Military Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Military Levels.
GET /api/sc/military-levels/?format=api
{ "count": 448, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/military-levels/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "The Army of the Durrani was organized under a hierarchical tribal confederacy. One third were regular troops largely made up of cavalry and some supporting artillery, with the remaining two thirds made up of irregular seasonal troops serving for a campaign. The standing army hierarchy is reflected below. They were paid in cash or with military fiefs in the rich provinces in India. Irregular troops were raised via a coercive levy imposed on subjected tribes, districts and chieftains, and these areas were required to equip the troops themselves. §REF§Barfield, Thomas, <i>Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History</i> p. 100§REF§<br>1. Shah<br>2. Tribal commanders<br>3. Permanent soldiers (cavalry and artillery)<br>4. Irregular seasonal levies (calvary and infantry)<br>The Army of the Durrani was organized under a hierarchical tribal confederacy. one third were regular troops largely made up of cavalry and some supporting artillery, with the remaining two thirds made up of seasonal irregulars serving for a campaign.§REF§Barfield, Thomas, <i>Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History</i> p. 100§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "The ranks below are based on the organization of the Seleucid army. These ranks were not permanent, and command of individual units shifted with the campaign or battle. Civic volunteers and mercenaries would have also operated outside the structure indicated below. §REF§Bar-Kochva, Bezalel. The Seleucid army: Organization and tactics in the great campaigns. Vol. 28. Cambridge University Press, 1976. pp. 91-93§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Senior officers of the army: Strategoi3. Officers: Hipparchoi/Hegemones4. lower level?5. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§encyclopedia iranica Vol. III, Fasc. 4, pp. 344-349§REF§This is a tentative estimate as the sources are not clear as to what the actual structure of the Hepthalite military was, although some terms for ranks are preserved. The ranks below are based on Bactrian seals found at several archaeological sites.<br>1. King<br>2. Asbarobido 'Chief of cavalry'<br>3. Oazarko fromalaro 'Great Commander'<br>4. Military serving tribesman" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Ruler<br>2.3.4.<br>" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 7, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "This (from 2.) was the hierarchy used on field campaigns. After the campaign the militia was demobilized. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 514)§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br>\"After AD 89 the title of Ta Chiang-chun or 'Commander-in-Chief' was a political appointment which carried the responsibilities of a regent.\"§REF§(Peers 1995, 16)§REF§<br>2. ying (division under a chiang-chun, or general) §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 514)§REF§\"Records from the north-western garrison give an outline of unit organization at lower levels... Above the hou kuan were the sector headquarters or tu-wei fu for garrison troops, and the division or ying, under a chiang-chun or general, the highest permanent position.\" §REF§(Peers 1995, 15)§REF§<br>Generals could lead campaigns on their own without the presence of the Emperor. e.g. 121-119 BCE campaigns which overthrew \"five sub-ordinate Hsiung-nu kingdoms\" §REF§(Peers 1995, 7)§REF§<br>\"A field command was usually an ad hoc appointment for a specific purpose, often reflected in the title given to the recipient - such as 'General Charged With Crossing the Liao' for a campaign in Korea.\"§REF§(Peers 1995, 15)§REF§<br>3. pu (regiment under a hsiao-wei, or colonel)§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 514)§REF§\"... often translated as 'colonel', was a lower rank used for temporary appointments<br>3. tu-wei fu (sector headquarters)\"Records from the north-western garrison give an outline of unit organization at lower levels... Above the hou kuan were the sector headquarters or tu-wei fu for garrison troops, and the division or ying, under a chiang-chun or general, the highest permanent position.\" §REF§(Peers 1995, 15)§REF§<br>4. hou kuan§REF§(Peers 1995, 15)§REF§ or ch'u(company under a captain, chun-hou)§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 514)§REF§\"Records from the north-western garrison give an outline of unit organization at lower levels: a hou kuan or company usually consisted of five hou (platoons), each with several sui or sections of an officer and four to ten men.\" §REF§(Peers 1995, 15)§REF§<br>5. hou§REF§(Peers 1995, 15)§REF§ or t'un(platoon under a commander, t'un-chang)§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 514)§REF§\"Records from the north-western garrison give an outline of unit organization at lower levels: a hou kuan or company usually consisted of five hou (platoons), each with several sui or sections of an officer and four to ten men.\" §REF§(Peers 1995, 15)§REF§<br>6. sui (section, lead by an officer)\"Records from the north-western garrison give an outline of unit organization at lower levels: a hou kuan or company usually consisted of five hou (platoons), each with several sui or sections of an officer and four to ten men.\" §REF§(Peers 1995, 15)§REF§<br>7. Individual soldier\"Conscripts served mainly as infantry; cavalry was provided by volunteers from noble families or by non-Chinese auxiliaries.\" §REF§(Peers 1995, 13)§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Central (Capital Army or Inner army of 100,000) and provincial armies<br>\"The military was constituted from a Capital Army that was garrisoned in and around the capital, the armies of the princedoms and imperial clansmen, and private armies (buqu) of the magnates that were scattered throughout the empire and often represented a challenge for the central government in cases of rebellion.\" §REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>\"The basic organizational structure of the Jin military was inherited from Wei. There were two major components: an \"inner\" army of some one hundred thousand based at the capital city of Luoyang, and a much larger \"outer\" army made up of garrisons stationed in the provinces. The inner army was under the direct control of the imperial court and included both a palace guard and a powerful mobile striking force, while the outer units were subordinate to regional military commanders (dudu) appointed by the court. In addition to these forces, there were also local troop raised by the various provincial governors (cishi).\" However, local troops were abolished in an edict in 282 CE and with that change provincial governors lost authority over military forces, although there were some exceptions on the frontier.§REF§(Graff 2002, 43)§REF§<br>Princes were made dudu and they commanded private armies and outer armies<br>\"Another Jin policy was to place substantial military power in the hands of princes of the imperial palace. The Jin founder, Sima Yan ... granted territorial fiefs to members of his own large and highly ramified lineage. Twenty-seven princes were enfeoffed soon after the founding of the dynasty in 265... most of the princes received commanderies as their fiefs ... In 277 the princes were allowed to raise their own armies, ranging in size from 1500 men for the smallest princely fief to 5000 for the largest. They were very far from being independent rulers, however. The central government in Luoyang appointed their chief ministers, and the princes had to turn two-thirds of their tax revenues over to the center. The real power of the princes ... lay in their appointments as regional military commanders. By 290 six of the princes were serving as dudu. They held more than half of the regional commands in the empire, and these included the most important provincial centers...\"§REF§(Graff 2002, 43)§REF§ = i.e. the princes who were dudu commanded both their own army and the garrison forces of the \"outer\" army.<br>1. Emperor<br><br>2. Generals <i>inferred</i>Centralized command and control. \"The Ts'in inherited the Wei system after AD 265, until Ssu-ma Yen deliberately abandoned the centralised system of command and placed members of his family in control of private armies.\"§REF§(Peers 1995, 21)§REF§<br>relatives only commanded small units of bodyguards §REF§(Peers 1995, 21)§REF§<br>3. Local commander§REF§(De Crespigny 1991, 26)§REF§ of outer army called dudu§REF§(Graff 2002, 44)§REF§<br>from 290 CE \"dudu were once again allowed to hold provincial governorships concurrently with their military offices, giving them full control of both civil and military affairs in their assigned regions\"§REF§(Graff 2002, 44)§REF§4. Officers - commanders, captains etc. <i>inferred</i>5. <i>inferred</i>6. <i>inferred</i>7. Individual soldier<br>3. Leader of division of inner army <i>inferred</i>Conquered southern state of Wu. Final campaign 279 CE. \"200,000 Jin troops marching against Wu in six columns\" §REF§(Graff 2002, 35)§REF§ = six columns suggest something about army structure<br>4. Officers - commanders, captains etc. <i>inferred</i>5. <i>inferred</i>6. <i>inferred</i>7. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>At least 3 levels.<br>1. King2. Chiefgrave of a \"chief\" or \"lord\" found at Dayangzhou. §REF§(Thorp 2013, 110) Thorp, Robert L. 2013. China in the Early Bronze Age: Shang Civilization.University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§<br>3. Individual solider" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>[(4) Provincial Military Authorities; (3) Senior Chinese Officers;] (2) Chinese and Hmong Petty Officers; (1) Chinese and Hmong Soldiers<br>The Chinese administration had established military units, including Hmong petty officers, before the onset of the republican period: 'When the Miao rebellion was put down in the first year of Chia Ch'ing /1796/, it was found that the policy of governing the Miao with Chinese was wrong. The then governor-general of Hunan and Kwangtung, Pi Yüan, submitted a plan to govern the Miao with Miao. The ministry's response to the memorial setting up regulations for Miao officials, Miao Chiang Chin- Yao Shan-Hou Shih I /Important Remedial Measures for the Miao Frontier Region/, has a passage, “Miao Chiang Pe Hu Chai Ch'ang Ming-Mu Ying Cho Liang Keng Ting /The Names of the Village Leaders of 100 Families Should be Decided after Due Deliberation/,” stating: “According to the memorial, in the three provinces of Szechwan, Kweichow, and Hupeh, such areas as Yu-yang and T'ung-jen were all previously governed by headmen, but following their application to be put under government officials, the administrative areas of chou, hsien, and ying were established, subject to the jurisdiction of civil and military authorities. In the Miao villages, there were established only village chiefs to govern a unit of 100 families. However, since Chinese were also permitted to fill these posts, gradually there were rapacious, unscrupulous rogues, whose mistreatment caused disturbances. It is requested that from among the Miao who have submitted, and on whom were conferred the peacock feather decoration /for merit, in early Ch'ing times/, there be selected some intelligent, aware persons, to be appointed at each ying /military station/ as native second captain /shoupei/, lieutenant /ch'ien-tsung/, and sergeant or corporal /wai-wei/, such positions to be filled through the governor-general and governor's /tu-wu/ yamen /tu-wu ya-men/ and to be subject to the control of the civil and military authorities. When the various t'ang hsin in the Miao area have official despatches to send, they can order the said native petty officers to select Miao to question and send, and also to give them some cash and rations. When officials traveling on official business require servants, they may also recruit them from the Miao, and pay them wages according to the Chinese scales. It would appear that the 100-families village chief was originally inaugurated to discipline the Miao, but these men were unimportant and their powers limited, as that the Miao did not heed them. Moreover, among the Chinese holding such positions there were rapacious, unscrupulous rogues, whose mistreatment led to disturbances. This should naturally be explained, deliberated, and changed, so as to fix responsibility. During the recent campaign those submissive Miao who accompanied the army and won peacock feather awards are numerous, therefore from these select those who are intelligent and aware, and who have the support of the rest, and according to the customary set-up of t'u-kuan /officials governing aboriginal tribes in West China/, every Ying should have one or two men to be native second captains, under whom there should be native lieutenants and sergeants, for better control of the Miao. Their number will depend upon the number of villages put under control, and they shall be appointed by the governor-general and governor's yamen and also be under the control of regional officials. If there are fights, robberies and thefts among the Miao these native officers will be asked to make the arrests. On their inspection tours, the governor-general and governor and military officials should examine the merits and demerits of these officers and reward or punish them accordingly to demonstrate justice, following the recommendations memorialized by Governor-general Ho Lin. When the t'ang-hsin system of communication in the Miao area has been abolished, official communications should be despatched according to old methods so as to avoid delay. In the regions where the t'ang-hsin system exists as before, the local officials /t'u kuan/ should be asked to pick out honest Miao to be given the responsibility of delivering messages after being questioned, to be paid wages and rations from unallotted funds, according to the scale for t'un soldiers. When officials traveling on official business need servants, then order the said Miao to serve, and pay them wages according to recommendations memorialized.”' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 152§REF§ The Chinese military administration was highly formalized, as evidenced in clerical documents outlining the organizational structure of Chinese army divisions: '2. Regulations for the organization and administration of the T'un Bureau from the headquarters of the newly organized Thirty-Fourth Division of the Army. Article 1. The said Bureau is to be organized on the order of Divisional Commander Ch'en of the newly organized Thirty-Fourth Division. Article 2. The said Bureau shall set up, according to the temporary organization regulations of the Division, a chief and a deputy chief, three department heads, a number of departmental staff, clerks, and copyists. Article 3. The chief of the Bureau will receive orders from the Commander of the Division, and will have general superintendence over the t'un army west of the Hsiang River, and Miao defense officials and soldiers, t'un grain supplies, and the keeping in order of t'un properties, and coordinate everything, with the authority to direct and supervise all the Bureau's personnel. Article 4. The said Bureau shall have three departments, Departments One, Two, and Three. Each department head shall receive his orders from the chief of the Bureau, to assist him by dividing control over military matters, t'un matters, and general matters, with the responsibility to direct and manage his particular department's responsibilities.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 177§REF§ Senior t'un leaders and Hmong petty officials fulfilled multiple administrative and security-related tasks in the area, while receiving state salaries, produce, or arable land: 'The t'un fields in the Miao frontier were divided into people's /i.e. Chinese/ t'uns and Miao t'uns, the two being entirely different in nature. The t'un males working on the Chinese t'uns were also divided into t'un men and fighting men. The t'un men received fields to cultivate, and guarded the t'un guard houses. The fighting men, also called home guards, were solely trained for military operations, and did not farm. In the five sub-prefectures and hsiens of the Miao frontier there are 7,000 t'un men, from among whom are appointed hsiao-ch'i, tsung-ch'i, and pe-tsung to facilitate control. The distribution of fields was as follows: the men /san ting/ are each given 4.5 mu; the hsiao-ch'i, 5.5 mu; the tsung-ch'i, 6.5 mu; and the pe-tsung, 7.5 mu. There are 1,000 fighting men, each being given 3 shih, 6 tou of rice per year. The non-fighting men are also each given annually 10.8 liang of silver for salt and vegetables. The hsiao-ch'i receives each year 12 liang of silver; the tsung-ch'i, 13.2 liang of silver; the pe-tsung, 16.8 liang of silver. Therefore, in the Chinese t'un, the fields and land left over after the t'un men have received their fields to plant and care for are leased out for the collection of rent. Granaries (Illus. 57) have been built to store the grain, and general t'un leaders are set up to manage these matters. There are no t'un men in the Miao t'uns, and the t'un fields are allotted to people to cultivate /Illus. 57 and 58 on pages 124 and 125/ for the collection of rent, in order to feed the Miao soldiers, under the control of the Miao officials. The t'un fields in the Miao frontier region, at the inception of the system, totaled 150,000 mu of arable land, of which barely a third was directly cultivated by t'un personnel, the rest being allotted out as rented fields. Today, the t'un army in the Miao frontier region is about 1,000 strong. The maintainance of the Black Flag Battalion of the Miao troops (Illus. 58) largely comes from the rented fields. T'un fields were set up to support troops on the spot as a defense against the Miao. Today, the Miao have been largely acculturated by the Chinese and the boundary line between the Miao and the Chinese is gradually becoming obliterated. There is no longer the need for this kind of system of t'un defense against the Miao. In fact, unrest in the Miao area today is often due to the maladministration of the t'un fields system. The Miao petty officers and the t'un leaders often are oppressive in collecting rent and sometimes are corrupt in their methods, thus causing dissatisfaction and disturbances. In the twenty-sixth year of the Republic /1937/ the Miao rebellion in western Hunan arose because of the t'un land system. It resulted in the burning of t'un granaries and killing of t'un officers. Although the rebellion was pacified only after bloody and expensive campaigns, it is imperative to change the t'un and enter the newly opened or reclaimed land as available for taxation, so as to reach a fundamental solution.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 182§REF§ We have assumed that these observations are true for the A-Hmao as well, despite of historical differences. [The A-Hmao group doesn't appear to have been directly involved in the more eastern Hmong rebellions, but it appears to have been increasingly subsumed by the Late Qing/Early Chinese in the aftermath of these rebellions.]" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " The following inferred from what has been inferred from contemporary polities:<br>1. Ruler<br>2. Minister of War3. GeneralsElite families in charge of chariot forces<br>4. Officer level5. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 7, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"When Zhu Yuanzhang regularized his army, he formed it into units derived from Yuan practice. The weisuo system established Guards (wei) of 5,600 hereditary soldiers, named after its garrison location. The five battalions (qianhusuo) of 1,120 men were further divided into ten companies (bohusuo) of 112 men. These smaller units were often detached from their Guard unit for service outside of the large formation's theater of operation.\" §REF§(Lorge 2005, 111)§REF§<br>1. Emperor2. \"Zhu's personal bodyguard, the Embroidered Uniform Guard, functioned as a secret police force acting outside of the established legal system.\" §REF§(Lorge 2005, 110)§REF§<br>2. Bureaucratic controlZhu's reorganization of army in 1364 CE placed general's \"under bureaucratic control for the first time, with units of regular size commanded by officer of specific, appropriate rank.\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 104)§REF§<br>Following the Great Purge of 1380 CE \"the Chief Military Commission was split into five regional military commissions and the positions of censor-in-chief and vice censor-in-chief were similarly done away with.\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 109)§REF§<br>2. CommandersZhu Yuanzhang enfeoffed \"his sons in important defence commands along the northern border.\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 112)§REF§<br>3. wei (Guards)5,600 hereditary soldiers<br>4. qianhusuo (battalions)1,120 men<br>5. bohusuo (companies)112 men<br>6. Lower level unit?<br>7. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 10, "military_level_to": 10, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Commander-in-chief (Emperor)2. Provincial governor/Governor-general3. Provincial military commander/Provincial commander-in-chief/General-in-chief4. 副將5. 參將6. 游擊7. 都司8. 守備9.千總10. 把總<br>\"Most Chinese troops were incorporated into Green Standard armies that restored order in the countryside. These forces were under the command of provincial governors and tightly constrained in the ambit of their activities. After peace was restored most of these ad hoc measures solidified into regular practice.\" §REF§(Lorge 2005, 151)§REF§<br>One army unit 35,000 men?<br>1695 CE at Kerulen and Tula rivers. \"The Kangxi emperor seized the opportunity to pounce upon Galdan's 20,000 men, sending three armies of 35,000 men each some 700 miles into the steppe. Just as before, he was lucky that as Galdan fled one army he ran into another. Galdan's army was decisively crushed at Jaomodo on 12 June 1696, though he escaped.\"§REF§(Lorge 2005, 161)§REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 8, "military_level_to": 11, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Commander-in-chief (Emperor)<br>2. Provincial governor/Governor-general3. Provincial military commander/Provincial commander-in-chief/General-in-chief4. Fu jiang, Deputy General5. Can jiang6. Youji7. Dusi8. Shoubei9. Qianzong10. Bazong, Low-level officer11. Soldier<br>_1868 CE: Yung-ying (Brave Battalions)_§REF§(Ichiko 1980, 202) Chuzo Ichiko. 1980. \"Political and Institutional Reform, 1901-11\". In <i>The Cambridge History of China</i>, vol. 2: <i>Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911</i>, pt. 2, edited by John K. Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu, 375-415. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>4. Army Commanders (t'ung-ling)5. Battalion Commander (ying-kuan)6. Company Officer (Shao-kuan)7. Platoon Officers (Shih-chang)8. Soldiers<br>_1904 CE: New Army_\"The thirty-six divisions of the New Army, each with 12,500 men including officers and soldiers, would total 450,000 men and compose the Regular Army. Besides this, Reserves for the First Call (Hsu-pei chiin) and Reserves for the Second Call (Hou-pei chiin) were to be organized. The term of service in the Regular Army (Ch'ang-pei chiin) was three years, after which men would return home and receive occasional drill and a small stipend for another three years. These men would be the Reserves for the First Call. As Reserves for the Second Call they would then serve another four years, receiving less drill and less salary. On completion of this term, men would return to civilian status released from further military duty.\"§REF§(Ichiko 1980, 384-5) Chuzo Ichiko. 1980. \"Political and Institutional Reform, 1901-11\". In <i>The Cambridge History of China</i>, vol. 2: <i>Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911</i>, pt. 2, edited by John K. Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu, 375-415. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "\"Chariots allowed commanders to supervise their troops efficiently and across great distances.\"§REF§(The Shang Dynasty, 1600 to 1050 BCE. Spice Digest, Fall 2007. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://iis-db.stanford.edu/docs/117/ShangDynasty.pdf</a>)§REF§<br>1. King2. General <i>inferred level</i>3. Commander <i>inferred level</i>4. Officer <i>inferred level</i>5. Individual soldier<br>Chariot and infantry corps. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 10)§REF§" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Militia units: \"While the Sui had subordinated these units to the local civil administration, the T'ang controlled them centrally, via a bureaucracy answerable to the ping-pu or Ministry of the Army. §REF§(Peers 2002, 12)§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br>\"These figures attest the overwhelming influence of the Northern Chou military elite on the Sui establishment.\"§REF§(Wright 1979, 100)§REF§<br>2. Military agricultural colonies (t'un-t'ien) under a GeneralWen-ti ordered these to deal with supply problems. §REF§(Wright 1979, 102)§REF§<br>2. Central command: four guards (wei) and eight army headquarters offices (fu)Troops of the Northern Chou reorganized \"into twelve units - four guards (wei) and eight army headquarters offices (fu).\"§REF§(Wright 1979, 100)§REF§<br>3. Regional commands (tsung-kuan fu)Wen-ti's reforms: \"In addition to his central command structure, regional military commands (tsung-kuan fu), which had overall control of an area, sometimes of a few prefectures (chou) and in other cases more than ten, were established in areas of major strategic importance. These districts were officered by ranked military officials appointed from the capital; in some cases the generals appointed were made concurrently civil governors of the regions in which they were to serve.\"§REF§(Wright 1979, 100)§REF§<br>After 605 CE Yang-ti reform \"all units under the regional military commands (tsung-kuan fu) were henceforth to come under the direct control of the twelve guards and army commands in the capital. After the pacification of the south, the number of these regional military commands had already been reduced, but in 604 approximately thirty-six remained, with the most heavily-garrisoned of these concentrated along the northern and north-western frontiers.\"§REF§(Wright 1979, 102)§REF§<br>4. Regiment (tuan) of 1000?\"No records on Sui fubing organization have survived. It seems that its basic unit was probably similar to the tuan (regiment) at one thousand in strength, under which was the dui (company) of about one hundred.\"§REF§(Xiong 2006, 114)§REF§<br>5. Company (dui) of 100?\"No records on Sui fubing organization have survived. It seems that its basic unit was probably similar to the tuan (regiment) at one thousand in strength, under which was the dui (company) of about one hundred.\"§REF§(Xiong 2006, 114)§REF§<br>6. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 8, "military_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor<br><br>2. Ministry of Army<br>3. Highest ranks<br>4. Unit level rank (800-1,200 men)<br>5. t'uan (200 men)<br>6. tui (50 men)<br>7. huo (10 men)<br>8. Individual soldier<br>Mercenary regular army replaced militia system in 722 CE. §REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 127)§REF§<br>Military governors established by Hsuan-tsung (712-756 CE) in frontier areas. §REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 129)§REF§<br>Maintained about 600 militia units of between 800-1,200 men. \"While the Sui had subordinated these units to the local civil administration, the T'ang controlled them centrally, via a bureaucracy answerable to the ping-pu or Ministry of the Army. Units contained both cavalry and infantry, and were subdivided into t'uan of 200 men, tui of 50, and huo of 10.\" §REF§(Peers 2002, 12)§REF§<br>\"Many of the peasants in areas of strategic importance were also obliged to serve in militia units for a specified period of time - usually one month in five. There were approximately 630 militia units, each of them theoretically composed of 1000 men. This system prevailed until almost the middle of the 8th century when it disintegrated, for a number of reasons, and was replaced by a standing army.\" §REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 121)§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>At least 5. Possibly fewer levels than Early Tang?<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Generals3. Military governors4. Officers5. Individual solider<br>Mercenary regular army replaced militia system in 722 CE. §REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 127)§REF§<br>Military governors established by Hsuan-tsung (712-756 CE) in frontier areas. §REF§(Rodzinski 1979, 129)§REF§<br>\"In the 9th century the Shen-ts'e, or Divine Strategy army, was set up under the command of court eunuchs, and in 885 a new army 54,000 strong was established, composed largely of young men from Ch'ang-an. None of these forces was able to stand up to the battle-hardened veterans of the provincial armies.\"§REF§(Peers 2002, 15)§REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Privy Council\"Of the six ministries, the Ministry of War was the least significant, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council (Shu-mi yuan). The Privy Council, established in 1263, was at the pinnacle of a separate military bureaucracy, whereas the Ministry of War was subordinate to the Central Secretariat within the civilian bureaucracy. The insignificance of the Ministry of War is demonstrated by the fact that the Ping chih (Monograph on the military) in the Yuan shih (Official history of the Yuan) does not even mention the Ministry of War in its description of the structure of the Yuan military, instead stating that 'the Privy Council was set up to take 7 overall charge.' All military offices, including the imperial guard (su-wei), were ultimately responsible to the Privy Council in the military chain of command.\" §REF§(Endicott-West 1994, 589)§REF§<br>2. Branch Secretariat\"The [Privy Council] did not, however, exert direct control over garrison troops stationed in the Branch Secretariats outside the metropolitan province. The myriarchies (wan-hufu, M: ttimeri) from which the garrison troops were drawn were answerable to the Branch Secretariats, which of course were territorial administrations in the civilian bureaucracy. This meshing of civil and military authority at the regional level was apparently aimed at facilitating cooperation between the two. Nevertheless, as we mentioned earlier, in dire military emergencies, as in the case of insurrections against the dynasty, a temporary Branch Privy Council would be established until the emergency had passed.\" §REF§(Endicott-West 1994, 601)§REF§<br>3. Imperial guard\"In regard to administrative organization, the units of the imperial guard were under the jurisdiction of the Privy Council (Shu-mi yuan), which was at the apex of the separate military bureaucracy.\" §REF§(Endicott-West 1994, 601)§REF§<br>3. Military officers in charge of provincial garrisons<br>4. Other officers <i>inferred</i><br>5. Other officers <i>inferred</i><br>6. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1400, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>The following applies to the preconquest period (1450-1525 CE):<br>1. Mandadores (commanders)<br>2. Capitanes de guerra (war captains)3. Experienced warriors4. Individual soldier<br>\"Besides caciques, Spanish sources mention capitanes, principales (nobles), mandadores (commanders), and capitanes de guerra. Fray Pedro Simón (1882-92, 5: 197) also lists a pregonero (speaker or crier) who was second only to the chief. Spanish accounts do not list the duties and powers of all these officials, but it seems clear that there was a hierarchy of civil and military office- holders. One source mentions inheritance from father to son “en el oficio” (Bischof 1982- 83: 88). The texts also mention merchants, craftsmen, weavers, goldsmiths, carpenters, and farmers, and one recorded example refers to earned status. Simón (1882-92, 5: 198) describes a category of warriors “who had demonstrated their bravery on various occasions, and were allowed to wear their hair long, and tucked into their belts at the back,” a reminder that not all status symbols will be archaeologically identifiable.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 302)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": 1450, "year_to": 1524, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>The following applies to the preconquest period (1450-1525 CE):<br>1. Mandadores (commanders)<br>2. Capitanes de guerra (war captains)3. Experienced warriors4. Individual soldier<br>\"Besides caciques, Spanish sources mention capitanes, principales (nobles), mandadores (commanders), and capitanes de guerra. Fray Pedro Simón (1882-92, 5: 197) also lists a pregonero (speaker or crier) who was second only to the chief. Spanish accounts do not list the duties and powers of all these officials, but it seems clear that there was a hierarchy of civil and military office- holders. One source mentions inheritance from father to son “en el oficio” (Bischof 1982- 83: 88). The texts also mention merchants, craftsmen, weavers, goldsmiths, carpenters, and farmers, and one recorded example refers to earned status. Simón (1882-92, 5: 198) describes a category of warriors “who had demonstrated their bravery on various occasions, and were allowed to wear their hair long, and tucked into their belts at the back,” a reminder that not all status symbols will be archaeologically identifiable.\" §REF§(Bray 2003, 302)§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Prominent War-Leaders; (2) Local Headmen and Leaders (Kakaram; Kuraka); (3) Citizen-soldiers or Warriors<br>Shuar military organization was informal, given the political autonomy of local groups: 'The Jivaro lack any formal political organization, although an informal form of leadership is found in the role of individuals referred to as UNYÄ (\"big\" or \"old\" men) or KAKARAM (\"powerful\" or \"powerful ones\") who are renown as killers in feuds or war, or exercise important shamanistic powers in the community. These individuals acquire their reputation in the community by being old enough to have grandchildren, and are friendly, honest, and generous in dealing with others in the society. Because of these characteristics the UNYÄ or KAKARAM are believed to possess great ARUTAM soul power and the ability to curse to death anyone who incurs their anger. Generally most neighborhoods have at least one or two UNYÄ as well as a few superior shamans who provide protection for their relatives or other individuals with whom they are on friendly terms.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Each community is politically independent with its own headman. Each is also located four or more kilometers from their nearest neighboring community. The community is made up of patrilineally and affinally related individuals, traditionally consisting of from 80 to 300 people (30 to 40 people in the twentieth century), living in one house called a JIVARIA. For defensive purposes, this house is built on a steep hill usually at the upper end of a stream. The house itself is approximately 13 meters by 26 meters in size, elliptical in shape, and has a thatched roof. In times of war, two or more communities united to fight a common enemy, as was the case when the Spanish attempted to conquer them.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Their society is thus based on the family and the blood tie. Only such sub-tribes as recognize some sort of consanguinity display a feeling of solidarity: the rest, although they speak the same language, are looked upon, not only as outsiders, but as downright natural enemies, a feature which will be further illustrated in the part dealing with their wars. It is as a rule between the different sub-tribes that the wars of extermination have occurred.' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 183p§REF§ Warriors were accordingly male members of feuding communities: 'The terrible custom demands ever new, ever more victims, all security must disappear, every individual constantly lives in danger of being ambushed; there is a general and permanent state of war. Hence the arrangement of the houses, one door of which can be used for flight, while the battle rages at the other; hence the customs mentioned at the beginning in connection with approaching a dwelling, for the protection of which, in addition, a pack of half-wild dogs are kept. A quarrel between two families must lead to battles between whole tribes; larger groups of tribes become hostile to one another; war and battle become customary, a man's lifework. A longer period of quiet, of peace, must be unbearable for such a nation of warriors. Ambitious, bold leaders will easily find companions for joint war expeditions; the neighboring nations are attacked and plundered. Thus, these Indians are carrying on among themselves a war of annihilation which must gradually bring about their own downfall. Severe depopulation is already noticeable in the region of the Jívaros, and it is being accelerated by epidemics, of the diseases introduced by the Europeans, which appear with great violence at times.' §REF§Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians”, 13§REF§ Warfare was deeply connected to headhunting: 'The primary motivation for warfare is to secure as many human heads as possible from an alien tribe, and secondarily to capture women. The acquisition of territory had never been a motive for engaging in warfare. The war party, consisting of approximately thirty or forty men, is recruited from the community itself or from friendly neighborhoods nearby, and is usually led by the or as war leader or chief. Actual warfare consists of preliminary ceremonies involving ritualized chanting, surprise attacks against one or two enemy houses, the killing and decapitation of the inhabitants or the occasional capture of a girl or woman as an extra wife, and the preparation of the on the return to the home village. Unlike many of the warlike Amazon tribes captives are not tortured or sacrificed, nor is cannibalism practiced.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ Local leaders and chiefs often combined 'political' and 'military' duties rather than separating them: '“The dignity of a chieftain is hereditary in a relative sense, in so far that the son of a chief is generally elected chief in time of war after his father has died or grown decrepit. This, however, can only take place if he has proved a valiant and skilled warrior and has killed enemies. No Jibaro is selected as a chief if he has not killed at least one enemy. The Jibaros have absolute faith in the heritability of prominent qualities, and ascribe extraordinary importance to education and the power of example. The son of a great chief, they say, must necessarily also become an able warrior because he is, as it were, a direct continuation of his father, has received a careful education for the deeds of war, and has always had the good example of his great father before his eyes.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 267§REF§ In times of war against external colonial enemies or larger tribal groups, different communities combined to attach themselves to a common war-leader, although even those arrangements were fluid and often of an ad hoc character. [Family and local leadership can extend beyond a single community; even in recent times (ie, in the 1970’s) some particularly strong men could aggregate several local groups in conflict situations and lead quite large war parties; however, such positions were unstable and rarely lasted more than a few years, if that. The definition of ‘community’ is highly relative; ‘my people’ can include a single nuclear family, or a collection of communities temporarily coalesced around a powerful war leader.] 'Still, as appears from their history, there have been occasions when they have been able to overcome the natural antipathy separating them from one another, and to unite against a common enemy. This common enemy has been the white man, who has so often threatened [184] the liberty of the people; but the alliances, such as that for instance in 1599, have been exceptional and wholly due to the influence of a single, eminent personality.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru\", 183p§REF§' 'When a whole tribe, or perhaps several tribes together, prepare a war against one or more other tribes, the first thing done is to elect a common chief. He should be an elderly, experienced man, who has taken part in several wars, killed many enemies, and celebrated at least one victory feast. The rest of the warriors, who are generally younger men, swear him unlimited obedience. During the time the expedition is planned and the preparations are made, the warriors, and especially the chief, repeatedly drink maikoa or natéma to consult the spirits. They pay great attention to their dreams, even to those not produced under the direct influence of the narcotic drinks, tell them to each other, and discuss their possible significance. Only if they believe that they have received favourable answers and all omens are good are measures taken to carry out the war plan conceived. Meanwhile they try, through spies, to acquire as accurate a knowledge as possible about everything concerning the enemy: how many houses there are in the tract, how many fighting men in each house, if the houses are fortified, if the [283] men are well armed, and especially if they have firearms. All these and similar details the spies investigate by making trips into the country of the enemy and by stealing at night to the houses. Everything is prepared with the greatest secrecy possible, so that the enemy is caught unprepared, for otherwise he will have time to take measures of defence that may defeat the whole undertaking.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru\", 282p§REF§ '“The authority of the chief elected for a war is very great. It is he alone who arranges everything for the expedition planned, who decides [268] about the time for and the mode of making the attack, and the younger warriors oblige themselves to obey him in everything. But as soon as a war has been carried to a successful end the power of the chief ceases, and he has, in spite of the great repute he always enjoys, no more authority or right to decide about the doings of his tribesmen than any other family-father among the Jibaros.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 267p§REF§ Ecuador later recognized some of those leaders as regional head-chiefs: 'Four or five years ago there was a strong chief on the Upano River named Tuki, known to the Ecuadoreans as José Grande. In the manner previously described, all of the curakas from Macas on the Upano River to Mendez on the Paute River became subchiefs under him until he was generally recognized as the strongest of all of the Jivaro curakas. However, he was beginning to grow old by this time and some of his subcurakas were strong men in their own right. About 2 years ago, Ambusha, who had been gradually gaining in power and becoming famous for his head-hunting activities, split off with his own group, taking several curakas and their men with him. A little later Utita did the same thing. At the time of the writer's visit (1931), although Tuki was recognized by the Government of Ecuador as being head chief of the Macas-Mendez region, actually he had lost all power excepting that over his own family group and was in reality no more than a capito. These divisions of the organization, if it may be termed such, took place apparently without any ill-feeling or formal announcements.' §REF§Stirling, Matthew Williams 1938. “Historical And Ethnographical Material On The Jivaro Indians”, 40§REF§ This may be true even for the Spanish colonial period, given the temporary 'peace pacts' concluded between settlers and natives (see General Variables for context)." }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(31) Prominent War-Leaders; (2) Local Headmen and Leaders (Kakaram; Kuraka); (3) Citizen-soldiers or Warriors<br>Shuar military organization was informal, given the political autonomy of local groups: 'The Jivaro lack any formal political organization, although an informal form of leadership is found in the role of individuals referred to as UNYÄ (\"big\" or \"old\" men) or KAKARAM (\"powerful\" or \"powerful ones\") who are renown as killers in feuds or war, or exercise important shamanistic powers in the community. These individuals acquire their reputation in the community by being old enough to have grandchildren, and are friendly, honest, and generous in dealing with others in the society. Because of these characteristics the UNYÄ or KAKARAM are believed to possess great ARUTAM soul power and the ability to curse to death anyone who incurs their anger. Generally most neighborhoods have at least one or two UNYÄ as well as a few superior shamans who provide protection for their relatives or other individuals with whom they are on friendly terms.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Each community is politically independent with its own headman. Each is also located four or more kilometers from their nearest neighboring community. The community is made up of patrilineally and affinally related individuals, traditionally consisting of from 80 to 300 people (30 to 40 people in the twentieth century), living in one house called a JIVARIA. For defensive purposes, this house is built on a steep hill usually at the upper end of a stream. The house itself is approximately 13 meters by 26 meters in size, elliptical in shape, and has a thatched roof. In times of war, two or more communities united to fight a common enemy, as was the case when the Spanish attempted to conquer them.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Their society is thus based on the family and the blood tie. Only such sub-tribes as recognize some sort of consanguinity display a feeling of solidarity: the rest, although they speak the same language, are looked upon, not only as outsiders, but as downright natural enemies, a feature which will be further illustrated in the part dealing with their wars. It is as a rule between the different sub-tribes that the wars of extermination have occurred.' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 183p§REF§ Warriors were accordingly male members of feuding communities: 'The terrible custom demands ever new, ever more victims, all security must disappear, every individual constantly lives in danger of being ambushed; there is a general and permanent state of war. Hence the arrangement of the houses, one door of which can be used for flight, while the battle rages at the other; hence the customs mentioned at the beginning in connection with approaching a dwelling, for the protection of which, in addition, a pack of half-wild dogs are kept. A quarrel between two families must lead to battles between whole tribes; larger groups of tribes become hostile to one another; war and battle become customary, a man's lifework. A longer period of quiet, of peace, must be unbearable for such a nation of warriors. Ambitious, bold leaders will easily find companions for joint war expeditions; the neighboring nations are attacked and plundered. Thus, these Indians are carrying on among themselves a war of annihilation which must gradually bring about their own downfall. Severe depopulation is already noticeable in the region of the Jívaros, and it is being accelerated by epidemics, of the diseases introduced by the Europeans, which appear with great violence at times.' §REF§Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians”, 13§REF§ Warfare was deeply connected to headhunting: 'The primary motivation for warfare is to secure as many human heads as possible from an alien tribe, and secondarily to capture women. The acquisition of territory had never been a motive for engaging in warfare. The war party, consisting of approximately thirty or forty men, is recruited from the community itself or from friendly neighborhoods nearby, and is usually led by the or as war leader or chief. Actual warfare consists of preliminary ceremonies involving ritualized chanting, surprise attacks against one or two enemy houses, the killing and decapitation of the inhabitants or the occasional capture of a girl or woman as an extra wife, and the preparation of the on the return to the home village. Unlike many of the warlike Amazon tribes captives are not tortured or sacrificed, nor is cannibalism practiced.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ Local leaders and chiefs often combined 'political' and 'military' duties rather than separating them: '“The dignity of a chieftain is hereditary in a relative sense, in so far that the son of a chief is generally elected chief in time of war after his father has died or grown decrepit. This, however, can only take place if he has proved a valiant and skilled warrior and has killed enemies. No Jibaro is selected as a chief if he has not killed at least one enemy. The Jibaros have absolute faith in the heritability of prominent qualities, and ascribe extraordinary importance to education and the power of example. The son of a great chief, they say, must necessarily also become an able warrior because he is, as it were, a direct continuation of his father, has received a careful education for the deeds of war, and has always had the good example of his great father before his eyes.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 267§REF§ In times of war against external colonial enemies or larger tribal groups, different communities combined to attach themselves to a common war-leader, although even those arrangements were fluid and often of an ad hoc character. [Family and local leadership can extend beyond a single community; even in recent times (ie, in the 1970’s) some particularly strong men could aggregate several local groups in conflict situations and lead quite large war parties; however, such positions were unstable and rarely lasted more than a few years, if that. The definition of ‘community’ is highly relative; ‘my people’ can include a single nuclear family, or a collection of communities temporarily coalesced around a powerful war leader.] 'Still, as appears from their history, there have been occasions when they have been able to overcome the natural antipathy separating them from one another, and to unite against a common enemy. This common enemy has been the white man, who has so often threatened [184] the liberty of the people; but the alliances, such as that for instance in 1599, have been exceptional and wholly due to the influence of a single, eminent personality.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru\", 183p§REF§' 'When a whole tribe, or perhaps several tribes together, prepare a war against one or more other tribes, the first thing done is to elect a common chief. He should be an elderly, experienced man, who has taken part in several wars, killed many enemies, and celebrated at least one victory feast. The rest of the warriors, who are generally younger men, swear him unlimited obedience. During the time the expedition is planned and the preparations are made, the warriors, and especially the chief, repeatedly drink maikoa or natéma to consult the spirits. They pay great attention to their dreams, even to those not produced under the direct influence of the narcotic drinks, tell them to each other, and discuss their possible significance. Only if they believe that they have received favourable answers and all omens are good are measures taken to carry out the war plan conceived. Meanwhile they try, through spies, to acquire as accurate a knowledge as possible about everything concerning the enemy: how many houses there are in the tract, how many fighting men in each house, if the houses are fortified, if the [283] men are well armed, and especially if they have firearms. All these and similar details the spies investigate by making trips into the country of the enemy and by stealing at night to the houses. Everything is prepared with the greatest secrecy possible, so that the enemy is caught unprepared, for otherwise he will have time to take measures of defence that may defeat the whole undertaking.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru\", 282p§REF§ '“The authority of the chief elected for a war is very great. It is he alone who arranges everything for the expedition planned, who decides [268] about the time for and the mode of making the attack, and the younger warriors oblige themselves to obey him in everything. But as soon as a war has been carried to a successful end the power of the chief ceases, and he has, in spite of the great repute he always enjoys, no more authority or right to decide about the doings of his tribesmen than any other family-father among the Jibaros.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 267p§REF§ Ecuador recognized some of those leaders as regional head-chiefs: 'Four or five years ago there was a strong chief on the Upano River named Tuki, known to the Ecuadoreans as José Grande. In the manner previously described, all of the curakas from Macas on the Upano River to Mendez on the Paute River became subchiefs under him until he was generally recognized as the strongest of all of the Jivaro curakas. However, he was beginning to grow old by this time and some of his subcurakas were strong men in their own right. About 2 years ago, Ambusha, who had been gradually gaining in power and becoming famous for his head-hunting activities, split off with his own group, taking several curakas and their men with him. A little later Utita did the same thing. At the time of the writer's visit (1931), although Tuki was recognized by the Government of Ecuador as being head chief of the Macas-Mendez region, actually he had lost all power excepting that over his own family group and was in reality no more than a capito. These divisions of the organization, if it may be termed such, took place apparently without any ill-feeling or formal announcements.' §REF§Stirling, Matthew Williams 1938. “Historical And Ethnographical Material On The Jivaro Indians”, 40§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "1. King<br>2. nobles(3. officers.)4. Individual soldiers<br>Throughout Egyptian history, the army was a multi-purpose organization which was engaged for civil works labour projects, defence and campaigns.<br>Soldiers were responsible for transportation of monuments and quarried stone, large irrigation works and land reclamation. The dual purpose of the army was reflected in the hierarchy with the high \"brass\" as likely to be administrators as fighters. §REF§(Gnirs 2001)§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "1.King<br>2. nobles3. officers.<br>Throughout Egyptian history, the army was a multi-purpose organization which was engaged for civil works labour projects, defence and campaigns.<br>Soldiers were responsible for transportation of monuments and quarried stone, large irrigation works and land reclamation. The dual purpose of the army was reflected in the hierarchy with the high \"brass\" as likely to be administrators as fighters. §REF§(Gnirs 2001)§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " Throughout Ancient Egyptian history, the Army was a multi-purpose organization which was engaged for civil works labour projects, defence and campaigns.§REF§(Gnirs 2001)§REF§<br>Not a professional military but there was military activity. We cannot code zero for levels. There were officers and individuals equivalent to generals in charge of campaigns, wars and battles. Coding 7 which is currently the administrative levels code.Coded as a range [3-7] to take various possibilities into account." }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Nomarch, top military officer (such as Djary under Intef II) and inferred ranks below." }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. AD: was left uncoded, coded as a range to allow for flexibility.<br>1. Ruler<br>2. Provincial governors/ army commanders(3. Captains)4. Individual soldiers" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 13, "military_level_to": 13, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>2. Chief Secretary of Council of War (inferred)<br>3. Council of War (Consejo de Guerra) §REF§(Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X</a>§REF§<br>_Tercios_ (“Tercios were not, as a rule, employed within Spain, unless other forces could not be raised. Though well organized they were not numerous, and formed only a small proportion of the total forces available to the crown.”)§REF§(Kamen 2002, 359) Kamen, Henry. 2002. <i>Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763</i>. London: Penguin Books. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ</a>§REF§<br>4. Captain-General §REF§(López 2012, 38) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>5. Maestre del Campo (Field Marshal): “Chosen by the Crown to command a new Tercio, or by the captain-general of a field army to fill a vacancy. He was to pass on the orders given by the captain-general, and to take command in the latter’s absence.” §REF§(López 2012, 38) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>6. Sergento Mayor (Sergeant-Major): “The second-in-command of the Tercio, he was responsible for passing on the field marshal’s orders to the captains.” §REF§(López 2012, 42) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>7. Capitán (Captain) §REF§(López 2012, 44) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>8. Alférez (Ensign, Lieutenant) §REF§(López 2012, 45) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>9. Sargento (Sergeant) §REF§(López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>10. Cabo (Corporal) §REF§(López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>11. Specialist: Arquebusier, Musketeer §REF§(López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>12. Coselete: soldier with armor §REF§(López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>13. Pica Seca: soldier without armor §REF§(López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>Headquarters positions:<ul><li>Tambor Mayor (Drum Major): \"The tambor mayor (drum major) reported directly to the sergeant-major, and was responsible for the training of all company drummers. He had to know the drumbeats of all nations, both allies and enemies. Together with the fife-players, the drummers marked the rhythm for marching.\" §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Furriel Mayor (quartermaster-major): \"was responsible for the distribution of equipment and supplies, the organization of quarters, and the necessary bookkeeping. Below him, each company had a quartermaster to perform the same duties on a lesser scale.\" §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Barrachel (military provost) §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Auditor (legal officer): \"one of his most important tasks was to validate the soldiers’ wills, which they customarily drew up before going into battle.\" §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Doctor §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Surgeon §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Barber §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Chaplain-major §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li></ul>" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br><i>King Ezana (after 320 CE) is known to have built an army that could control the regions§REF§(Falola 2002, 58) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§ which suggests that before King Ezana the army found it difficult to control the regions - perhaps because it was less professional, or had a smaller number of professional troops, and did not have they capability to garrison troops far from the capital. However, a polity that could make conquests in south Arabia in the early 3rd century CE likely had a well developed military if not a highly centralized one. It would have been very hyperbolic for Mani (216-276 CE) in the Kephalaia to have called Aksum \"one of the four greatest empires of the world\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 383) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ if by his time there was not a well-organized military. The introduction of coinage in the mid-3rd century may have coincided with a shift to a more professional armed forces as the indigenous coinage could be used to pay the army, but the armed forces of the king and his vassals, who many have contributed much to the numbers, were growing in effectiveness before this time (earlier armies could have been paid in foreign coinage, which was imported, as well as loot).</i><br>1. King?<br>2. Relative of the kingMilitary expeditions lead by the king's brother or other kinsmen.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>3. NegusNeguses lead armies in war and commanded building operations.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>Aksumite term for ruler was 'negus', and \"Each 'people', kingdom, principality, city and tribe had its own negus. Mention is made of army neguses ...\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>4. Another officer level?5. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. District Chiefs<br>2. Local Headmen and Sub-Chiefs<br>3. Groups of Armed Men or Citizen-Soldiers<br>There were no troops or police forces in the native system: 'There were no police. A chief's brothers or sons might act on his behalf to intimidate or attack someone who had offended him. But it was control of magical power, either by the chief or one his brothers or sons, that made improper conduct liable to punishment. Major craft specialists could also make ill those who violated the taboos of their craft. Finally, members of chiefly lineages and their close associates were likely to have knowledge of sorcery. All such knowledge gave punitive power to chiefs and important specialists. People stressed maintaining the appearance of propriety in behavior so as not to give just cause for offense.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§ Prior to 'pacification', violent conflict played out in raids and battles between rival groups of armed men: 'Within districts, conflict arose over land, succession to chiefship, theft, adultery, and avenging homicide. Between districts, it arose over attentions to local women by outside men, the status of one district as subordinate to another, and rights of access to fishing areas. Formal procedures for terminating conflict between districts involved payments of valuables and land by the loosing to the winning side. Fighting involved surprise raids and prearranged meetings on a field of battle. Principle weapons were slings, spears, and clubs. Firearms, introduced late in the nineteenth century, were confiscated by German authorities in 1903. Martial arts included an elaborate system of throws and holds by which an unarmed man could kill, maim or disarm an armed opponent.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§ Competition between rival chiefs over the control of land and people was a major factor: 'Traditional Micronesian life was characterized by a belief in the stability of society and culture. People suffered occasional natural disasters, such as cyclones or droughts, but their goal after encountering one of these was to reconstitute the previous state of affairs. Wars occurred in most areas from time to time, mainly at the instigation of competing chiefs. At stake was the control of land—a limited resource—and followers, but there were usually few casualties. Living in small communities on small territories, Micronesians learned to adjust to their neighbours, to remain on good terms with most of them most of the time, and to develop techniques of reconciliation when fights did break out. Micronesians traditionally depended on the cultivation of plant crops and on fishing in shallow reef waters. Because arable land was in short supply for the relatively dense population, Micronesians had a strong practical basis for their attachment to locality and lands. Land rights were usually held through lineages or extended family groups, often backed up by traditions of ancestral origins on the land.' §REF§(Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE</a>.§REF§ Conflict among chiefs and their followers did not terminate entirely with 'pacification', although the population was disarmed in the early 20th century: 'In 1904 the disarming of the Truk people was undertaken by the “Kondor.” There were 436 guns and 2,531 cartridges confiscated. For better control the government appointed six head-chiefs, banished some swashbucklers who did not want to submit, and turned out the Japanese. With this a peaceful development was initiated. The missions (Protestant mission since 1879, Catholic mission since 1912) were able to work undisturbed. Unfortunately, the German government took little notice of Truk, since it was too preoccupied with the other islands. Yet many things were accomplished. Under the last director of the station, A. Überhorst, the lagoon was given new impetus in every respect. The relationship between officials and the population was usually a good one, under Mr. Überhorst even a cordial one. Anyone who was on Truk in those years certainly did not see any bad treatment of the natives. Much was done also with regard to health; in particular Dr. Mayer and his wife traveled from island to island without rest in order to take care of the sick. If during the Japanese occupation a young naval officer was not ashamed to assert that the Germans had done nothing for the islands, anyone who lived on the islands during the Japanese period can only say from the heart: “God protect the poor Truk people under the Japanese.”' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 253§REF§ 'On the main islands the German government introduced head chiefs (somol lap) who carried the flag. There were six of them, one each on Poloas, Uman, Fefan, Wöla, Udot, and Pol /Pul/. The smaller islands likewise belonged to the sphere of power of the head chiefs. But even this institution could not link the tribes together within themselves or with one another. Some of the lower chiefs sympathize with the head chief for egotistical reasons; others fight against him violently for the same reasons. One who is with him today might be against him tomorrow because he somehow stepped on his toes. It is often enough for the subchief to fight the head chief if his neighboring chief supports him. Thus the picture is constantly changing. [Page 125] There is a continuous, sometimes quiet, sometimes open, warfare of the subchiefs against the head chiefs, the lower chiefs among themselves, the common people against the chiefs. The main reason for this disagreeable phenomenon is the limitless egotism of the Truk people. Everyone strives more or less to be something of a chief also. Strong families who do not like the chief attempt to isolate themselves and choose one from their midst. In addition to this, there are also old family enmities and disputes about land. It is obvious that the islands will never be able to achieve peaceful development in this manner. It is difficult to say who is most to blame for it. In any case the chiefs are not to be pitied, because they behave themselves accordingly. They are to be blamed mostly for the exploitation of the people, their corruptibility, and partiality. Many of them unhesitatingly accept money and objects and help the giver, no matter how many times he is in the wrong.' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 124§REF§ We have assumed that the institution of district chief predates the colonial period." }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. District and Head-Chiefs;<br>2. Local Headmen and Sub-Chiefs;3. Groups of Armed Men or Citizen-Soldiers<br>There were no troops or police forces : 'There were no police. A chief's brothers or sons might act on his behalf to intimidate or attack someone who had offended him. But it was control of magical power, either by the chief or one his brothers or sons, that made improper conduct liable to punishment. Major craft specialists could also make ill those who violated the taboos of their craft. Finally, members of chiefly lineages and their close associates were likely to have knowledge of sorcery. All such knowledge gave punitive power to chiefs and important specialists. People stressed maintaining the appearance of propriety in behavior so as not to give just cause for offense.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§ Prior to 'pacification', violent conflict played out in raids and battles between rival groups of armed men: 'Within districts, conflict arose over land, succession to chiefship, theft, adultery, and avenging homicide. Between districts, it arose over attentions to local women by outside men, the status of one district as subordinate to another, and rights of access to fishing areas. Formal procedures for terminating conflict between districts involved payments of valuables and land by the loosing to the winning side. Fighting involved surprise raids and prearranged meetings on a field of battle. Principle weapons were slings, spears, and clubs. Firearms, introduced late in the nineteenth century, were confiscated by German authorities in 1903. Martial arts included an elaborate system of throws and holds by which an unarmed man could kill, maim or disarm an armed opponent.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§ Competition between rival chiefs over the control of land and people was a major factor: 'Traditional Micronesian life was characterized by a belief in the stability of society and culture. People suffered occasional natural disasters, such as cyclones or droughts, but their goal after encountering one of these was to reconstitute the previous state of affairs. Wars occurred in most areas from time to time, mainly at the instigation of competing chiefs. At stake was the control of land—a limited resource—and followers, but there were usually few casualties. Living in small communities on small territories, Micronesians learned to adjust to their neighbours, to remain on good terms with most of them most of the time, and to develop techniques of reconciliation when fights did break out. Micronesians traditionally depended on the cultivation of plant crops and on fishing in shallow reef waters. Because arable land was in short supply for the relatively dense population, Micronesians had a strong practical basis for their attachment to locality and lands. Land rights were usually held through lineages or extended family groups, often backed up by traditions of ancestral origins on the land.' §REF§(Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE</a>.§REF§ Conflict among chiefs and their followers did not terminate entirely with 'pacification', although the population was disarmed in the early 20th century: 'In 1904 the disarming of the Truk people was undertaken by the “Kondor.” There were 436 guns and 2,531 cartridges confiscated. For better control the government appointed six head-chiefs, banished some swashbucklers who did not want to submit, and turned out the Japanese. With this a peaceful development was initiated. The missions (Protestant mission since 1879, Catholic mission since 1912) were able to work undisturbed. Unfortunately, the German government took little notice of Truk, since it was too preoccupied with the other islands. Yet many things were accomplished. Under the last director of the station, A. Überhorst, the lagoon was given new impetus in every respect. The relationship between officials and the population was usually a good one, under Mr. Überhorst even a cordial one. Anyone who was on Truk in those years certainly did not see any bad treatment of the natives. Much was done also with regard to health; in particular Dr. Mayer and his wife traveled from island to island without rest in order to take care of the sick. If during the Japanese occupation a young naval officer was not ashamed to assert that the Germans had done nothing for the islands, anyone who lived on the islands during the Japanese period can only say from the heart: “God protect the poor Truk people under the Japanese.”' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 253§REF§ 'On the main islands the German government introduced head chiefs (somol lap) who carried the flag. There were six of them, one each on Poloas, Uman, Fefan, Wöla, Udot, and Pol /Pul/. The smaller islands likewise belonged to the sphere of power of the head chiefs. But even this institution could not link the tribes together within themselves or with one another. Some of the lower chiefs sympathize with the head chief for egotistical reasons; others fight against him violently for the same reasons. One who is with him today might be against him tomorrow because he somehow stepped on his toes. It is often enough for the subchief to fight the head chief if his neighboring chief supports him. Thus the picture is constantly changing. [Page 125] There is a continuous, sometimes quiet, sometimes open, warfare of the subchiefs against the head chiefs, the lower chiefs among themselves, the common people against the chiefs. The main reason for this disagreeable phenomenon is the limitless egotism of the Truk people. Everyone strives more or less to be something of a chief also. Strong families who do not like the chief attempt to isolate themselves and choose one from their midst. In addition to this, there are also old family enmities and disputes about land. It is obvious that the islands will never be able to achieve peaceful development in this manner. It is difficult to say who is most to blame for it. In any case the chiefs are not to be pitied, because they behave themselves accordingly. They are to be blamed mostly for the exploitation of the people, their corruptibility, and partiality. Many of them unhesitatingly accept money and objects and help the giver, no matter how many times he is in the wrong.' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 124§REF§ The colonial governments stationed troops on the island, but it appears that natives were not recruited into the Japanese military: 'Despite the large immigration of Okinawan fishermen under the Japanese, all of whom have been repatriated, and despite the presence of 35,000 troops and laborers during the war, the native social structure remains fundamentally unchanged from aboriginal times. This is probably due in no small part to the fact that Truk has been spared the ravages of depopulation. It has also been helped by the Japanese prohibition, continued by the United States, against purchase of land from natives by foreigners. Aside from the small area on which the administrative garrison is presently housed, the Trukese continue to use all the lands which they traditionally exploited. Every native community that existed in 1900 appears still to be intact. Despite the discontinuance of warfare, an almost complete conversion to Christianity, a high proportion of literacy, and considerable modification in technology, Trukese society is still a vigorously going concern, its pattern of organization little changed by the events of the past 50 years.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 26§REF§ 'During World War II, many Micronesian islands were heavily contested; major military engagements took place between Japanese and American forces in Palau, Guam, the northern Marianas, Chuuk (then known as Truk), the Marshalls, and parts of the Gilberts. The war inflicted great suffering and left the regional economy in shambles. Infrastructure and property had been destroyed, food shortages were widespread, and many people had been displaced. As recently as the early 21st century, reminders of the war remained omnipresent. Chuuk’s lagoon, for instance, holds an entire Japanese fleet that sank in 1944. Complete with human skeletons, dishes, and even fighter planes and tanks that had been tied on deck, the fleet has been declared an underwater museum and has become a popular tourist destination.' §REF§(Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE</a>.§REF§ This remains in need of further confirmation. We have provisionally coded for 'native' military organization rather than colonial troops." }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Here too the two structures of the kingdom result in a different military hierarchy.<br>For the area under direct rule, the structure is: King, vassals (dukes, marquises, lords, barons), sub-vassals (notables/nobles, lords, knights), infantrymen/cavalry<br>For the area under indirect rule, the structure is: King, Counts/sub-kings, vassals, sub-vassals, infantrymen/cavalry" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 456, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_3", "long_name": "Proto-Carolingian", "start_year": 687, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Confused picture. Coded as previous polity in the chronology.<br>640s CE and onwards the main forces were personal armed followings (bodyguards). Mayors of the Palace dominate the court. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 109-112)§REF§<br>Bodyguard was the core military force.§REF§(Halsall 2003, 48)§REF§<br>King / Mayor of the Palaceantrustiones - Merovingian royal body guards<br>puer regis - lower lever bodyguardssent to punish people of Limoges for revolting against tax collectors. March 579 CE. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 51)§REF§<br>leudes - soldiers in attendance intermittently<br>spathani - ?<br>Dukes / Magnatesalso had bodyguards<br>Countsalso had bodyguards<br>Troops raised from city<br>Bishopsalso had bodyguards<br>Not in this period?<br>4. King (\"Like Constantine, the Merovingian King was considered the reflection of God on Earth. The succession to the kingship could never been anything but the expression of a higher will\" §REF§(Schutz 2004, 18) Schutz, H. 2004. The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900. BRILL§REF§<br>Kings usually lead the army at least until Sigibert III. After this Mayor of the Palace always involved. §REF§(Halsall 2003, 28-29)§REF§<br>Forces usually lead by a commander. Sometimes by a king. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 54)§REF§<br>3. Duke<br>Armies commanded by duces (dukes) §REF§(Halsall 2003, 45)§REF§<br>At times of war Merovingian kings were supported by their leudes and aristocrats.§REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>Leudes: \"military followers apparently of considerable social status and influence, though probably to be distinguished from the greatest magnates of the realm, many of whom had military followings of their own, and might be expected to fight for the king both inside and outside his kingdom.\" §REF§(Wood 1994, 64)§REF§<br>2. Comes<br>Local levy usually commanded by count of civitas §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 67)§REF§<br>Garrisons in cities not the same source as the local levy. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 127)§REF§<br>Garrison commander and local levy commander were two different people. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 127)§REF§<br>There are \"indications of city-based system of military service\" similar to Roman one. For example, in 578 CE Chilperic took the men of Tours, Poitiers, Bayeux, Le Mans and Angers to war in Brittany.§REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>1. Tribunus<br>Garrison commander<br>Milites at Tours served under a tribunus, not a count §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 51)§REF§<br>Milites - garrisoned fortifications §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 33)§REF§<br>Laeti - protected fortresses and served as antrustiones in centenae §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 33)§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Military in era of Clovis's grandsons \"confusing mosaic of heterogeneous elements\" §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 73)§REF§<br>1. King<br>Kings usually lead the army at least until Sigibert III. After this Mayor of the Palace always involved. §REF§(Halsall 2003, 28-29)§REF§<br>Forces usually lead by a commander. Sometimes by a king. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 54)§REF§<br>2. DukeArmies commanded by duces (dukes) §REF§(Halsall 2003, 45)§REF§<br>At times of war Merovingian kings were supported by their leudes and aristocrats.§REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>Leudes: \"military followers apparently of considerable social status and influence, though probably to be distinguished from the greatest magnates of the realm, many of whom had military followings of their own, and might be expected to fight for the king both inside and outside his kingdom.\" §REF§(Wood 1994, 64)§REF§3. ComesLocal levy usually commanded by count of civitas §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 67)§REF§<br>Garrisons in cities not the same source as the local levy. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 127)§REF§<br>Garrison commander and local levy commander were two different people. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 127)§REF§<br>There are \"indications of city-based system of military service\" similar to Roman one. For example, in 578 CE Chilperic took the men of Tours, Poitiers, Bayeux, Le Mans and Angers to war in Brittany.§REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>4. Individual Solider<br>1. Tribunus<br>Garrison commander<br>Milites at Tours served under a tribunus, not a count §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 51)§REF§<br>Milites - garrisoned fortifications §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 33)§REF§<br>Laeti - protected fortresses and served as antrustiones in centenae §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 33)§REF§<br><br>640s CE and onwards the main forces were personal armed followings (bodyguards). Mayors of the Palace dominate the court. Kings lost control to mayors and magnates. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 109-112)§REF§<br>Bodyguard was the core military force.§REF§(Halsall 2003, 48)§REF§<br>Kingsantrustiones - Merovingian royal body guards<br>puer regis - lower lever bodyguardssent to punish people of Limoges for revolting against tax collectors. March 579 CE. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 51)§REF§<br>leudes - soldiers in attendance intermittently<br>spathani - ?<br>Dukes / Magnatesalso had bodyguards<br>Countsalso had bodyguards<br>Troops raised from city<br>Bishopsalso had bodyguards" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"The Halstatt Princedoms of continental Europe were brought down during the 5th century BC by the rise of groups of Celtic peoples whose social structure was dominated by a warrior aristocracy.\" §REF§(Allen 2007, 61)§REF§<br>Lead into battle by chieftains such as Brennas at the Battle of the Allia (390 BCE) against Rome.§REF§(Kruta 2004, 66)§REF§<br>Military: \"Deployment would probably have been by tribal contingents. Within these contingents, clans would deploy as separate bodies ... To identify each grouping in the battle line and to act as rallying points, the guardian deities of tribe and clan were carried into battle as standards topped with carved or cast figures of their animal forms.\" §REF§(Allen 2007, 123)§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>In battle, confederations of tribes.§REF§(Kruta 2004, 105)§REF§<br>2. Celtic generalsbecame mercenaries for Carthage, Rome, Greece. §REF§(Kruta 2004, 85)§REF§<br>Urban aristocrats formed and maintained a standing cavalry corps.§REF§(Kruta 2004, 110)§REF§ This would have had a leader.<br>3. Chieftainspaid in gold staters or silver pieces. §REF§(Kruta 2004, 100)§REF§<br>Are these people the same as the \"generals\"?<br>4. Individual soldier<br>Military: \"Deployment would probably have been by tribal contingents. Within these contingents, clans would deploy as separate bodies ... To identify each grouping in the battle line and to act as rallying points, the guardian deities of tribe and clan were carried into battle as standards topped with carved or cast figures of their animal forms.\" §REF§(Allen 2007, 123)§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>In battle, confederations of tribes.§REF§(Kruta 2004, 105)§REF§<br>2. Celtic generalsbecame mercenaries for Carthage, Rome, Greece. §REF§(Kruta 2004, 85)§REF§<br>Urban aristocrats formed and maintained a standing cavalry corps.§REF§(Kruta 2004, 110)§REF§ This would have had a leader.<br>3. Chieftainspaid in gold staters or silver pieces. §REF§(Kruta 2004, 100)§REF§<br>Are these people the same as the \"generals\"?<br>4. Individual soldier<br>Military: \"Deployment would probably have been by tribal contingents. Within these contingents, clans would deploy as separate bodies ... To identify each grouping in the battle line and to act as rallying points, the guardian deities of tribe and clan were carried into battle as standards topped with carved or cast figures of their animal forms.\" §REF§(Allen 2007, 123)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 10, "military_level_to": 12, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>Commander-in-chief<br>2. Secretaires des guerres / senior councillor<br>2. ConstableConstable of France §REF§(Potter 2008, 45)§REF§<br>3?. Marshall3-5 marshals §REF§(Potter 2008, 44)§REF§<br>4. CaptainCaptains of heavy cavalry important role among in the staff command structure §REF§(Potter 2008, 44)§REF§<br>5. Lieutenant-general\"A deep pocket was a crucial advantage to a commander.\" Expected to lavish gifts on army. §REF§(Potter 2008, 47)§REF§<br>\"successful commanders had to navigate the labyrinth of politics and patronage in order to obtain funds for their armies.\"§REF§(Potter 2008, 49)§REF§<br>6?. Marechal de camp / Maitre de camp (cavalry / infantry)§REF§(Potter 2008, 50)§REF§<br>6?. Marechal de logis / maitre l'artilerie§REF§(Potter 2008, 50)§REF§7. Sergent de bataille§REF§(Potter 2008, 50)§REF§8. Colonel§REF§(Potter 2008, 59)§REF§9. CaptainCaptain of a company. §REF§(Potter 2008, 72)§REF§<br>10. LieutenantCould be promoted to captain. §REF§(Potter 2008, 72)§REF§<br>11. Sergeant§REF§(Potter 2008, 113)§REF§12. Individual soldier<br>Louis XI wanted new permanent army with: 4 royal lieutenants over 10 vicaires each commanding 10 captains who each lead 10 dizainiers who each took charge of 10 soldiers. However reforms abandoned 1483 CE. §REF§(Potter 2008, 105-106)§REF§<br>By 1562 CE companies were formed into larger groups called regiments. §REF§(Potter 2008, 78-79)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "long_name": "British Empire I", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 10, "military_level_to": 11, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Commander-in-Chief (revived 1793)§REF§(National Archives of the UK 2007. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BW7Q7AXM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BW7Q7AXM</a>)§REF§<br>2. Secretary at War (combined with Secretary of State for War in 1855, abolished in 1863)§REF§(National Archives of the UK 2007. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BW7Q7AXM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BW7Q7AXM</a>)§REF§<br>2. Secretary of State for War. (\"In 1870 the Commander in Chief became a subordinate officer.\"§REF§(National Archives of the UK 2007. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BW7Q7AXM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BW7Q7AXM</a>)§REF§)<br>3. Heads of specialist functions (inferred to be at similar levels)<br>4. High-ranking members of specialist functions (inferred to be at similar levels)<ul><li>\"Until 1855 a number of independent offices and individuals were responsible for various aspects of Army administration. The four most important were the Commander in Chief, the Ordnance Office, the Secretary-at-War and the Secretary of State for War. Others who performed specialist functions were the controller of army accounts, the Army Medical Board, the Commissariat Department, the Board of General Officers, the Judge Advocate General, the Commissary General of Muster, the Paymaster General and the Home Office (before 1782 the twin secretaries of state).\"§REF§(National Archives of the UK 2007. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BW7Q7AXM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BW7Q7AXM</a>)§REF§</li></ul>Infantry, Typical battalion establishment, 1808-1809. Levels generally inferred from pay scale information.§REF§(MacArthur 2009: 154. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NY37PHG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NY37PHG</a>)§REF§<br>4. Colonel<br>5. Lieutenant Colonel<br>5. Paymaster (inferred about equal to Lt. Colonel because pay level is appox. the same)<br>6. Major<br>7. Captain<br>7. Surgeon (inferred about equal or slightly higher than Captain because pay level is similar)<br>8. Adjutant (based on pay levels)<br>8. Assistant Surgeon (based on pay levels)<br>8. Lieutenant<br>8. Quartermaster (inferred equal to Lieutenant based on pay levels)<br>8-9. Quartermaster Sergeant, Sergeant Major, Paymaster Sergeant, Armourer as Sergeant, Schoolmaster Sergeant (new post as of Dec. 1811)<br>9. Sergeant<br>10. Corporal<br>11. Private<ul><li>Colonial and Foreign Infantry battalions could include a Judge Advocate, Chaplain: four had a Judge Advocate and three had a Chaplain in this period.§REF§(MacArthur 2009: 165. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NY37PHG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NY37PHG</a>)§REF§</li><li>\"The three regiments of Foot Guards (1st, Coldstream and 3rd) had an establishment structure unlike that of the rest of the British infantry.\"§REF§(MacArthur 2009: 169. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NY37PHG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NY37PHG</a>)§REF§. Included: Drum Major, Hautbois, Solicitor, Deputy Marshal, Provost Marshal in addition to regular battalion positions.</li></ul>Royal Navy: 1700-1806: (Levels generally inferred from pay scale information)§REF§(Rodger 2005: 622-627. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CIJFYY9I\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CIJFYY9I</a>)§REF§<br>2. First Lord of the Admiralty<br>3. Heads of specialist functions (inferred to be at similar levels) (ie. Admiralty and Marine Affairs Office, Navy Board, Transport Board)<br>3. High-ranking members of specialist functions (inferred to be at similar levels)<br>4. Admiral<br>5. Vice-Admiral<br>6. Rear Admiral (also First Captain)<br>7. Captain<br>7-8. Secretaries to the different ranks of Admirals<br>7-8. Master (inferred similar to higher-ranking secretaries because of pay rate)<br>8. Lieutenant (inferred similar to higher-ranking secretaries because of pay rate)<br>8. Surgeon<br>9. Boatswain, Gunner, Carpenter, Purse, Second Masters and Pilot<br>10. Master's Mates, Surgeon's First Mates<br>10. Midshipmen, Master at Arms, Schoolmaster, Captain's Clerk, Carpenter's Mates<br>11. Ordinary Seamen" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Omanhene; (2) his Bodyguard (Gyasi) and Generals (Tufuhene); (3) Wing chiefs; (4) Local Chiefs acting as captains of companies; (5) commoners fulfilling the role of infantry<br>Political and military leadership often coincided: 'The long, complex history of the Akan peoples is one of internecine conflicts and, since the eighteenth century, of opposition to the encroachment of various colonial powers: the Dutch, Portuguese, Danish, French, and English. In addition, there have been continual threats from the Islamic peoples of the southern Saharan fringe. Essentially all these conflicts have been over monopolies in trade, first across the Sahara with northern Africa and, in later centuries, across the Atlantic with the countries of Europe and the Americas. Warfare has historically been a central institution, a means of extending territory and controlling external trade. The Akan state was typically divided into five or six military formations or \"wings,\" each under the authority of a wing chief. Beneath the wing chiefs, who are chosen by the king, are the chiefs of the main towns of a kingdom. The latter are from the town's ruling line.' §REF§Gilbert, Michelle, Lagacé, Robert O. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Akan§REF§ 'It must be admitted that the origin of our State government and the principles on which it was founded, being solely military in character, one should feel content to accept the fact that the whole structure of the civil government we enjoy to-day is the result of martial adventures. This being so, it is only natural that people whose powers are clearly labelled as “military commanders”, etc., should exercise civil powers when the fruit of their labours bring peace. In almost all the Akan institutions, from the lowest servant to the highest officer, there is scarcely any whose civil powers are not based on military appointments. It is, therefore, most natural to fall into the habit of merging a civil into a military power.' §REF§Danquah, J. B. (Joseph Boakye) 1928. “Gold Coast: Akan Laws And Customs And The Akim Abuakwa Constitution”, 17§REF§ 'The Ohene of every district is the supreme commander of the fighting men. His orders are communicated through the captains (Asafuhenefu), or the Tufuhene, as the case may be. Whenever a council of war is convened he presides, and it is his duty to provide them with some powder and shot. Every male person able to bear arms is bound to serve his country, and each fighting man [Page 28] provides himself with arms and ammunitions, as well as provisions, at his own expense.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 27p§REF§ According to Sarbah, imperial Ashanti military organization was more 'developed' than that of smaller Akan predecessors: 'The common origin of the inhabitants of the Fanti districts, Asanti, and wherever the Akan language is spoken, has been already shown. † The Customary Laws of the inhabitants of these places are in the main identical, and the national constitutions resemble each other in many points, although Asanti military organization had been [Page 3] developed in a greater degree. In fact, while the Fanti communities were gradually bringing under their sway smaller states, the Asanti king by conquests was extending his power over many lands. At one time all countries from Cape Mount in Liberia to the western boundary of Dahomey were, with few exceptions, under Asanti jurisdiction.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 2p§REF§ But the Omanhene was supported by a bodyguard even before Ashanti imperial expansion: 'Omanhene is the head of the national life, and naturally president of the rulers of the people assembled either as a court for deciding cases or for legislation. The district, taken as a whole, is likewise considered as a body, whereof the Omanhene supports the head, and the next man in authority to him carries the foot. By virtue of his office, Omanhene has the right to be carried by four men or more, and uses three or more canopy umbrellas. At his installation a small sword, the insignia of his office, is handed to him, and he enjoys several other privileges. He is the commander-in-chief of all the fighting men of the district. His bodyguard and the immediate fighting men are called Gyasi. He is almost invariably a member of the Domtsifu or Intsin Company. Tufuhene is the man whose duty it is to command the fighting-men (from tuu, “to throw, e.g., arrows, etc.;” hence etuo, itur, “a gun”); a fighting leader, or commander. In some districts, and especially in the coast towns, Tufuhene is the next man in authority after Ohene.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 9§REF§ 'An Ohene is entitled to ride in a palanquin carried by two men and attended by two canopy umbrellas. An Odzikuro is the headman of a village. Penin is an elder, generally an old man of experience. Sahene is a man appointed to conduct war. A Safuhene is a captain of a company, and in some instances is a stoolholder. In fact, among the Akanfu, that is Asanti, Wassaw, Assin, Akim, and such like, each Ohene of the several towns and districts is referred to as the Safuhene of his Omanhene. The Gyasi are the bodyguard of an Ohene or Omanhene. They comprise, first, the blood relatives, especially the children and grandsons of the Ohene, and are called Bogyadom ( bogya, “blood”; dom, “troop”), who have the immediate custody of the stool; secondly, certain Asafuhenefu, with their men; thirdly, personal servants and domestic attendants (Gyasifu). The Gyasi perform the rites of the stool custom each year.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 9§REF§ 'The immediate retinue and body-guard of the Omanhene are called Gyasi, and consist of three groups of persons. (1) His male blood relatives, e.g. brothers, uncles, nephews; also his sons, whether by free or bond women. These persons usually are captains of the other fighting men. (2) Servants, slaves, and pawns, and their descendants. (3) Those originally attached to him by commendation or adoption; and captains, with their forces, appointed by the community as such.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 23§REF§ Akan troops were organized in companies under the leadership of captains, but even on this level civil and military leadership were often united in one person: 'Supi is a company captain, who keeps the company's flags, and especially their ammunition. The spokesman of an Ohene or village community is selected by the Ohene or Odzikuro. On his appointment it is usual in some districts for his family to give to the Ohene or councillors sua duma,that is, £2 9 s. 6 d. The councillors (Begwafu) are sometimes selected by the people on account of personal character and intelligence. Every councillor is not a stoolholder, nor is every stoolholder a councillor; but a great number of the councillors, however, are stoolholders. A stoolholder may be appointed a councillor, and his successor, when deemed a fit and proper person, follows him in his office. When a person becomes a councillor he is considered as promoted, therefore he severs his connection with his company, and must not take an active part in the management of the affairs of the company. A councillor must not be a partisan. Councillors who have not attained that position by right of inheritance are practically, and in truth, the direct representatives of the people, and voice public opinion. It is somewhat difficult to define the qualifications of such public men.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 10§REF§ 'The male persons of each ward originally formed a [Page 27] company, having its distinctive flags, drums, and other equipments. The honour of the flag is the first consideration, and his service to his company is the most indispensable duty of the citizen. The organization of the town companies has been already described. * In some towns there are as many as seven companies, members of which reside not only in the town, but also in the neighbouring villages. Lands cleared by the companies belong to them. The lands of the companies do not belong to the Ohene, for there are town lands, family lands, and stool lands. The Ohene has no right to ordinary tribute, and the public-stool income is derived from fines, penalties, and court fees. In this also the jurisdiction is personal. The Tufuhene, the councillors, and captains of the companies take part in the election and installation of a new Ohene. Before them he takes his oath of office, and if any lands are attached to the town stool, he holds them in trust for the public. The succession generally follows the common rule, but in some places it is the son who succeeds, not the brother or nephew. The townspeople can pass over the person nominated by the family and elect some other suitable person instead. They may also remove the Ohene, if found unfit to rule them any longer; in either of which events the town sword and stool, with all the public property thereunto appurtenant, are vested in the town council, whose duty it is to take them from the deposed ruler or his family and give them to the person appointed as new ruler or manager during the interval.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 26p§REF§ 'Each subordinate ruler, correctly the captain-chief (Safuhene), of the Omanhene, owns a stool of his office, commands the fighting men of, and rules, his district. The lands of the district are attached to his stool. Like the Omanhene, he also has officers and captains under him, and with his linguist, councillors, and elders he sits as a magistrate, before whose tribunal his subjects and people in his district are bound to appear.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 22§REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) King (Asantehene), chief executive and primary commander-in-chief of the Ashanti Union;(2) Captain-General (Tufu Hin) of the forces, or secondary commander-in-chief (Adontenhene);(3) generals, or commanders of particular armies and campaigns;(4) the standing body of armed men, or Department of War;(5) Chiefs acting as captains of companies;(6) farmers and other commoners fulfilling the role of infantry<br>'The King is the Chief Military Officer of his forces. In time of war, he directs the operations; and if he is a man of capacity, he has the leading place in the councils of war. There is generally a Tufu Hin, or Captain-General, of the forces; but his authority is subordinate to that of the King, and he is, in every essential, an officer of the King.' §REF§Hayford, J. E. Casely (Joseph Ephraim Casely) 1970. “Gold Coast Native Institutions With Thoughts Upon A Healthy Imperial Policy For The Gold Coast And Ashanti”, 42p§REF§ According to Mensa-Bonsu, and in the early period at least, the Bantamahene filled this role, as described in the story of his oath: 'This account begins with the Ntam of the Bantamahene who is the Adontenhene (Commander-in-Chief) of Asante. The Ntam dates from the time of Osei Tutu. When Osei Tutu returned from his travels to succeed to the stool, his uncle Obiri Yeboa had just died. He felt he had to offer a sacrifice to his dead uncle to show his affection. He therefore chose his trusted friend Baafour Amankwatia, Chief of Bantama. Amankwatia had already been besmeared with redclay ready to be executed. Okomfo Anokye would not allow him to be killed and ordered his release. This occasion on which he nearly lost his life became a very serious event for the Bantamahene. It thus became his Ntam. Amankwatia lived to become one of Osei Tutu's greatest generals and won many wars for Asante.' §REF§Mensa-Bonsu, Henrietta J. 1989. “The Place Of ‘Oaths’ In The Constitutional Set-Up Of Asante”, 267§REF§ The head executives were assisted by a cadre of commanders and generals, who carried ceremonial swords as a sign of their special status and commanded particular armies and campaigns: 'A second class of sword, domfena, was carried by generals: ‘… a general is appointed to the command of an army, by receiving a gold-handled sword of the King's from his hand [...] The captains used these to swear before the King' §REF§McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 90§REF§ There was a nucleus of armed professionals based in the capital: 'The local government of Kumasi was in the hands of the Kwaintsirs, a body of men who were the keepers of the golden stool. They formed the Department of War, and the great General Amankwatsia was formerly their Chief. The fact that the Department of War held in its keeping the royal stool illustrates vividly the origin of the kingly office in the Native State, which will be explained later on.' §REF§Hayford, J. E. Casely (Joseph Ephraim Casely) 1970. “Gold Coast Native Institutions With Thoughts Upon A Healthy Imperial Policy For The Gold Coast And Ashanti”, 26p§REF§ Most of the time, political and military hierarchies coincided, with leaders fulfilling a dual role: 'It has already been noted that among the Akan the military organisation was given in the political organisation. Political status determined military status. The commanders of the Asante army and its subdivisions were first elected as heads of territorial divisions or appointed as heads of palace associations and then assumed corresponding military positions: European visitors to the Akan states in the nineteenth century referred to the heads of the subdivisions as ‘captains’.' §REF§Arhin, Kwame 1983. “Peasants In 19Th-Century Asante”, 96§REF§ Finally, major and minor chiefs commanded their communities of citizen-soldiers in battle:'A chief is generally a captain of a company. In fact, every male member of the community is liable to military service in time of war, and during peace he has to drill every year with his company. A fortiori, a chief is the natural leader of the men of his company. There are cases known, however, where civil chiefs hold no military command in their companies.' §REF§Hayford, J. E. Casely (Joseph Ephraim Casely) 1970. “Gold Coast Native Institutions With Thoughts Upon A Healthy Imperial Policy For The Gold Coast And Ashanti”, 64§REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Military control was exercised by the <i>Kosmoi</i>, a board of 3 to 10 annually elected nobles -their number varies from 3 to 10- elected by the <i>Ecclesia</i>, the body of free male citizens. §REF§Willetts, R. F. 1965. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 56-75§REF§ §REF§Lembesi, A. 1987. \"Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 166-72.§REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Military control was was exercised by the <i>Kosmoi</i> (<i>Κόσμοι</i>), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the <i>Ecclesia</i> (<i>Εκκλησία</i>), the body of free male citizens. §REF§Willetts, M. A. 1955. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 56-75§REF§ §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 192-203.§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 3-1§REF§Christides, B. <i>The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam</i>, Athens, ...§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Military control was was exercised by the Kosmoi (<i>Κόσμοι</i>), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the Ecclesia (<i>Εκκλησία</i>), the body of free male citizens. §REF§Willetts, R. F. 1965. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 56-75§REF§ §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 196-99.§REF§" }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 1-5 The <i>lawagetas</i> was the supreme military leader. Officers, called <i>hequetai</i> (followers) accompanied military continents. §REF§Shelmerdine, C. W. and Bennet, J. 2008. \"12: Mycenaean states. 12A: Economy and administration,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 292-95.§REF§ §REF§Nikoloudis, S. 2008. \"The role of the ra-wa-ke-ta: insights from PY Un718,\" in Sacconi, A, del Freo, M., Godart, L., and Negri, M. (eds), <i>Colloquium Romanum: Atti del XII Colloquio Internazionale de Micenologia. Roma 20-15 febbraio 2006</i>, vol. 2, Rome, 587-94.§REF§" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " There does not seem to have been a separate military hierarchy, so this estimate is based on a modified version of the administrative hierarchy, in which the kalaimoku is given greater weight because of his role as adviser in times of war.<br>1. Ali'i nui\"At the apex of the polity sat the king, the ali'i nui or 'great ali'i,' [...]. The al'i nui ruled over the entire mokupuni [island], assisted by various administrative aides.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 48)§REF§<br>2. Kalaimoku\"The kālaimoku was charged with advising the king on all secular affairs, including war. Among his chief duties was to oversee the royal storehouses 'in which to collect food, fish, tapa [barkcloth], malo [loincloths], pa-u [female skirts], and all sorts of goods' (Malo 1951:195). Only the kālaimoku had the regular privilege of holding secret meetings with the king, and he controlled the access of other al'i to royal audiences.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 50)§REF§<br>3. Ali'i-'ai-moku\"The districts (moku) into which the kingdom was divided were each under the control of a major chief of high rank, called the ali'i-'ai-moku. The operative term 'ai in this compound term has the core meaning of both 'food' and 'eat' but with metaphoric extensions connoting to 'consume,' 'grasp,' or 'hold onto' (Pukui and Elbert 1986:9). Thus the figurative extension of 'ai includes 'to rule, reign, or enjoy the privileges and exercise the responsibilities of rule.' The term ali'i-'ai-moku might thus be simply translated 'ruler of the moku,' but as in many Hawaiian expressions there are layers of kaona, 'hidden meanings', folded in. He is as well the chief who 'eats' the district (recall the metaphor of the chief as land shark), and literally 'eats from' its productions.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 48)§REF§<br>3. Ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a\"[T]he more numerous ahupua'a territories were apportioned to chiefs who were called the ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a, the chiefs who “ate” the ahupua'a. Low-ranked chiefs might hold just a single, marginal land unit, but more powerful and higher-ranked ali'i frequently held more than one ahupua'a.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 48)§REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(2) Village Headmen and local war leaders; (1) Citizen-Soldiers;<br>When head-taking and piracy were practiced, war parties were staffed with male community members: 'The taking of enemy heads then, was the prescriptive act for Iban males an act through which an individual could win for himself prestige and status within the longhouse community, while at the same time enhancing his desirability as a potential suitor and husband in the eyes of the opposite sex. But, as we have indicated, headhunting also had a ritual dimension which was of the utmost significance. It is the latter aspect which chiefly concerns us here, being to do with Iban conceptions of male and female gender roles and relations of production and reproduction within Iban society.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 157§REF§ War parties were led by local war-leaders or village headmen: 'According to Sea Dayak custom, this feast, the fifth of the nine stages of the gawai burong , should be held only by an experienced war-leader. Linggir was undoubtedly a very brave man, but he was young, and certainly far less experienced than Uyut, his father. Linggir had already made a statue of the hornbill in preparation for his festival when the older people of the house warned him that it would be presumptuous for him to hold the feast while Uyut still lived. They said that such a rash action might anger Sengalang Burong.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict 1967. “Sea Dayaks Of Borneo: Before White Rajah Rule”, 39§REF§ 'Before the gawai diri may be held, the patron of the feast must lead his warriors against some enemy. So Uyut and his men set off to raid the Kantu Dayaks of Merakai, in what is now Indonesian Borneo, in order to get some fresh heads. But before they came back, all the food which had been gathered for the feast, including tuak wine and many different delicacies, began to go bad. So a brother-in-law of Uyut named Malang (Pengarah) decided to go ahead and hold the feast anyway, without the war-leader and his men. No sooner was it over than Uyut and his party returned from a victorious expedition. They were naturally outraged. Uyut and the others expelled Pengarah from the Anyut, and he retreated down river to live in the Serudit stream.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict 1967. “Sea Dayaks Of Borneo: Before White Rajah Rule”, 39§REF§ Head-hunting persisted well into the 20th century: 'The persistence of headhunting as a living tradition, up until at least the Second World War, and even beyond (albeit in a drastically curtailed form), has meant that many of the details connected with the taking of heads are well documented. Moreover, the ritual significance of headhunting, and its attendant ceremonies, continue to play an important role in contemporary Iban society. We have already spoken of headhunting festivals ( gawai amat ) held as celebrations of male prestige and achievement, but the traditional role of the Iban warrior continues to survive elsewhere in Iban culture, most notably in connection with mortuary rites. A visit to a Saribas Iban festival for the dead ( Gawai Antu ), for instance, reveals a more than sufficient number of candidates to drink the sacred wine ( ai' garong ) dedicated to those who have passed away. Previously, only those who had distinguished themselves as headhunters could partake in this sacred symposium with the dead; today the taking of a life - usually when on active service in the Sarawak Field Force - suffices. In this instance, and others of a similar nature, the warrior tradition of Iban society is maintained, and the ritual significance of headhunting preserved, as a major component in the Iban value system.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 169§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(2) local war leaders; (1) Citizen-Soldiers;<br>When head-taking and piracy were practiced, war parties were staffed with male community members: 'The taking of enemy heads then, was the prescriptive act for Iban males an act through which an individual could win for himself prestige and status within the longhouse community, while at the same time enhancing his desirability as a potential suitor and husband in the eyes of the opposite sex. But, as we have indicated, headhunting also had a ritual dimension which was of the utmost significance. It is the latter aspect which chiefly concerns us here, being to do with Iban conceptions of male and female gender roles and relations of production and reproduction within Iban society.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 157§REF§ War parties were led by local war-leaders or village headmen: 'According to Sea Dayak custom, this feast, the fifth of the nine stages of the gawai burong , should be held only by an experienced war-leader. Linggir was undoubtedly a very brave man, but he was young, and certainly far less experienced than Uyut, his father. Linggir had already made a statue of the hornbill in preparation for his festival when the older people of the house warned him that it would be presumptuous for him to hold the feast while Uyut still lived. They said that such a rash action might anger Sengalang Burong.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict 1967. “Sea Dayaks Of Borneo: Before White Rajah Rule”, 39§REF§ 'Before the gawai diri may be held, the patron of the feast must lead his warriors against some enemy. So Uyut and his men set off to raid the Kantu Dayaks of Merakai, in what is now Indonesian Borneo, in order to get some fresh heads. But before they came back, all the food which had been gathered for the feast, including tuak wine and many different delicacies, began to go bad. So a brother-in-law of Uyut named Malang (Pengarah) decided to go ahead and hold the feast anyway, without the war-leader and his men. No sooner was it over than Uyut and his party returned from a victorious expedition. They were naturally outraged. Uyut and the others expelled Pengarah from the Anyut, and he retreated down river to live in the Serudit stream.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict 1967. “Sea Dayaks Of Borneo: Before White Rajah Rule”, 39§REF§ Head-hunting persisted well into the 20th century: 'The persistence of headhunting as a living tradition, up until at least the Second World War, and even beyond (albeit in a drastically curtailed form), has meant that many of the details connected with the taking of heads are well documented. Moreover, the ritual significance of headhunting, and its attendant ceremonies, continue to play an important role in contemporary Iban society. We have already spoken of headhunting festivals ( gawai amat ) held as celebrations of male prestige and achievement, but the traditional role of the Iban warrior continues to survive elsewhere in Iban culture, most notably in connection with mortuary rites. A visit to a Saribas Iban festival for the dead ( Gawai Antu ), for instance, reveals a more than sufficient number of candidates to drink the sacred wine ( ai' garong ) dedicated to those who have passed away. Previously, only those who had distinguished themselves as headhunters could partake in this sacred symposium with the dead; today the taking of a life - usually when on active service in the Sarawak Field Force - suffices. In this instance, and others of a similar nature, the warrior tradition of Iban society is maintained, and the ritual significance of headhunting preserved, as a major component in the Iban value system.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 169§REF§ Some Iban may have joined the civil and military administration early on, but expert feedback is needed on the matter." }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 49, "name": "id_kediri_k", "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom", "start_year": 1049, "end_year": 1222 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br><br>2. General <i>inferred</i><br>3. Officer of higher group?<br>4. Unit leader\"Every unit had a leader and a certain symbol put on its flag. Most symbols used a figure of an animal.\"§REF§(Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)§REF§<br>5. Individual soldier<br>\"Aside from territorial administration, the Kadiri period also saw developments in military organization and mobilization. Troops were divided according to the mastery of different kinds of weapons, such as the club, the arrow, the battle-ax, and the lance, or according to mastery over different serving animals, such as the elephant and the horse.\"§REF§(Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)§REF§" } ] }