \"it can hardly be distinguished from a workforce for mining, quarrying, and trade expeditions.\" Highest official called \"Overseer of the Army\" (or \"General\"). §REF§(Haring 2010)§REF§<br>EWA: ref. Berlev. Examples of titles 'Atju' and 'Ankhu'.<br>\"The army was well organized and in the 12th dynasty it had a core of professional soldiers. They served for prolonged periods of time and were regularly stationed abroad.\" §REF§(Van De Mieroop, M. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley)§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In the Predynastic period there is no proof of the existence of professional army. There is also no hieroglyphic sign meaning \"army\" by Dynastic Period. Moreover, in Ancient Egyptian unitary state, introduction of regular army took place during the New Kingdom§REF§Shaw, I. 1991 Egyptian Warfare and Weapons. Buckinghamshire: Shire Publications. pg: 26.§REF§." }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In the Predynastic period there is no proof of the existence of a professional army. There is probably also no hieroglyphic sign meaning \"army\" by Dynastic Period§REF§Kahl, J. 1994. Das System der ägyptischen Hieroglyphenschrift in der 0.-3. Dynastie. Göttinger Orientforschungen IV: Ägypten 29. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pg: 423.§REF§. Moreover, in Ancient Egyptian unitary state, introduction of regular army took place during the New Kingdom§REF§Shaw, I. 1991 Egyptian Warfare and Weapons. Buckinghamshire: Shire Publications. pg: 26.§REF§." }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In the Predynastic period there is no proof of the existence of a professional army. There is probably also no hieroglyphic sign meaning \"army\" by Dynastic Period§REF§Kahl, J. 1994. Das System der ägyptischen Hieroglyphenschrift in der 0.-3. Dynastie. Göttinger Orientforschungen IV: Ägypten 29. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pg: 423.§REF§. Moreover, in Ancient Egyptian unitary state, introduction of regular army took place during the New Kingdom§REF§Shaw, I. 1991 Egyptian Warfare and Weapons. Buckinghamshire: Shire Publications. pg: 26.§REF§." }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Manning 2012, 76)§REF§§REF§(Brewer and Teeter 1999, 74)§REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Manning 2012, 76)§REF§§REF§(Brewer and Teeter 1999, 74)§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " State-run army. §REF§(Spalinger 2013, 462)§REF§ e.g. Overseer of the quiver" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_military_officer", "professional_military_officer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " State-run army. §REF§(Spalinger 2013, 462)§REF§ e.g. Overseer of the quiver" } ] }