Military Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Military Levels.
GET /api/sc/military-levels/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 448, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/military-levels/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/military-levels/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 7, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Dupuy and Dupuy 2007)§REF§<br>1. General (Imperator)<br><br>2. comites praetoris and cohortes praetorioWithin the army structure there were comites praetoris (young aristocrats) and cohortes praetorio (to guard the general's tent, the praetorium; these later formed the basis of the later Imperial-era Praetorian Guard). This unit was first created by Scipio Aemilianus.<br>2. QuaestorsLogistical and administrative support<br>2. Legion commander (Legate)There were ten cohorts (400-500 men each) within a legion which makes the legion 4000-5000 men.<br>3. Cohort/Task group leader (Tribunes)Six. Floating role, for detached cohorts and task groups.<br>Under Marius the cohort became the main tactical unit in the Roman army while the maniple endured as an administrative element within it. There were ten cohorts (400-500 men each) within a legion. At some time in the first century BCE the first cohort was doubled in size (800 men).<br>\"The maniples of 120 or 60 men that formed the primary tactical subunits of the manipular legion were subsequently replaced by larger subunits called cohorts. In the imperial period, these cohorts each had a nominal strength of 480 men, divided into six centuries of 80, and this is likely to have been true of late Republican cohorts too. There were ten cohorts in each legion, so a full-strength late Republican legion had 5,000 or so men, all equipped as heavy infantry. We do not know exactly when the cohort became the principal subdivision of the legion, except that it was normal by the time of Caesar's Gallic wars. From this time onwards the maniples only appeared in the titles of the centurions within each legion.\" §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 22)§REF§<br>4. Senior Centurion (Primus Pilus)\"In the imperial period, these cohorts each had a nominal strength of 480 men, divided into six centuries of 80, and this is likely to have been true of late Republican cohorts too. There were ten cohorts in each legion, so a full-strength late Republican legion had 5,000 or so men, all equipped as heavy infantry.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 22-23)§REF§<br>5. Centurion\"While the distinction between hastati, principes and triarii was preserved in centurions' titles, by Marius' day it ceased to have any significance in how legionaries were equipped and fought. ... Henceforth Roman legions were composed entirely of heavy infantry.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 20-21)§REF§<br>6. Optio (?)<br>There were 32 troopers (turma) under a decurion (sergeant). Twelve turma formed an ala (squadron), which was commanded by officer of tribune rank §REF§(Dupuy and Dupuy 2007)§REF§<br>7. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "\"The earliest contemporary description of a Roman legion was written by the Greek writer Polybius in c.150-120 BC. He describes a military organization that is distinctively Roman, and specifically refers to it as a 'legion'. It consisted of 4,200 infantry (5,000 in times of emergency), subdivided into units of 120 or 60 men called maniples ('handfuls'), and so modern scholars often refer to it as the 'manipular' legion, to distinguish it from later legions organized in larger subunits called cohorts.\" \"It perhaps emerged in the 4th century BC (as Livy suggests), due to problems the Romans encountered fighting against enemies who fought in looser formations than the phalanx and in rougher terrain, to which the phalanx was unsuited.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 14)§REF§<br>1. Two Consuls, field commanders. §REF§(Dupuy and Dupuy 2007)§REF§<br>2. Quaestors, senior officers. §REF§(Dupuy and Dupuy 2007)§REF§3. Legion (4,200 men) lead by six Tribunes\"Polybius (6.22-23; 25) describes how the legion in this period was divided into four types of infantry. There were three different groups of heavy infantry: 1,200 hastati ('spearmen'), 1,200 principes ('leading men') and 600 triarii ('third line men').\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 14)§REF§<br>Legion \"headed by six officers called tribunes, who had to have completed a minimum of five or ten years' military service before appointment.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 15)§REF§<br>4. Maniple (120 or 60 men) commanded by two Centurions\"The hastati and principes were divided into ten maniples of 120 men, the triarii into ten of 60 men. The velites were also organized into ten subunits, and assigned to the heavy infantry.<br>\"The officers who commanded the maniples, two for each, were centurions, elected by the soldiers themselves.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 15)§REF§<br>5. Two OptioPage 16 Pollard and Berry (2012): an \"optio\" is present in graphic but not described in text. §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 16)§REF§<br>6. Individual soldiers" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 9, "military_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": "1. Emperor (commander-in-chief) / Imperator<br>Augustus: \"To ensure that he could not be overthrown in another round of civil war, he established himself as commander-in-chief of the army, with imperium (the power to raise and command armies) greater than that of the senators who typically governed the provinces and commanded armies in the field. §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 34)§REF§<br>\"At the top of the hierarchy was the emperor himself, commander-in-chief of the Roman army by virtue of his possession of imperium maius, a power to raise and command armies that out-ranked that of anyone else.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 37-38)§REF§<br>2. legatus Augusti (controlled a military province)\"provinces with a legionary garrison were governed by a legatus Augusti pro praetore, or 'imperial legate with praetor's powers'. He was drawn from the Senate as a personal appointee of the emperor, governing and commanding in the name of the emperor.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 38)§REF§<br>\"The governors of a few provinces (notably Egypt, but also Mesopotamia) were equites ('knights'), members of the next wealthiest group in Roman society after the senators, the equestrian order.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 38)§REF§<br>3. legatus legionis (commanded a legion)\"If there were multiple legions in a province, they were commanded by men with powers delegated to them by the provincial governors, and each legionary commander was known as a legatus legionis ('legionary legate').\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 38)§REF§<br>\"Broadly speaking, paper organization of imperial legions was very similar to that of the late Republican period and remained so until the 3rd century AD. A legion was still organized in ten cohorts, each typically made up of six centuries of 80 men each.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 36)§REF§<br>4. tribunus militum (lead a cohort)\"Cohorts, centuries and contubernia were the regular subunits of the legion\". §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 37)§REF§<br>\"Tribunes, like the legionary legate (commander), were drawn from Rome's social and political elite, the senatorial and equestrian orders, and were not professional soldiers.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 39)§REF§<br>\"Josephus (Jewish War 6.131) mentions 1,000 men assigned to each tribune during combat in Jerusalem in AD 70.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 39)§REF§<br>4. dux, praepositus or legate (lead a vexillation)\"Cohorts, centuries and contubernia were the regular subunits of the legion, but it could also be broken down into vexillations, temporary (in theory, at least) detachments named after the vexillum (flag) standard they carried in place of the legion's eagle. Using vexillations, typically 1,000 or 2,000 men drawn from a particular legion, was common practice to avoid moving the whole legion far from its post when troops were needed to deal with a crisis or mount a campaign in another province. This was particularly common from the 2nd century AD, when legions tended to settle into long-term locations and permanent fortresses, but we find evidence of their vexillations across the empire, for example in the Jewish Revolt of AD 66-70.\" §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 37)§REF§<br>\"Large legionary vexillations, with attached auxiliaries, were typically commanded by senatorial commanders with titles such as dux, praepositus or legate, or sometimes by very senior centurions. Smaller detachments for policing or construction duties might be commanded by centurions.\" §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 37)§REF§<br>5. praefectus castrorum (prefect of the camp)\"The praefectus castrorum ('prefect of the camp') was effectively third-in-command of the legion (after the senatorial legate and senatorial tribune) and had special responsibility for fortifications, sieges and artillery.\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 39)§REF§<br>6. primus pilus\"... the five centurions of the first cohort, the primi ordines ('men of the first rank') were of higher rank than any other centurion and there was progression within that cohort.\" \"The primus pilus was the highest-ranking centurion in the legion, followed by the princeps prior, hastatus prior, princeps posterior and finally hastatus posterior.\" §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 39)§REF§<br>7. princeps prior <i>are some of these ranks at same level of command. could a spearman at the front really give orders to an officer at the back?</i>8. hastatus prior <i>possibly more likely order: 6. primus pilus; 7. pilus prior & other higher-ranking centuriones; 8. ordinary centuriones; 9. milites</i>9. princeps posterior10. hastatus posterior11. Uncommissioned legionary<br>6. Centurio\"Each of the ten cohorts in a legion, except for the first, had six centurions ... Most scholars believe that the titles of centurions in the second to tenth cohorts did not denote any particular rank or seniority.§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 39)§REF§\"The centuries were subdivided into contubernia (singular, contubernium) of eight men. This much is relatively clear, and implies a legion of 4,800 at full strength.\" §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 36)§REF§<br>7. Contubernia (e.g. Optio)Among ranked men of a legion there was a distinction between principales and immunes. principales: \"the title optio ('orderly', typically assisting a centurion), tesserarius (bearer of the password), standard-bearers (aquilifer, signifer, imaginifer) and senior clerical officials.\" Activity of the immunes \"includes medical orderlies, surveyors, metalworkers, clerks, musicians and others.\" §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 40-41)§REF§<br>8. legionary (noncommissioned)\"The ordinary soldiers of the legions were known as milites ('soldiers', singular miles)\" §REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 40)§REF§" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " \"the military organization of the thirty curiae and three archaic tribes can perhaps best be dated to the period of Rome's early unification, during the second half of the seventh century B.C\".§REF§(Forsythe 2006, 115) Forsythe, Gary. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press.§REF§ \"while the urban community at Rome may have begun to develop a distinct, community-based identity from the eighth century onwards, the gentilicial elite of Rome, even as late as the early sixth century, would probably be best characterized as simply 'Latin,' or possibily even 'central Italian'. The presence of this pan-central Italian gentilicial aristocracy would have had a dramatic impact on how Rome interracted with other Latin settlements as it may have blurred man of the assumed settlement-based divisions, particularly with regard to military matters, which seem to have been almost entirely under the purview of the more mobile gentilicial elite.\"§REF§(Armstrong 2016, 73) Armstrong, Jeremy. 2016. War and Society in Early Rome. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"The reforms of Servius Tullius, as presented in the literary sources, represented a seismic shift in the organization of Roman society, changing not only how the early Roman army was recruited and equipped, but also the social, politicial, and possibly religious divisions of early Roman society.\"§REF§(Armstrong 2016, 75) Armstrong, Jeremy. 2016. War and Society in Early Rome. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. King<br><br>2. Leaders of the three tribesThree tribes: Tities, Ramnes, Luceres, each subdivided into 10 curiae, formed the basis of military organization. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 114)§REF§<br>3. Leaders of a curiaeThree tribes: Tities, Ramnes, Luceres, each subdivided into 10 curiae, formed the basis of military organization. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 114)§REF§<br>4. Individual soldier<br>1. King<br><br>2. Leaders of a centuryThe Centuriate organisation of Servius Tullius (578-534 BCE) had five categories based on wealth. Century was the basic unit. Each curia had 100 men. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 183)§REF§<br>3. Leaders of a curiae<br>4. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 11, "military_level_to": 11, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Military Administration 1509-1617§REF§(Mallett and Hale 1984: 250; 466. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YFGBTMAH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YFGBTMAH</a>)§REF§<br>1. Doge (inferred)<br>2. Heads of the Council of Ten<br>3. Council of Ten<br>3. Senate<br>4. Proveditor of Artillery (until 1588)<br>4. Proveditor of Fortifications<br>4. Collateral (inferred)<br>5. Savi<br>5. Camerlenghi<br>5. Arsenal Rector of Brescia<br>6. Rector, Proveditor, Military Governor, Senior Officer, Spies, Captain, Commissaries, Castellans<br>6. Paymaster<br>6. Engineers, Commander in Chief, Rector<br>7. Condottieri:<br>8. Men-at-arms (Lancers)<br>9. Militia officers<br>10. Lower level officers<br>11. Infantry Troops<br>Navy: \"Venetian overseas colonies depended to a great extent on the defensive shield provided by Venice’s fleet, and the role of the Provveditore General dell’Armata, who acted not only as a navy commander but also as supreme authority over the colonies in peacetime as well as during wars, was another idiosyncratic feature of the overseas colonies.§REF§(Arbel 2013: 129) Benjamin Arbel. Venice's Maritime Empire in the Early Modern Period. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2013. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§." }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "6. Emperor<br>5. Council of state4. <i>Shogunate?</i>3. <i>Shugo?</i>2. <i>Gokenin?</i>1. Individual soldier<br><br>below are two alternate and concurrent command chains<br>--Chains of command in the late Kamakura military 1 —<br><b>5. Council of State</b><br><b>4. Shogunate </b><br><b>3. Shugo</b><br><b>2. Gokenin </b><br><b>1. Provincial warriors</b><br>--Chains of command in the late Kamakura military 2—<br><b>4. Council of State</b><br><b>3. Provincial government</b><br><b>2. non-gokenin warrior leaders</b><br><b>1. Provincial warriors</b><br>‘Thus the organizational structure under which late thirteenth- and early fourteenth-century warriors served looked something like the system depicted in Figure 2.3. The command structures of the Kemmu regime and the Muromachi shogunate (during the Nambokuchō era) remained essentially the same, at least in theory.§REF§Friday, Karl F. 2004. Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. Psychology Press.p.52-53§REF§ ‘Warrior allegiances were further circumscribed by the multi-tiered, hierarchical structure of the military networks to which they belonged. Most of the provincial warriors in the organizations of prominent bushi had vassals of their own, and many of the members of these, in turn, had followers.’ §REF§Friday, Karl F. 2004. Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. Psychology Press.p.59§REF§" }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>A standing army, inspired by the Chinese-style army, was introduced in Japan in the 7th century CE by the emperor Tenmu. The bulk of the army conscripted was composed of peasants who served in infantry regiments. Each province provided a regiment, which could have a size from several hundred to over a thousand of soldiers§REF§Kuehn, John T. 2014. A Military History of Japan: From the Age of the Samurai to the 21st Century. Praeger,pp.17-18.§REF§.<br>5. Emperor<br>4. Commander-in-Chief?3. Regiment (several hundred to over a thousand soldiers)2. Officer?1. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "--Early Kamakura Military Structure-- §REF§Friday, Karl F. 2004. Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. Psychology Press.p.50§REF§<br><b>4. Shogun </b><br><b>3. Battle commanders</b><br><b>2. Gokenin</b><br><b>1. Provincial warriors</b><br>See chart in Friday 2004.p.50.‘The organization of early Kamakura armies is manifest in Azuma kagami’s description of the forces deployed at the battle of Ichinotani, in the second month of 1184. Command of the main host was entrusted to Yoritomo’s brother Noriyori, whose “accompanying troops” consisted of thirty-two named vassals and “more than 56,000 horsemen under them,” while a second division,commanded by Yoshitsune, included seventeen named vassals and “more than 20,000 horsemen under them.” Three points stand out from this account. First, the text assigns no formal titles to Noriyori and Yoshitsune, describing them only as the “commanding officer for the main force” (ōte no taishōgun) and “commanding officer for the flanking force” (karamete no taishō gun). Second, the identification of only three levels of warriors - divisional commanders, named vassals and “horsemen under them” - and the ratio of officers to other warriors (the improbable overall numbers notwithstanding) testifies to the lack of articulation in the army. And third, the assignment of vassals to the divisions betrays no logical pattern, beyond grouping warriors of the same surname together. Both forces included men of Taira, Minamoto and Fujiwara descent; both included men from various provinces;and men from the same provinces were split between the divisions. §REF§Friday, Karl F. 2004. Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. Psychology Press.p.50§REF§<br>below are two alternate and concurrent command chains<br>--Chains of command in the late Kamakura military 1 —<br><b>5. Council of State</b><br><b>4. Shogunate </b><br><b>3. Shugo</b><br><b>2. Gokenin </b><br><b>1. Provincial warriors</b><br>--Chains of command in the late Kamakura military 2—<br><b>4. Council of State</b><br><b>3. Provincial government</b><br><b>2. non-gokenin warrior leaders</b><br><b>1. Provincial warriors</b><br>‘Kamakura continued, on occasion, to make use of the older provincial government mechanisms for mustering warriors, or to mobilize important vassals directly. ... Gokenin and their followers, moreover, made up but a small percentage of the total warrior population of the time; substantial numbers of bushi remained under the jurisdiction of estate proprietors or provincial governors. Thus the organizational structure under which late thirteenth- and early fourteenth-century warriors served looked something like the system depicted in Figure 2.3. The command structures of the Kemmu regime and the Muromachi shogunate (during the Nambokuchō era) remained essentially the same, at least in theory.§REF§Friday, Karl F. 2004. Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. Psychology Press.p.52-53§REF§ ‘Warrior allegiances were further circumscribed by the multi-tiered, hierarchical structure of the military networks to which they belonged. Most of the provincial warriors in the organizations of prominent bushi had vassals of their own, and many of the members of these, in turn, had followers.’ §REF§Friday, Karl F. 2004. Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. Psychology Press.p.59§REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Daimyo<br>the daimyo was the sōtaishō (commander-in-chief)§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>\"The taishō, bugyō and metsuke came under the direct command of the daimyō himself as members of his hatamoto (‘those who stand beneath the flag’)\"§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>2. ikusa bugyo\"The various bugyō (military administrators) act as the general staff under the overall direction of the ikusa bugyō, who may take the daimyō’s place on the field of battle.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>3. bugyo<br>2. Taisho (of a division)\"The taishō (generals) command the fighting divisions ‘of the line’ in the form of samurai (mounted and on foot) and the three specialized ashigaru divisions of bow, spear and arquebus.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>3. Samuraitaishō of a ???\"command of the ‘troops of the line’ is delegated through the subordinate generals who may be named samuraitaishō or ashigaru-taishō according to their particular command.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>3. Ashigaru-taishō of a Samurai unit\"commanders of purely samurai units\"§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>4. Samurai\"Every samurai would also be accompanied by a number of personal followers, ranging from a sizeable ‘platoon’ down to a single spear bearer.\" §REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>5.<br>6. Individual footsoldier<br>4. Mounted Samurai (same as above?)<br>5. Kogashira of a footsoldier squad\"The footsoldier squads, under the control of an individual kogashira, come under the overall command of the mounted samurai.\" §REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>6. Individual footsoldier" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "2. warrior leader.<br>1. Soldier.<br>The discovery of bronze weapons in the tombs of people, which likely belonging to the local elite, suggests the presence of war leaders. The Yayoi period was characterized by heated competition and conflict among different communities." }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. King (level 1), leaders of military divisions and mercenary chief (level 2), captains of militia (level 3), member of elephant corps (level 4), member of calvary (level 5), units farmer-builder-soldier class (level 6). According to David Chandler, 'Though the king, who led his country into battle, sometimes engaged his chief enemy in single combat, Khmer military strength rested on the junior officers, the captains of militia. These men commanded the loyalty of peasant groups in their particular locality. If the king conquered a region, a new captain of militia would be enrolled and put under an oath of allegiance. The captains were simply headmen of the outlying regions, but their connection with the king enhanced their status. In time of war they were expected to conscript the peasants in their district and to lead them to Angkor to join the Khmer army. If the captains disobeyed the king they were put to death. The vast majority of the Khmer population were of the farmer-builder-soldier class.'§REF§(Ross 1990)§REF§ 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries named in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§ 'At Angkor Wat at the head of the \"historic\" march past, appears a foreign contingent identified by an epigraphic inscription as the chief of the Siamese and his troops. Is this mercenary chief in the service of Suryavarman II, part of the king's own Siamese guard, similar to the Japanese and even Portuguese guards which some post-Angkorean rulers possessed, or a military contingent from a Siamese principality then a vassal of Cambodia, as S. Shai suggests? We cannot decide.'§REF§(Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, p. 98)§REF§" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. ?? King (level 6), leaders of military divisions and mercenary chief (level 5), captains of militia (level 4), member of elephant corps (level 3), member of calvary (level 2), units farmer-builder-soldier class (level 1). According to David Chandler, 'Though the king, who led his country into battle, sometimes engaged his chief enemy in single combat, Khmer military strength rested on the junior officers, the captains of militia. These men commanded the loyalty of peasant groups in their particular locality. If the king conquered a region, a new captain of militia would be enrolled and put under an oath of allegiance. The captains were simply headmen of the outlying regions, but their connection with the king enhanced their status. In time of war they were expected to conscript the peasants in their district and to lead them to Angkor to join the Khmer army. If the captains disobeyed the king they were put to death. The vast majority of the Khmer population were of the farmer-builder-soldier class.'§REF§(Ross 1990)§REF§ 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries named in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§ 'At Angkor Wat at the head of the \"historic\" march past, appears a foreign contingent identified by an epigraphic inscription as the chief of the Siamese and his troops. Is this mercenary chief in the service of Suryavarman II, part of the king's own Siamese guard, similar to the Japanese and even Portuguese guards which some post-Angkorean rulers possessed, or a military contingent from a Siamese principality then a vassal of Cambodia, as S. Shai suggests? We cannot decide.'§REF§(Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, p. 98)§REF§" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. King (level 1), leaders of military divisions and mercenary chief (level 2), captains of militia (level 3), member of elephant corps (level 4), member of calvary (level 5), units farmer-builder-soldier class (level 6). According to David Chandler, 'Though the king, who led his country into battle, sometimes engaged his chief enemy in single combat, Khmer military strength rested on the junior officers, the captains of militia. These men commanded the loyalty of peasant groups in their particular locality. If the king conquered a region, a new captain of militia would be enrolled and put under an oath of allegiance. The captains were simply headmen of the outlying regions, but their connection with the king enhanced their status. In time of war they were expected to conscript the peasants in their district and to lead them to Angkor to join the Khmer army. If the captains disobeyed the king they were put to death. The vast majority of the Khmer population were of the farmer-builder-soldier class.'§REF§(Ross 1990)§REF§ 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries named in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§ 'At Angkor Wat at the head of the \"historic\" march past, appears a foreign contingent identified by an epigraphic inscription as the chief of the Siamese and his troops. Is this mercenary chief in the service of Suryavarman II, part of the king's own Siamese guard, similar to the Japanese and even Portuguese guards which some post-Angkorean rulers possessed, or a military contingent from a Siamese principality then a vassal of Cambodia, as S. Shai suggests? We cannot decide.'§REF§(Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, p. 98)§REF§" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. King (level 1), leaders of military divisions and mercenary chief (level 2), captains of militia (level 3), member of elephant corps (level 4), member of calvary (level 5), units farmer-builder-soldier class (level 6). According to David Chandler, 'Though the king, who led his country into battle, sometimes engaged his chief enemy in single combat, Khmer military strength rested on the junior officers, the captains of militia. These men commanded the loyalty of peasant groups in their particular locality. If the king conquered a region, a new captain of militia would be enrolled and put under an oath of allegiance. The captains were simply headmen of the outlying regions, but their connection with the king enhanced their status. In time of war they were expected to conscript the peasants in their district and to lead them to Angkor to join the Khmer army. If the captains disobeyed the king they were put to death. The vast majority of the Khmer population were of the farmer-builder-soldier class.'§REF§(Ross 1990)§REF§ 'One major feature of the 'imperial state' was its maintenance of a large court and a corps of officials. Angkor has a sizeable bureaucracy staffed by officials of many sorts. Like so much about the Khmer kingdom in ancient times, the structure of government and the categories of the civil service are known to us through temple inscriptions, which frequently name various types of official or local dignitary in listing those present to witness the formal demarcation of land bestowed upon religious foundations; they mention a variety of grades and titles, some of them obscure. The khlon rajakarya was responsible for the administration of 'royal work', probably corvee among other things. The tamrvac was an inspector; the officials who swore allegiance to Suryavarman I had this title, for example. The gunadosadarsin (assessor of virtues and defects) was concerned with temple property. A variety of functionaries were called khlon (inspector) and had responsibilities in various areas such as grain, temple dues, management of religious foundations and several aspects of court proceedings. Revenue was usually in kind, being paid in grain, but some special districts paid in other commodities such as honey and wax. There is evidence that some of the categories in which officials were placed were not types of professional specialisation but divisions of the government service placed under the patronage of particular chiefs belonging to the royal family, a system that was indeed known in later centuries. Some of the groups of dignitaries named in named in the inscriptions, again, appear to have been the bearers of hereditary privileges in the royal household; the term varna, for example, designates any of a number of orders of dignity, which have such official functions as religious teachers, performers of rites, door guardians, garden keepers, palace servants, bearers of flywhisks, and artists.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, pp.166-167)§REF§ 'At Angkor Wat at the head of the \"historic\" march past, appears a foreign contingent identified by an epigraphic inscription as the chief of the Siamese and his troops. Is this mercenary chief in the service of Suryavarman II, part of the king's own Siamese guard, similar to the Japanese and even Portuguese guards which some post-Angkorean rulers possessed, or a military contingent from a Siamese principality then a vassal of Cambodia, as S. Shai suggests? We cannot decide.'§REF§(Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, p. 98)§REF§" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " From the following references there seems to be at least four levels, general, chief, officer, soldier, but there may be more: officer of the royal guard, chief of rowers, military chief, and chief of elephants. \"Bhavavarman II is also a fleeting figure, but the inscriptions of his great grandson, Jayavarman I (c. AD 635-680), reflect significant consolidation of central authority. Their distribution centres on the lowlands on either side of the Mekong, with extensions into the rich rice lands of Battambang and on to the coast of Chantaburi. Their contents inform us on two vital issues. The first is the use of official titles, such as President of the ROyal Court, which was located at a centre call Purandapura. Another prescribed punishment for those who disobey a royal order. Two brothers of high social standing were appointed to a variety of posts: officer of the royal guard, chief of rowers, military chief, and governor of Dhruvapura. Another highly-ranked courtier became chief of elephants, reminding us of the traditional role of elephants in warfare. A further text mentions a chief of the royal grain store. These high officials were regarded with honorific symbols, such as a parasol embellished with gold. The trends already evident under Ishanavarman were greatly strengthen under his great grand son: with Jayavarman I, we can identify the establishment of a state. It was, however, ephemeral. §REF§(Higham 2002, 250-251)§REF§ \"Its authors state that in the time of Jayavarman II they had three ancestors on their mother's and her mother's side - two females and a male, presumably siblings, though this is not stated. The male was a general (senapati). §REF§(Vickery 1986, 104)§REF§" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Following Higham's text, it could be inferred that there was some degree of military organization that seem to imply the presence of different levels. \"His son, Pan Pan, had only a brief reign, and was succeeded by a leader of military prowess known to the Chinese as Fan Shiman. He undertook raids against his neighbours, and then mounted a water-borne expedition which subdued over ten chiefs traditionally situated along the shores of the Gulf of Siam.\" §REF§(Higham 1989, pp. 247)§REF§ Sites like Angkor Borei have not yielded structures that may have been identified as indicators of violence. For example, the wall surrounding the city seems to have served as a \"ring-road\" and house placements rather than as a defensive structure. §REF§(O'Reilly 2007, p. 107)§REF§ It is likely then that at the earlier stages of the Funanese polity the chiefs would be in control of a somewhat large group of fighters that eventually became a stratified army as the polity gained complexity. " }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Following Higham's text, it could be inferred that there was some degree of military organization that seem to imply the presence of different levels. \"His son, Pan Pan, had only a brief reign, and was succeeded by a leader of military prowess known to the Chinese as Fan Shiman. He undertook raids against his neighbours, and then mounted a water-borne expedition which subdued over ten chiefs traditionally situated along the shores of the Gulf of Siam.\" §REF§(Higham 1989, pp. 247)§REF§ Sites like Angkor Borei have not yielded structures that may have been identified as indicators of violence. For example, the wall surrounding the city seems to have served as a \"ring-road\" and house placements rather than as a defensive structure. §REF§(O'Reilly 2007, p. 107)§REF§ It is likely then that at the earlier stages of the Funanese polity the chiefs would be in control of a somewhat large group of fighters that eventually became a stratified army as the polity gained complexity. (RA's guess)." }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": " levels. The Phoenician command structure is unknown, particularly given their reliance on mercenaries; however, it is known that neighboring Israel had up to 8 levels of hierarchy, ranging from the king serving as field commander all the way down to commanders of thousands, hundreds, and tens.§REF§Kelle (2007:42-44, 71, 140).§REF§" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Sultan<br>2. Sultan's personal guardMostly made up of Renegades§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 55-57§REF§<br>2. WazirAlso known as the viceroy, governor of Fez, crown prince, or vizir§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 57-58§REF§.<br>3. Vice-wazirDirectly supervised higher officers§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 57-58§REF§.<br>4. Higher officersThe sultan's other sons, brothers and relatives with command over the cavalry, firearm forces and the Sultan's personal guard§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 57-58§REF§.<br>5. Lesser officersNot mentioned by sources but implied by the sources' mention of \"higher officers\"§REF§M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 57-58§REF§.<br>6. Regular soldiers" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>2. Leader of royal guard3. Member of royal guard<br>\"Several members of the ton djon, a royal guard created by Biton Coulibaly, ruled from 1755 until 1766.\"§REF§(Keil 2012, 108) Sarah Keil. Bambara. Andrea L Stanton. ed. 2012. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Every male was an er, “man” and implicitly “warrior”; every young man had to earn his “warrior name” (er ati) through prowess in battle or the hunt; and an elite male, too, was an er bashi, or commander of so many men.82\" §REF§(Findley 2005, 45)§REF§<br>1. Khagan<br>2. Er Bashi. Commander3. Officer level (inferred)4. Er. Individual warrior" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Likely used decimal hierarchy.<br>1. King<br>2. of 10,0003. of 1,10004. of 1005. of 106. Individual soldier<br>Decimal system organization. \"In accordance with the hierarchical principle of the steppe society organization, the nomads were divided into subdivisions by the decimal principle (Taskin 1979: 511-513). In this case, only a part of nomads has taken part in acts of war while the remaining warriors have always stayed put as the basis of a tribe (ibid: 426). The tribes being autonomous and independent formations before the Apao-chi accession to the throne have become main administrative units for a period of empire. Their duties included the following functions:First, it is military function. The tribal home guard has formed a part of the military organization side by side with the professional army divisions of emperor and a number of eminent aristocrats and armed forces of vassal people. It is not accidental that in Laio shi it is mentioned that a banner is a distinctive attribute of a tribe (LS 49: 1b-2a).\" §REF§(Kradin 2014, 156)§REF§" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. According to our current understanding, there was no decimal system.(1) Khan (leader of the ulus = in thhis case, the complex chiefdom)<br>(2) Chief of ulus (subordinate chiefdom; 'ulus' can refer to both a simple and complex chiefdoms)(3) Leader of irgen ('tribe')(4) Leader of the obok (clan)(5) Ordinary nomad warrior. (Rachewiltz 2004, Kradin and Skrynnikova 2006)" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. The decimal system might still have been in use.<br>1. Khan<br>2. General of 10,000 soldiers<br>3. (General of 1,000 soldiers?)<br>4. 100<br>5. 10<br>6. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"The Wei shu reports that early in the 5th century, Shelun introduced the so-called decimal system: \"For the first time, military laws were established according to which 1000 people formed a detachment (run), and at the head of a detachment a military leader was placed. 100 people formed a banner (zhuang) and a chief stood at the head of a banner\" (WS 103: 3a; Taskin 1984, p. 269). A term run can be translated as 'military head', while shawu as 'leader or commander'.\" §REF§(Kradin 2005, 155)§REF§<br>1. Khagan<br>2. Head of detachment (1000 men)3. Chief of a banner (100 men)4. Soldier" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Every male was an er, “man” and implicitly “warrior”; every young man had to earn his “warrior name” (er ati) through prowess in battle or the hunt; and an elite male, too, was an er bashi, or commander of so many men.82\" §REF§(Findley 2005, 45)§REF§<br>1. Khagan<br>2. Er Bashi. Commander3. officer?4. Er. Individual warrior" }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Nomadic polities of the Steppe usually employed a decimal system. Can we infer the Xianbi at their most highly effective must have used this system too?<br>1. Ruler<br>2. Commander of 10,0003. Commander of 1,0004. Commander of 1005. Commander of 106. individual soldier<br>Bu (a sub-tribe of the Xianbi who had 5,000 people§REF§(Kradin 2011, 201)§REF§<br>\"The chiefs of bu, tribes or simple chiefdoms, fulfilled the following functions:<br>1. Military: organization of the battle-worthy portion of the population for raiding, and to repulse neighboring tribes' raids (see, for example: Taskin 1984: 76, 80, 325). It is not accidental that “boldest” occupied the first place among the important qualities ascribed to the most outstanding Xianbei chiefs, such as Tanshihuai or Kebineng (fl. early third century) (Taskin 1984: 75, 324, 330). One can remember that the rise of Tanshihuai began after he had dispersed the robbers attacking his nomadic camp.\" §REF§(Kradin 2014, 144-145)§REF§" }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>During the Empire period a supreme leader ruled over \"kings\", which suggest kings preceded the Empire period.§REF§(Rogers 2012, 220)§REF§<br>1. Kings<br>2. Chiefs3. Officer level?4. Individual soldier<br>" }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"The Shiji text describes a great many offices that supported rulership as well as a military-administrative decimal system of positions based on the number of horse- men a leader was responsible to mobilize, e.g., 10, 100, 1000, or 10,000, although there is some debate over the specificity of these actual counts (Kradin 2001: 208).\" §REF§(Honeychurch 2015, 224)§REF§<br>\"All of the adult men were members of the military-hierarchical organization of the Xiongnu society.\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 82)§REF§<br>\"The most highly titled relatives of the chanyu were ten superior commanders of ten thousand warriors which were comprised of four and six horns respectively20. The first four of them were called “wang” (king) by the Chinese chroniclers. Besides the chanyu’s relatives there were other noble families (clans): Huyan, Lan, Xubu, and Qiulin were among the highest Xiongnu aristocracy (Fan Ye 1965, ch. 91, 7b; Zhong- yang 1958, 680-681).The next level in the Xiongnu hierarchy was occupied by the tribal chiefs and elders. In the annals, they are mentioned, as a rule, as ‘subordinate kings’, ‘chief commandants’, ‘household administrators’, “juqu” officials21. Probably, a part of the ‘chiefs of a thousand’ were tribal chiefs. The ‘chiefs of a hundred’ and ‘chiefs of ten’ were, most likely, clan leaders of different ranks. The economic, judicial, cultic, fiscal, and military functions were considered to be responsibilities of chiefs and elders (Taskin 1973, 9-11).\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 89)§REF§<br>1. Ruler 'chanyu'<br>2. 10 commanders of 10,000 people 'wang' - or kings3. tribal chiefs and elders - subordinate kings - commanding 1000 people4. Commander of 1005. Commander of 106. individual soldier" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " level. Warriors were likely present during this period (based on the inter-polity conflict of this period and the preceding period) and so one level of military organisation is inferred, but sources do not suggest there is evidence for full-time professional military personnel.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " Suggested by Zapotec expansion during this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ The conquest of territories outside of the Valley of Oaxaca suggests that a permanent army, with the necessary commanders, would have existed at this time.§REF§Spencer, C. S. (1982) The Cuicatlán Cañada and Monte Albán: A study of primary state formation. Studies in Archaeology. Academic Press, New York. p243-4§REF§<br>1. War commanders<br>2. Individual soldiers" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. There is no direct evidence for multiple military levels, but the territorial expansion during this period and the previous period (Monte Albán Late I) suggests at least two levels (the commander and warriors), although there may have been more. The Zapotec state expanded 150km beyond Valley of Oaxaca after the conquest of Tlacolula within the Valley of Oaxaca during this period.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11801-11805, p11804§REF§<br>1. War commander<br>2. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. There is little direct evidence for Zapotec military organisation, but there may have been fewer levels than the previous period as the Zapotec were losing rather than gaining territory.§REF§Balkansky, A. K. (1998). \"Origin and collapse of complex societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the era from 1965 to the present.\" Journal of World Prehistory 12(4): 451-493.§REF§" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Later Spanish written records describe the presence of military officers and soldiers (civilian conscripts) during the MA V period, which may also apply to the MA IIIB-IV phases.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p376§REF§ However, it is by no means clear that the same system existed several centuries prior. Current code inferred from previous polities." }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Spanish written records describe the presence of military officers and soldiers (civilian conscripts) during this period.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p376§REF§<br>1. Military officers<br>2. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "mx_aztec_emp", "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Rank was achieved primarily by the taking of captives.\"§REF§(Hassig 1988: 37) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU</a>)§REF§<br>1. Huey Tlatoani (Great Speaker/Paramount ruler)2. Commanding General (has taken a difficult captive)§REF§(Hassig 1988: 40) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU</a>)§REF§3. General (inferred lower than Commanding General, has taken a difficult captive)§REF§(Hassig 1988: 40) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU</a>)§REF§4. Veteran Warriors (have taken more than four captives)§REF§(Hassig 1988: 37) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU</a>)§REF§5. Leader of Youth (three captives)§REF§(Hassig 1988: 37) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU</a>)§REF§6. Leading Youth (when a youth takes a captive without any help)§REF§(Hassig 1988: 37) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU</a>)§REF§7. Soldier without accomplishments (inferred)<br>A more meta look at the rankings in terms of groups of knights:\"There were two orders of a quasi-noble rank (Eagle and Jaguar knights), lesser orders who could still wear fine battle gear, and simple foot soldiers.\"§REF§Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§<br>1. Huey Tlatoani (Great Speaker/Paramount ruler)2. Eagle Knights<br>2. Jaguar Knights3. Lesser orders of knights. Cuauhpipltin: \"Commoners who had achieved noble status by virtue of their deeds in war.\"§REF§(Hassig 1988: 29) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8U993JEU</a>)§REF§4. Simple foot soldiers: yaoquizqueh" }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 13, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_8", "long_name": "Epiclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. At least two tiers can be inferred for Teotihuacan.§REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. At least one level of military organisation is inferred, based on evidence for inter-village raiding.§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p128-131§REF§ The raids would have been small scale, and military leadership is unlikely to have been a permanent position." }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. One level of military organisation could be inferred based on evidence for inter-village raiding, although the raids would have been small scale and military leadership is unlikely to have been a permanent position." }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. A degree of military organisation is suggested by the presence of a defensive palisade at San José Mogote, although sources do not suggest there is evidence for a permanent military. Raiding warfare on a small scale was common during this period.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11802§REF§" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 14, "name": "mx_toltec", "long_name": "Toltecs", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. At least two tiers can be inferred for the Toltecs.§REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(3) Former Chieftains, Bishops and Royal Officials; (2) Lieutenants; (1) Retainers<br>'For the late Commonwealth there should be 3 levels but it is uncertain whether this continued after the end of the Commonwealth. Warfare became much more constricted after about 1250 and the powerful men of the Late Middle Ages probably relied on relatively small bands of retainers (sveinar). However these bands may have been commanded by professional officers (other than the lords themselves) and this is virtually certain in the case of bishops’ retainers.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ We have retined three levels for the time being, but this is open to review. The system of former chieftains and other prominent figures supported by a group of armed followers rather than military forces continued during the Norwegian period: 'During the first years following the establishment of the union conditions in Iceland remained quite unchanged. The godords were still in the hands of the leading chieftains. Gizur, who was to exercise the highest authority as jarl, was unpopular, and his power was very limited. Royal commissioners were sent to Iceland to exercise control with or without his consent, and and he had to share his nominal authority with the powerful Oddaverjar chieftains of southern Iceland, Hrafn Oddsson of the Borgarfjord district, and Orm Ormsson of eastern Iceland. The king regarded him with suspicion; the chieftains hated him because of his rank and title; opposition and difficulties confronted him everywhere. Even his own character and previous record rendered him unfit to maintain peace and order, which was his principal official duty. He was unable to see the need of any change in the general régime, and the last chapter of his stormy life formed a fitting close to the drama of bloody feuds in which he had played so conspicuous a part. Shortly after the meeting of the Althing of 1264, while visiting in southern Iceland, he was suddenly attacked by Thord Andrisson, the head of the Oddaverjar family. With great difficulty he escaped from his assailants, and after gathering an army of 750 men he cruelly ravged the Rangarvalla district, where the Oddaverjar chieftains were dwelling.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 211p§REF§ 'After Gizur's death no new jarl was appointed, and for a time there was no real head of Icelandic affairs. In 1267 Orm Ormsson and Thorvard Thorarinsson went to Norway, Hrafn Oddsson following in 1268. Both Hrafn and Orm seem to have aspired to succeed Gizur, but the king found it advisable not to elevate another chieftain to the rank of jarl, as the title had been very unpopular. After some delay, and probably with the advice of Sturla Thordsson, he gave both ranks as hirdmenn and placed them in charge of Icelandic affairs with no other title than that of valdsmadr, or royal magistrate. Hrafs was to govern the western and Orm the eastern districts. Hrafn assumed the duties of his office, but Orm was drowned shortly after his appointment, probably on the homeward voyage.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 213§REF§ 'The leading writer in Iceland at this time was Sturla Thordsson, second only to Snorri himself as a historian. Hrafn Oddsson's appointment as governor of the Borgarfjord district had made him so dissatisfied that against his better judgment he was presuaded by his son Snorri, a violent youth, to join him in an expedition against Hrafn. This proved a failure, as he had predicted. Snorri was captured, and Sturla himself was forced to leave Iceland, 1263.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 210§REF§ 'He invited Thord and his brothers to a peace conference, but when they came, he pursued his usual tactics and made them prisoners. They were disarmed and condemned to death, but the pleadings of his own men finally moved him to spare the lives of all except Thord, who was executed.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 212§REF§ Despite of occasional armed conflict between prominent leaders, the practice of feuding was largely discontinued under Norwegian rule: 'The royal executive authority and the new efficiency of the courts of law created through the union with Norway terminated the bloody feuds which had hitherto raged between the Icelandic chieftains. An uneventful era of peace followed the turmoils of the Sturlung period. Even the struggle between church and state was now adjusted so that economic life and the pursuits of peace could receive the undivided attention of the people. But the few sources which deal with the political conditions in Iceland during the years following the death of Bishop Arni show that conditions created by the union were causing dissatisfaction and unrest. The chief cause of public discontent was the unsatisfactory arrangement with regard to commerce, the insufficient Norwegian exports to Iceland, together with the policy pursued by the Norwegian government of bringing Icelanders to Norway for trial, and of appointing Norwegians for sýslumenn and lawmen, contrary to the spirit of the union agreement. The chieftains undoubtedly had thought that their political and social organization would be left undisturbed under the union; that they would only be required to pledge their allegiance to the king, pay him taxes, and receive a jarl as his personal representative, as the union agreement expressly stated. But the most far-reaching changes had been wrought. The godors had been abolished, the Althing had been reorganized, Norwegian jurisprudence had been introduced, Norwegians had been appointed to the leading public offices, and Icelanders had been summoned abroad for trial. The Norwegian government had shown an unmistakable disposition to treat Iceland as a dependency.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 227§REF§ Royal officials employed coercive measures for the purpose of the maintenance of law and order: 'The willingness of the king to grant privileges to the church hitherto denied reveals a growing indifference of the Norwegian government to the real welfare of Iceland. An administration by royal officials had been established as a result of the union. Two lawmen were appointed by the king, one for the southern and eastern, and one for the western and northern quarters; sýslumenn were appointed as administrative officials for larger districts, as in Norway, and hirdstjórar were placed as royal governors over the island. But Iceland was now treated so much like other dependencies that the chief interest of the government was to secure from its inhabitants revenues for the royal purse. Víseyrir, or taxes payable to the king, were levied upon the whole country, and became a definite income payable to the king's purse, like the taxes from the Norwegian colonies. This system of taxation gave rise to a royal monopoly on trade with the colonies which proved disastrous to their economic well-being, and hindered their progress. The royal officials usually asserted the authority of the government with stern harshness, and severe punishments for crimes were introduced. In some cases criminals were even buried alive; but law and order were but imperfectly maintained. Even the higher officials themselves would engage in quarrels which sometimes resembled the bloody feuds of earlier periods.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 239p§REF§ But no standing armies were stationed on the island, and royal efforts to secure armed support from Icelanders were unsuccessful: 'Nor did Iceland become a part of Norway's system of national defence. No measures for defence of the country were taken, and it was only on rare occasions that the king attempted to induce the Icelanders to contribute forces or money for the defence of the kingdom, generally with little success.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. \"A Brief History of Iceland\", 19§REF§ 'Strained relations with Denmark and the Hanseatic cities also gave cause for uneasiness and inclined them to favor an adjustment of domestic difficulties. Jarl Alf Erlingsson of Thornberg, who was now the most influential member of the Council, even turned to Iceland to secure military aid for the realm. It was decided that for the defense of the kingdom 240 men should be sent from Iceland, together with those who were otherwise bound to the king's service. [...] The plan was soon abandoned by the Council, but Arni had earned the king's good-will by his loyal attitude.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 222p§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Military units, like civilian administration, organized with decimal system. §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§<br>1. Sapa Inca<br>King was commander in chief and occasional field general. §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 332)§REF§ Alan Covey: Most military commanders were sons or brothers of the ruler. §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§<br>(2. aucacunakapu (chief of soldiers)came from Hanan Cuzco §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§<br>2. aucata yachachik aup (chief in charge of organizing soldiers)came from Hurin Cuzco §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§<br>2. hinantin aucata suyuchak apu (chief who assigns troops to their proper place)Equivalent to European sergeant major of period §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012; cite Ian Heath)§REF§<br>2. apusquipay (commander in the field)Usually a relative of the Sapa Inca §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§<br>the apusquiprantin was an assistant of the apusquipay §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§)<br>Alan Covey: Concerning these ranks from aucacunakapu to apusquipay) This all comes from a really spurious late 18th century source (Juan de Velasco), and is not corroborated by any early chronicler §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§ AD: number of ranks corrected to 6 (see hierarchy below).<br>3. hunu kuraka10,000 men were lead by a hunu kuraka - not known how often 10,000 men were fielded §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 334)§REF§<br>4. Waranqa kuraka\"One thousand men were commanded by a waranqa kuraka\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 334)§REF§<br>5. PihcachuncacamayocsPosition held by local leaders §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§<br>The second lowest order was 100 soldiers, under a pachaka kuraka. §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 334)§REF§<br>Alan Covey: Pichka chunka is 50. Pachaka is 100. §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§<br>6. Chuncacamayocs (50 soldiers) §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§Position held by local leaders §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§<br>\"The smallest unit contained ten heads of household (hatun runa), under the command of a chunka kamayuq.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 334)§REF§<br>7. Individual soldier<br><br>aucapussak<br>Huaminca: veteran units from Hanan Cuzco and Hurin Cuzco §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§<br>had captains called aucapussak §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§ Alan Covey: Again, I wouldn’t use information from this source. §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§<br>\"Each division contained two halves, each with its own leader.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 334)§REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.\"Drawing on the distinctions between depicted warriors in face paint, arms, dress, and shield motifs, Ochatoma and Cabrera (1999:234-5; 2002:240-243) posit that Wari had professional warriors with a military hierarchy.\" §REF§(Arkush 2006, 502)§REF§From this we can infer there were at least three or four levels:<br>1. Leader<br>2. Generals3. Officers (possibly recruited from the elite §REF§(Tung 2014)§REF§)4. Professional soldiers" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Tacticians<br>2. Shamans3. Front-liners4. Scouts5. Boys and men who had not killed<br>\"In interclan warfare, the Binandere organised a division of fighting labour. The first group, the scouts, were sent ahead to kill the scouts of the enemy's main body. Then there were the front-line fighters, experienced men armed with clubs/spears and shields, forming the vanguard. Then there was a group of young people and men who had not killed. They beat drums, blew conch shells, sang war songs and generally used sound to frighten the enemy. Full-scale tribal warfare required the addition of two more groups. Firstly, sorcerers were carried on roofed litters from which they attempted to ward off enemy spirits. Being ritually pure they could have no contact with water. They ate only baked taro or bananas with coconut juice as well as much ginger. The second additional group were the strategists who were vital for long-drawn-out battles. This small group planned tactics, directed the front line and organised ambush killings and so on.\"§REF§Newton, Janice 1983. “Orokaiva Warfare And Production”, 490§REF§" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Leaders of Village Clusters;<br>(2) Local War-Leaders or Strategists;(3) Citizen-Soldiers from local communities<br>The Orokaiva did not employ professional military officers in interclan warfare, relying on residential and kin ties as well as informal leadership: 'In interclan warfare, the Binandere organised a division of fighting labour. The first group, the scouts, were sent ahead to kill the scouts of the enemy's main body. Then there were the front-line fighters, experienced men armed with clubs/spears and shields, forming the vanguard. Then there was a group of young people and men who had not killed. They beat drums, blew conch shells, sang war songs and generally used sound to frighten the enemy. Full-scale tribal warfare required the addition of two more groups. Firstly, sorcerers were carried on roofed litters from which they attempted to ward off enemy spirits. Being ritually pure they could have no contact with water. They ate only baked taro or bananas with coconut juice as well as much ginger. The second additional group were the strategists who were vital for long-drawn-out battles. This small group planned tactics, directed the front line and organised ambush killings and so on (1972:13-25).' §REF§Newton, Janice 1983. “Orokaiva Warfare And Production”, 490§REF§ 'Kinship and local affiliation together were the basic principles by which subgroups of the raiding party seem to have been drawn up during attack and on which leaders within the party based their rights to command specific combatants.' §REF§Rimoldi, Max, Cromwell Burau, and Robert Ferraris 1966. “Land Tenure And Land Use Among The Mount Lamington Orokaiva”, 30§REF§ 'Waiko (1972) describes in detail the warfare of the Binandere, a society which like the ancient Spartans was reputed to practise infanticide on weak or deformed sons (Monckton 1922:130). Training for warfare began at an early age for boys. At about 12 years old they began living together in a men's house and learning to dodge spears and to hold shields. Eventually they were required to prove themselves by killing a person in a raid (Waiko 1972:21). Part of the education imparted to the youths in the house was their primary duty to take revenge for the death of a clan member. A clan victim represented the clan and failure to avenge his death badly weakened their prestige and status. Killings had up to two generations delayed payback (1972:24-5).' §REF§Newton, Janice 1983. “Orokaiva Warfare And Production”, 489§REF§ There was no supralocal tribal leadership: 'There were ordinarily no persons who could command the allegiance of the tribe as a whole, nor was there any status with authority to effect the settlement of disputes between different subgroups or their individual members. Sometimes persistent intratribal conflicts led to short-term migration or to a splinter-group's secession from the tribe. However, these disturbances were very minor in comparison with the ‘flight, dispersal and migration’ in general resulting from incessant intertribal feuds (see p. 35).' §REF§Rimoldi, Max, Cromwell Burau, and Robert Ferraris 1966. “Land Tenure And Land Use Among The Mount Lamington Orokaiva”, 30§REF§ Some sources report the formation of ad hoc confederacies for the purpose of combat, but these seem to relate to geographical area rather than tribal institutions: 'Williams ascribes the formation of ‘somewhat loose’ and temporary ‘confederacies of clans’, which conducted raids upon the tribe's kitoho, to a local spirit. But it is not clear whether by this he means the identification of members of a tribe with one territory or the unity of the ‘locality group’ which usually takes in a number of ‘clan-village units’ (see p.34) and which he describes as a more restricted ‘sympathy-group’ than the tribe (1930:107, 157, 163, 309-12). When he states (1925:407) that ‘over and above clan patriarchs there are recognised leaders of small clan confederacies and even - in war-time - of tribes’, he seems to equate the tribe with the district among the mountain Orokaiva (in particular Wasida and Isivita; see W.23, 124).' §REF§Rimoldi, Max, Cromwell Burau, and Robert Ferraris 1966. “Land Tenure And Land Use Among The Mount Lamington Orokaiva”, 36§REF§ During the colonial period, a constabulary was formed: 'Thus, in the initial contact period, there were two major influences on the Orokaivan social order. First, the narrow moral universe of pre-contact days was widened. Orokaivans united in attempts to repulse the European intruders and also began to modify their traditional magic to improve taro. New spiritual rationale and ritual for these taro cults quickly spread through the Division after pacification. Some Orokaivans united with Europeans as armed constabulary or as friends and defenders of the missionaries.' §REF§Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 34§REF§ [Janice Newton (pers. comm.): After official British annexation in 1884 and Crown colony status in 1888, in 1890 a police force was formed and a Resident Magistrate appointed for each administrative division. It seems there was not much training. The early constabulary were taught a little English and some of the rules for living like the white man (latrines, cleanliness etc). The British administration appointed village officials, village constables and armed constabulary. Often the Orokaivans were captured, taken back to stations taught some English and some of the English ways and laws. Imprisonment of villagers for offences was another way of imparting British principles of law. By 1924 many adult males had passed through the Armed Constabulary and hardly an adult male had not worked for Europeans (Cyndi Banks Women in Transition: Social Control in PNG Australian Institute of Criminology 1993).] In this case, a clear-cut distinction between law enforcement and military is hard to establish. In World War II, Orokaiva men were drafted into the Australian colonial army: 'The war of 1939-1945 affected the Yega in several important ways. Their territory became one of the major battlefields of the Pacific War. Every person migrated from the area with the exception of one old crippled woman who somehow managed to survive for eighteen months in the bush. Almost all able-bodied men served in the army or labour corps and the women and children lived at another Anglican mission about thirty miles to the north. When they returned, they found all buildings, and any belongings that they had left behind, destroyed and most of their coconut palms cut down or damaged by gunfire. There were some compensations. The Australian Government paid thousands of dollars in war-damage compensation for all trees and property but, more important, the stimulus of travel, and meeting and working with Australian and American soldiers, gave the younger men in particular a broader view of life which triggered off changes in their traditional economy. In addition, the transfer of the Administrative headquarters from Buna to Higaturu resulted in the construction of a major road to the port of Cape Killerton and brought the Yega into closer touch with the outside world than ever before. As a result, between 1945 and 1950, about twenty families left their re-built villages and moved east to found the new village of Surilai at Cape Killerton (Fig. 9).' §REF§Dakeyne, R. B. 1969. “Village And Town In New Guinea”, 13§REF§ Orokaiva men also worked as carriers, although their loyalties as a group were at times ambiguous: 'Those in the Northern Division saw the Japanese invasion, bloody fighting and occupation by Allied forces. This led to the peculiar position where the Orokaivans were seen as ‘fuzzy wuzzy angels’ as well as traitors and murderers. ‘Fuzzy wuzzy angel’ was a nickname given to conscripted carriers who demonstrated remarkable solicitude for the wounded whom they carried during the battle on the Kokoda Trail, and who showed considerable endurance in carrying both men and supplies for the Allies over the four months from July until October 1942. The Japanese presence in Northern Division did, however, lead to a reassessment of loyalties on the part of the Orokaivans and the consequent betrayal of some Allied personnel.' §REF§Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 43§REF§ Orokaivas were conscripted into many non-combat roles as well: 'During the heavy fighting, most villagers had fled to garden houses where they could hide safely. However, in June 1942, there was an order made that ‘any native might be conscripted to serve anywhere in the Territories or Papua or New Guinea, more or less on any conditions imposed by the District Officers’. Carriers had worked so well during the Kokoda campaign that officials of the Australian New Guinea Army Unit (ANGAU) were keen to recruit more (Army File 285/1/680A; Benson 1957:18; Ryan 1969). Those men who were able to avoid the physical confrontations of the war by hiding in rough garden shelters for the duration could not avoid the consequences of the war. They became subject to conscription for work on plantations, for carrying, for malaria control and for clearing and construction work until the war was over (Army File 5/3/147).' §REF§Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 46§REF§ The code reflects intertribal warfare rather than the Constabulary and colonial armed forces or the World War situation (and may therefore be somewhat dated). Both were realities of the colonial period. Some information on the Constabulary was included under 'Professions'. [Jonathan Ritchie (pers. comm.): On the military, I think pre-War this means the Police… and during the War, we’re looking at the Papuan Infantry Battalion - perhaps either Jim Sinclair’s To Find a Path - The Life and Times of the Royal Pacific Islands Regiment or G.M. Byrnes’ Green Shadows will help? The first recruits for the PIB were 70 from the Buna area - who I think were all drawn from the Royal Papuan Constabulary - who came in July 1940, supplemented by another 62 in May 1941. 'Military training was carried out until August 28, 1940 when everybody was put on road construction. During November, 24-hour guard duty was ordered at key points in the Port area [of Port Moresby]…. Until the end of August 1941 the guarding of vulnerable points, together with working parties on roads and wharves and training were the duties of the battalion. During September the battalion was allotted the defence area from Napa Napa to Jolers Bay. Recce (Reconnaissance) parties covered this area and the two companies moved out to positions in the allotted areas and began constructing tactical roads and defence positions. Working parties were practically discontinued as guard duties and intensive training were the order of the day.’ (from Byrnes, pp. 5-6).]" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Kenoyer writes that there is no evidence of the existence of an army even during the period 2600 BCE - 1900 BCE.§REF§Jonathan Mark Kenoyer. 'Uncovering the keys to the Lost Indus Cities', <i>Scientific American</i>, vol. 15, no. 1, 2005, p. 29.§REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Kenoyer writes that there is no evidence of the existence of an army even during the period 2600 BCE - 1900 BCE.§REF§Jonathan Mark Kenoyer. 'Uncovering the keys to the Lost Indus Cities', <i>Scientific American</i>, vol. 15, no. 1, 2005, p. 29.§REF§" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "The ranks below are based on the organization of the Seleucid army. These ranks were not permanent and command of individual units shifted with the campaign or battle. Civic volunteers and mercenaries would also have operated outside the structure indicated below. §REF§Bar-Kochva, Bezalel. The Seleucid army: Organization and tactics in the great campaigns. Vol. 28. Cambridge University Press, 1976. pp. 91-93§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Senior officers of the army: Strategoi<br>3. Officers: Hipparchoi/Hegemones<br>4. Common soldiers<br>" }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 0, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " There is no evidence of organized warfare at Pirak at this time.§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard.§REF§" } ] }