Military Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Military Levels.
GET /api/sc/military-levels/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 448, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/military-levels/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/military-levels/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 51, "name": "id_mataram_k", "long_name": "Mataram Sultanate", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1755 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Commander-in-chief; Subcommanders; Noble cavalry; Troops (composed of swordsman, archers and skirmishers). §REF§(Gaukroger and Scott 2009, 134)§REF§ Slaves used as auxiliaries.§REF§(Schrieke 1957, 128)§REF§ Mataram often adopted fighting formations inspired by Indian astrological signs, including a huge crayfish. The feelers represented special troops of amok fighters, the body of the crayfish was the sovereign, preceded by sons and relatives, the commander and ministers, and other numbers represented troops of different nobles and officials.§REF§(Reid 1988, 126)§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Commander-in-chief3. Sub-commander4. Officers?5. Individual soldiers" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": "1. King<br>2. \"Sar haTzava\" (commander of the army)3. \"Shalish\" (captain? deputy?), possibly descended from earlier position \"Nose' Keilim\" (equipment-bearer, attendant)<br>“Only scant references exist concerning the leadership of the Israelite and Judean military. The king was the head of the army. Offices like “captain” (Hebrew, shalish) and “commander” (Hebrew, sar) were important for the army and chariotry, yet the precise nature of these offices and how one achieved them remains uncertain.”§REF§Kelle (2007:44)§REF§ “At times, the rank of shalish designated a personal assistant to the king, but Pekah’s experience as a “captain” was more likely as a member of a group of commanding officers or elite warriors within the military organization. The office shared some of the functions of and perhaps developed out of the older position of the nose’ kelim (“armor-bearer”), which had been prominent in Israel during the early stages of military development before the 9th century.”§REF§Kelle (2007:140)§REF§ (Compare with II Samuel 11:3-9.)4. Commander (\"sar\") of the thousand. (It is difficult to know whether this position was distinct from that of Shalish.)5. Commander of the hundred.6. Commander of the fifty.7. Commander of the ten.<br>“The infantry had units of 1,000, 100, 50, and 10, and may have lived in garrisons in key cities.”§REF§Kelle (2007:71)§REF§ Compare II Kings 1:9.8. Common soldier." }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 267§REF§2. <i>Sandhivigrahika</i> (minister of war and peace) §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 267§REF§3. <i>Mahabaladihktra</i> or <i>mahasandhivigrahika</i>Most likely the chief general, perhaps assigned the duty of assisting the minister of war and peace and/or supervising ten other generals§REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 267§REF§4. Officials supervised by the <i>mahabaladihktra</i> or <i>mahasandhivigrahika</i> §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 267§REF§ - presumably more than one level5. Soldiers §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 267§REF§" }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(2) Village Headman (Nokma) and Lineage Elders or temporary leaders of village clusters; (1) 'Citizen-soldiers';<br>Given the absence of a standing A’chik army, the village headmanship should be taken as the primary institution for ad-hoc, improvised military organization. Male villagers probably acted as war parties under the leadership of a nokma: ‘In the early days, the Garos used to wage many wars. Such an occasion arose once (perhaps the first of such warfare) when people of one village living under a certain Nokma went to work for their hadang (field for cultivation) beyond their area and entered another Nokma’s jurisdiction. This was a cause of conflict, and they started fighting. There were heavy casualties on both sides. Finally, both the parties ran away to their own area. Thus neither party gained or lost any land.’ §REF§Sinha, Tarunchandra 1966. “Psyche Of The Garos”, 65§REF§ The potential role of Zamindars remains to be confirmed (see also above)." }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(2) Village Headman (Nokma) and Lineage Elders or temporary leaders of village clusters; (1) 'Citizen-soldiers';<br>The British colonial structure did not organize an indigenous armed corps for the A’chik population: ‘When the Britishers took over the administration of this district, one witnessed an imposition of hierarchy of new political and administrative units in the district over the traditional democratic village set-up. The British Government, being actuated with the desire to have effective control over the villages and to facilitate the collection of revenues and house tax introduced the office of laskar with limited police, civil and criminal powers. Accordingly there was a laskar over a circle of villages; each having jurisdiction covering ten or twelve of villages. Although, the villagers were left to settle all disputes through the nokma and the village courts, they had right to appeal to the court of laskars against the decisions of the village councils.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 52§REF§ Given the absence of a standing Garo army, the village headmanship should be taken as the primary institution for ad-hoc, improvised military organization: ‘There was a move for retention of the old institution of nokmaship which could not function with authority since the British administration had appointed the laskars and sardars for the smooth running of their administration from 1824 onwards. The nokmas became only the clan chief and custodian of the clan land a’king. The nokma could not administer effectively as he used to do prior to the British administration in the district. The nokmas were supposed to be well versed with their functions and duties in the villages. The British administration enforced the Rules of Administration of Justice in the Garo Hills both Civil and Police in 1937. These rules have been renewed again and again. They are in use till the present day. The head of the district administration was the Deputy Commissioner and his Assistants and it has never been changed.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 170§REF§ During the early colonial period, male villagers probably acted as war parties under the leadership of a nokma: ‘In the early days, the Garos used to wage many wars. Such an occasion arose once (perhaps the first of such warfare) when people of one village living under a certain Nokma went to work for their hadang (field for cultivation) beyond their area and entered another Nokma’s jurisdiction. This was a cause of conflict, and they started fighting. There were heavy casualties on both sides. Finally, both the parties ran away to their own area. Thus neither party gained or lost any land.’ §REF§Sinha, Tarunchandra 1966. “Psyche Of The Garos”, 65§REF§ The code is provisional and does not reflect the presence of British colonial forces, as more information on their organizaton is still needed." }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "in_gupta_emp", "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>2. Sandhivigrahika (minister of war and peace)§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 173) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§<br>3. Mahabaladhikrta§REF§(Higham 2004, 121) Charles Higham. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations</i>. New York: Facts on File.§REF§<br>4. Mahadandanayaka§REF§(Higham 2004, 121) Charles Higham. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations</i>. New York: Facts on File.§REF§<br>5. Senapati§REF§(Higham 2004, 121) Charles Higham. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations</i>. New York: Facts on File.§REF§" }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Professional military§REF§J. Duncan M. Derrett, The Hoysalas (1957), p. 105§REF§ was present and would likely have taken at least this form (minimum)<br>1. King<br>2. General3. Officer/s4. Individual soldier" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 417, "name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn", "long_name": "Kannauj - Varman Dynasty", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 780 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>2. Chief of the army3. Head of cavalry<br>3. Head of elephantry<br>3. Head of infantry <i>inferred</i>4. Other officers <i>inferred</i>5. Other officers <i>inferred</i>6. Individual soldier<br>Chief of the army: camupati, senapati, mahadandanayaka.§REF§(Mishra 1977, 149) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ Head of cavalry: mahasvapati. Head of elephantry: mahapilupati.§REF§(Mishra 1977, 150) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ \"Other military officers are not referred to in our records.\"§REF§(Mishra 1977, 150) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "\"Noteworthy was the decimal chain of command, the grouping of soldiers in tens, hundreds, and thousands, up to an army division of 10,000 men (Mongolian tümän, Pers. tūmān), which was to have an enduring impact on the military organization of succeeding eastern Islamic powers, being adopted by, e.g., the Mughals in India.\"§REF§(Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii§REF§<br>Decimal: 1, 10s, 100s, 1000s, 10000s, Emperor = 6<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Bakhshi (Adjutant-General). Bakhshi-titles were given to those with administrative duties, the Adjutant-General commanded the army in the Emperor's absence.3. Mir Bakhshi4. Other Bakhshi (such as Bakhshi-i-tan)5. Officer.Mansabdars were also chiefs and leaders, ranked based on the number of men they recruited, the mansab rank was further divided into zat and suwar, where zat referred to foot-soldiers and suwar to horsemen. §REF§Shreya Acharya, Short Essay on the Mansabdari System of Akbar, <a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.preservearticles.com/2011103016235/short-essay-on-the-mansabdari-system-of-akbar.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">Link</a>§REF§<br>6. Soldier." }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor<br>NOTE: Could not find source that explicitly stated that the Emperor was head of the army, but it seems likely, based on analogy with preceding and succeeding polities, e.g. the Chalukyas §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 267§REF§.<br>2. <i>Dandanayaka</i> or <i>Mahadandanayaka</i> §REF§N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116§REF§3. Subordinate officers to the <i>Dandanayaka</i> or <i>Mahadandanayaka</i> §REF§N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116§REF§4. Subordinate officers to the subordinates to the <i>Dandanayaka</i> or <i>Mahadandanayaka</i> §REF§N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116§REF§ - presumably more than one level5. SoldiersThe bulk of the Rashtrakuta army was made up infantry, cavalry, and elephants §REF§N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>The rulers of Vijayanagara had a carefully organized military department, called Kandachara:<br>1. King<br>2. Commander-in-ChiefThe military was under the control of the Dandanayaka or Nannayaka (Commander-in-Chief)§REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 376§REF§<br>3. Staff of minor officials -- same level is generals? are these the generals?The Commander-in-Chief was assisted by a staff of minor officials§REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 376§REF§.<br>3. Generals <i>inferred</i>4. Officers <i> inferred</i> -- more than one level?5. Individual soldierThe lowest level of the military was a soldier§REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 376§REF§§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 70§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "1. Amir al-mu' minin (official title of the Caliph)<br>2. Amir (commander or governor of a province or army)<br>3. Qa-id (military officer)<br>4. Arif (leader of a militay unit of ten to fifteen soldiers)<br>5. Muquatila(Muslim soldiers paid a salary); Malwa(rank and file Turkish soldier)<br>6. Arrarun (irregular volunteers) §REF§Kennedy, The Armies of the Caliphate pp. 209-210§REF§<br>The above estimate is an oversimplification. The Shurta (police) and the Haras (guards) were responsible for the securing the capital and the security of the Caliph. §REF§Kennedy, Hugh N. The Court of the Caliphs,(London, 2004) p.49§REF§ In the earlier period the Caliphate relied on the service of Arab tribes from Arabia. As the empire expanded this system changed to a professional standing army paid for in cash. Given the fractured nature of the military structure this ranking system is not fully representative. By 833 CE, two totally separate military establishments existed under the caliphs. Shakiriya were entire tribal groups serving under their chiefs, and the second were Ghilman, slave soldiers serving in regiments. Each of these had separate hierarchies. Each of these also their own internal structures with soldiers recruited from Syria using older Byzantine ranks, whereas mercenary tribes recruited from North Africa or Central Asia served under their clan leaders. There were also differences depending of where the individuals were serving. Permanent garrisons differed from temporary soldiers used for a campaign. From 833 CE, Turkic tribesmen became increasingly integral to the military of the Caliphate. By 936 CE, the Caliph lost even the pretext of military authority. §REF§Kennedy, Armies of the Caliphs pp. 118-147§REF§" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Based on data for preceding polities at least 5 levels." }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 478, "name": "iq_isin_larsa", "long_name": "Isin-Larsa", "start_year": -2004, "end_year": -1763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Copied from IqUrIII.<br>1. Ruler2. <i>Shagina</i> (generals)3. <i>Nu-banda</i> (higher officers)4. <i>Ugula gešda</i> (officers commanding 60 soldiers)5. <i>šeš-gal-nam</i> (officers commanding 10 soldiers)6. <i>Erin</i> (soldiers)§REF§Hamlin 2006, 114§REF§§REF§Rutkowski 2007, 18§REF§<br>Worth noting that the <i>sukkal-mah</i> (vizier) might have played important role during the war as well.§REF§Lafont 2009, 14§REF§" }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§Hamlin 2006, 114§REF§§REF§Rutkowski 2007, 18§REF§<br>1. Ruler2. <i>Shagina</i> (generals)3. <i>Nu-banda</i> (higher officers)4. <i>Ugula gešda</i> (officers commanding 60 soldiers)5. <i>šeš-gal-nam</i> (officers commanding 10 soldiers)6. <i>Erin</i> (soldiers)§REF§Hamlin 2006, 114§REF§§REF§Rutkowski 2007, 18§REF§<br>Worth noting that the <i>sukkal-mah</i> (vizier) might have played important role during the war as well.§REF§Lafont 2009, 14§REF§" }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 7, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "Decimal system. §REF§(Carey, Allfree and Cairns 2006, 34)§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. General3. myriad (10 hazaraba)4. hazaraba (1000 men)5. sataba (100 men)6. dathaba (10 men)7. Individual soldier<br>Supreme Commander of the spāda. Baivarapati of the Corps. Hazārapati of the division. θatapati of the battalion. Daθapati of the company. §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/hakhamaneshian/achaemenid_army.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">[13]</a>§REF§<br>Top position in the army was the commander of the royal guards, the hazārapati or chiliarch. Reputed to be second in power only to the king, this position may have functioned as a prime minister but little evidence supports this idea.§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[14]</a>)§REF§<br>In Egypt \"Garrison commanders were usually Persian, but the garrison commander of the Hermopolite nome during the fifteenth year of Darius' reign was Egyptian.\"§REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17)§REF§" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"On parade, the Aq Qoyunlu Turkman troops were drawn up in the Turco-Mongol fashion of right wing, left wing, and center (sag wa sol wa manqalay).\"§REF§(Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii§REF§ Does this suggest, also like the Mongols, they used the decimal chain-of-command?<br>1. Sultan<br><br>2. Chief of Personal Guard (kawass) <i>inferred</i>\"the sultan maintained a force of paid personal guards (ḵawāṣṣ) who were recruited from several different nomadic and semi-nomadic groups.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Soldier in Personal Guard<br>2. amīr-e noʾīn (commander) 10,000s?The top commanders were called amīr-e noʾīn (Mongolian noyan “master, lord”),<br>3. 1,000s?\"one group of the rank-and-file was called nowkars (Mongolian nökär “companion”)\"§REF§(Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii§REF§<br>4. 100s?\"the term for smaller, component units of the army (in the Timurid army, for a mere company of 50 to 100 men) was qošūn (Mongolian k/qošiḡun)\"§REF§(Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii§REF§<br>5. 10s?<br>6. Soldier" }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 487, "name": "ir_susiana_archaic", "long_name": "Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels." }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"Elam was a worthy rival of the Akkadian empire.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 135) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ We have coded 5-6 levels for the Akkadian Empire so will use a large range to code this period.<br>Four-wheeled chariot in burial at Susa.§REF§(Potts 2016, 89) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ This might suggest a reasonable degree of military organization.<br>Earlier Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE \"monopoly of defence forces to protect internal cohesion. The wealth and technical knowledge accumulated in cities had to be defended against foreign attacks, both from other city-states and other enemies (for instance, nomadic tribes). This defence system then turned into an offensive tactic. ... Instrumental for these kinds of activities was the creation of an army, which was divided into two groups. One group was made of full-time workers, specialised in military activities (although this remains purely hypothetical for the Uruk period). In case of war, an army was assembled through military conscription, and was supported by mandatory provisions of military supplies.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Liverani notes of earlier Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution therefore led to the formation of the Early State, not just in its decisional function, which already existed in pre-urban communities, but in the fullest sense of the term. The latter is to be understood as an organisation that solidly controls and defends a given territory (and its many communities) and manages the exploitation of resources to ensure and develop the survival of its population.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 8, "military_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": " levels.The army that the Buyid Dynasty controlled was comprised of two parts: the Dailamite infantry, of which the Buyid's were the original leaders of a force of less than one hundred men, and the Turkish cavalry. They operated their own military systems and hierarchies. In charge of them all was the Amir, protected by his own personal bodyguards, the palace retainers. The Dailamite system provides the greatest number of military levels which is the value coded. There is also documentation of another system of levels, which are thought to be the levels of development of slaves in the military. §REF§Donohue, J. J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq 334H./945 to 403H./1012: Shaping Institutions for the Future. Leiden: Brill. p.196-7§REF§<br>1. amir<br>_Dailamite infantry_<br>2. commander-in-chief,3. commander4. chief sergeant5. sergeant6. upper grade7. middle grade8. lower grade<br>Turkish cavalry: chief chamberlain, chamberlain, commander, sergeant, retainer<br>Slave training system?: chief of stables, equerry, chief messenger, procession leader, groom, cup bearer, shield bearer, stirrup holders<br>\"The Buyid wazirs did not confine themselves to purely administrative functions. They advised on, and sometimes decided, policy and in some cases they commanded armies in their own right. The distinction between the civil and military administration which is apparent in the later phases of Abbasid government had largely disappeared.\"§REF§(Kennedy 2004, 222) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§" }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Noteworthy was the decimal chain of command, the grouping of soldiers in tens, hundreds, and thousands, up to an army division of 10,000 men (Mongolian tümän, Pers. tūmān), which was to have an enduring impact on the military organization of succeeding eastern Islamic powers, being adopted by, e.g., the Mughals in India.\"§REF§(Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii§REF§<br>1. Khan.<br>The military retinue, governors, warriors holding <i>iqtas</i> and the tribes all owed military obligations to the Khan. §REF§Fodor, Pal. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. P.193; Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp.555, 557.§REF§<br>2. Military retinue.Like the Seljuks and the Ottomans, the Khans had “a group of armed, mainly free men (the majority of them foreigners), who served on a voluntary basis and were attached personally to the leader. They were his closet companions, friends and servants; they commanded the troops in wars, while a select group of them served as his bodyguard. Their livelihood was secured by their masters, predominantly from the booty acquired during incursions and wars. The strength of these retinues ranged from a few dozen to 3,000 men. When the founders of the new states began to transform their personal might into territorial power, they relied heavily on their military retinues, delegating them to and settling them on the territories they controlled. In this Gefolgschaft-type of state, it is the military retinue to which the origins of the formal institutions of power can be traced back.” §REF§Fodor, Pal. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. P.193.§REF§<br>2. Chief hajeb or espahsalar (commander) (10,000s?)\"For all these dynasties—whose administrative infrastructures tended in any case to be derived from, or at least strongly influenced by, those of the ʿAbbasid Caliphate ... The commander-in-chief of the actual troops was normally a Turk, and held the title of “chief ḥāǰeb” (ḥāǰeb-e bozorg, ḥāǰeb al-ḥoǰǰāb, etc.) or espahsālār, lesser commanders having the unqualified title of ḥāǰeb.\"§REF§(Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii§REF§<br>3. hajeb (lesser commander) (1,000s?)<br>4. intermediate officer (100s?) <i>inferred</i><br>5. iqta holders (10s?)Warriors holding iqtas. §REF§Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp.555, 557.§REF§<br>6. Soldiers- those men who had to fight through tribal obligations or recruited locally.§REF§Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp.555, 557.§REF§" }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 488, "name": "ir_susiana_a", "long_name": "Susiana A", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels." }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 489, "name": "ir_susiana_b", "long_name": "Susiana B", "start_year": -5700, "end_year": -5100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels." }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 491, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_2", "long_name": "Susiana - Late Ubaid", "start_year": -4700, "end_year": -4300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from discussion of military organization during this period" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 490, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_1", "long_name": "Susiana - Early Ubaid", "start_year": -5100, "end_year": -4700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels." }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from similarity in military organization with otehr poilities from the region during this period<br>" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "ir_elam_6", "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>No data. Given the administrative complexity a range of [3-6] should cover most possibilities." }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"Durante el transcurso del siglo XII a.c., Elam pasará nuevamente al primer plano internacional como la mayor potencia militar del Próximo Oriente.\"§REF§(Quintana 2007, 57)§REF§ During the 12th century BCE, Elam rose to prominence as the strongest military faction in the Near East." }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 503, "name": "ir_neo_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam I", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. In the Neo-Elamite 2 period, there were 4 levels:<br>§REF§Brinkman, J. A. 1986. The Elamite-Babylonian frontier in the Neo-Elamite Period, 750-625 BC. In DeMeyer, Gasche and Vallat (eds.) Fragmenta Historia Elamica, Festschrift, p199-207§REF§<br>1. General<br>2. 'tashlishu-official'3. Commanders4. Individual Soldiers (predominantly bowmen)" }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 504, "name": "ir_neo_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam II", "start_year": -743, "end_year": -647 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§Brinkman, J. A. 1986. The Elamite-Babylonian frontier in the Neo-Elamite Period, 750-625 BC. In DeMeyer, Gasche and Vallat (eds.) Fragmenta Historia Elamica, Festschrift, p199-207§REF§<br>1. General<br>2. 'tashlishu-official'3. Commanders4. Individual Soldiers (predominantly bowmen)" }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>This hierarchy is for the Qizilbish army. How many levels in the Georgian/Caucasian corps (ghulam or qullar corps) created by Abbas I?§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§<br>1. Shah<br>2 qurchibashi chief of royal guard or mounted cavalry§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§<br>2. amir al-umara (commander-in-chief) of Qizilbash forces§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§ Amir al-omard (commander in chief of the army, which later titled Sepdhsdldr-e koll-e lasgar-e Iran).§REF§Mousavi, Mohammad A. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2008):23-24 doi:10.2307/25597352.§REF§He \"had extensive influence over the Shah on military issues. He was responsible for the well being of the army, employment of personnel, support and ammunitions, and superintendent of the royal military workshops (boyutdt).\" §REF§Mousavi, Mohammad A. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2008):23-24 doi:10.2307/25597352.§REF§<br>3. Military governors/tribal chiefsthe Ustajlu and Shamlu tribes provided most of the commanders-in-chief. Other tribes in the Qizilbash confederation were the Rumlu, Dhul-Qadr and Takkalu.§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§<br>4. Officers of 1000e.g. The tribal corps were organised into groups of a thousand with a chief appointed to lead them. Each group of royal archers had a centurion in command of them. §REF§M. Haneda 'ARMY iii. Safavid Period' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-iii</a>§REF§<br>5. Officers of 100?<br>6. Officers of 10?<br>6 or 7. Individual soldiers" }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 7, "military_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": "Like the Achaemenids, the Sasanids likely used the decimal system to organize the Spah (army). The title Hazarmard/Hazarbad means \"chief of a thousand.\" §REF§(Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Farrokh, Kevah. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>Khusrau I (later Sassanid period) changed the command structure. \"Previously the entire army had been under the command of an officer known as the spahbad. Now, four commanders were appointed, each in charge of the troops of one-quarter of the country. Each of these newly created commanders had a deputy called a marzban.\"§REF§(Chegini 1996, 57) Chegini, N. N. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Great commander (Vuzurg-Framander. Managed state affairs whilst monarch on military expedition).3. Commander-in-Chief (Eran-Spahbad, also an Andarzbad, Counsel to King).4. Spah (lead by a Spahbad, army general)Padgospan (his assistant)<br>Padan (his officers)<br>5. Gund (large regular division, lead by Gund-Salar)<br>5 or 6?. Immortals (10,000, commanded by a Varthragh-Nighan Khuadhay)6. Drafsh (known to be a unit of 1,000 soldiers) - Is this the level of the Framandar, battlefield commander?<br>6. Royal Guard (1,000, commanded by a Pushtighban-Salar)7. Vasht (small company)(8. Unit of 10 soldiers?)9. Individual soldier<br>Other units:§REF§(Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Farrokh, Kevah. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>Saravan (Commanded by an Aspbad and a Sadar)" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 7, "military_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": " Like the Achaemenids, the Sasanids likely used the decimal system to organize the Spah (army). The title Hazarmard/Hazarbad means \"chief of a thousand.\"<br>The reforms of Khosrau I removed the Commander-in-Chief (Eran-Spahbad) and divided the empire into four regions, each under the control of a regional field marshal (Spahbads).§REF§(Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Farrokh, Kevah. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing.§REF§ Khusrau I (later Sassanid period) changed the command structure. \"Previously the entire army had been under the command of an officer known as the spahbad. Now, four commanders were appointed, each in charge of the troops of one-quarter of the country. Each of these newly created commanders had a deputy called a marzban.\"§REF§(Chegini 1996, 57) Chegini, N. N. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Royal Guard (1,000, commanded by a Pushtighban-Salar)<br>2. Great commander (Vuzurg-Framander. Managed state affairs whilst monarch on military expedition).<br>2. Four regional Spahbads (field marshals)3. Marzban4. Gund (large regular division, lead by Gund-Salar, a general) - Marzban is another term for a general who took orders from a Spahbad5. Immortals (10,000, commanded by a Varthragh-Nighan Khuadhay)6. Drafsh (known to be a unit of 1,000 soldiers) - Is this the level of the Framandar, battlefield commander?7. Vasht (small company)(8. Unit of 10 soldiers?)9. Individual soldier<br>Other units:§REF§(Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Farrokh, Kevah. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>Saravan (Commanded by an Aspbad and a Sadar)" }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "The military levels provided here are an outline of the Seleucid army. There were many other titles and subsets of command within the army, different provinces and over time which are discussed by Bar-Kochva. §REF§Bar-Kochva, B. 1976. The Seleucid Army: Organization and Tactics in the Great Campaigns. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p85-93.§REF§<br>1. King<br>- the king often took command of the storm troops (mainly cavalry) in campaign battles, or commanded from behind the front lines with other groups of troops. §REF§Bar-Kochva, B. 1976. The Seleucid Army: Organization and Tactics in the Great Campaigns. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p85.§REF§<br>2. <i>strategoi</i>- the senior commanders of the army. §REF§Bar-Kochva, B. 1976. The Seleucid Army: Organization and Tactics in the Great Campaigns. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p92.§REF§<br>3. <i>hipparchoi</i>- the officers of the cavalry and infantry of the army.§REF§Bar-Kochva, B. 1976. The Seleucid Army: Organization and Tactics in the Great Campaigns. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p92.§REF§<br>4. <i>hegemones</i>5. and soldiers- the rank and file soldiers of the army.§REF§Bar-Kochva, B. 1976. The Seleucid Army: Organization and Tactics in the Great Campaigns. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p92.§REF§" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 496, "name": "ir_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period", "start_year": -2028, "end_year": -1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred that military organization would be roughly similar to that of the Akkadian Empire for which we have data." }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred that military organization would be roughly similar to that of the Akkadian Empire for which we have data.<br>'Shuruhtuh raised an army of 12,000 as contribution to coalition with Assyria, Eshnunna and perhaps Turukkeans (of the Zagros) versus the Guti.§REF§(Potts 2016, 156-157) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 498, "name": "ir_elam_4", "long_name": "Elam - Late Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred that military organization would be roughly similar to that of the Akkadian Empire for which we have data.<br>" }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 492, "name": "ir_susa_1", "long_name": "Susa I", "start_year": -4300, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>If there is possibility of a hierarchy for religion in this period than must also be possibility of military heirarchy.<br>First real army in Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE: \"Instrumental for these kinds of activities was the creation of an army, which was divided into two groups. One group was made of full-time workers, specialised in military activities (although this remains purely hypothetical for the Uruk period). In case of war, an army was assembled through military conscription, and was supported by mandatory provisions of military supplies.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE \"monopoly of defence forces to protect internal cohesion. The wealth and technical knowledge accumulated in cities had to be defended against foreign attacks, both from other city-states and other enemies (for instance, nomadic tribes). This defence system then turned into an offensive tactic. ... Instrumental for these kinds of activities was the creation of an army, which was divided into two groups. One group was made of full-time workers, specialised in military activities (although this remains purely hypothetical for the Uruk period). In case of war, an army was assembled through military conscription, and was supported by mandatory provisions of military supplies.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Liverani notes that in Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution therefore led to the formation of the Early State, not just in its decisional function, which already existed in pre-urban communities, but in the fullest sense of the term. The latter is to be understood as an organisation that solidly controls and defends a given territory (and its many communities) and manages the exploitation of resources to ensure and develop the survival of its population.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 494, "name": "ir_susa_3", "long_name": "Susa III", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2675 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE \"monopoly of defence forces to protect internal cohesion. The wealth and technical knowledge accumulated in cities had to be defended against foreign attacks, both from other city-states and other enemies (for instance, nomadic tribes). This defence system then turned into an offensive tactic. ... Instrumental for these kinds of activities was the creation of an army, which was divided into two groups. One group was made of full-time workers, specialised in military activities (although this remains purely hypothetical for the Uruk period). In case of war, an army was assembled through military conscription, and was supported by mandatory provisions of military supplies.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Liverani notes of previous Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution therefore led to the formation of the Early State, not just in its decisional function, which already existed in pre-urban communities, but in the fullest sense of the term. The latter is to be understood as an organisation that solidly controls and defends a given territory (and its many communities) and manages the exploitation of resources to ensure and develop the survival of its population.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": 930, "year_to": 1200, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(3) Chieftains; (2) Lieutenants; (1) Freemen and Armed Followers of Chiefs<br>'As there was no central government there was also no central army during the Icelandic Commonwealth. The chieftains (and sometimes the greater farmers) called up the free population on an ad hoc basis. Three levels are attested for the late Commonwealth. We have clear evidence of 13th century warlords commissioning lieutenants that commanded groups of retainers or units of conscripted warrior-farmers.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ Some Icelanders joined foreign armies abroad: 'Isolated in the North Atlantic, Iceland had few external conflicts. Individual Icelanders were occasionally involved in conflict when outside the country and also sometimes served in foreign militaries. During the late tenth century, the Norwegian king was a champion of the Christian movement in Iceland and often attempted to assert his influence, although this was largely limited to Icelanders in Norway. Likewise, the ultimately successful attempts to incorporate Iceland under the Norwegian monarchy were mostly played out through alliances with individual Icelanders.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ Chieftains relied on an entourage of armed followers: 'Those who had access to sufficient resources to support a household were the tax paying farmers. Each of them had to be a follower of a chieftain from his own quarter, and only the tax paying farmers could make the decision as to which he would follow. All of his dependents - tenants and renters - went with him. However they got it, chieftains were dependent on farmers for support - to feed their increasingly large personal followings or armies, to support them at assemblies, and to accompany them on raids on other chieftains or their followers. As we have seen, without such support, without the ability to mass force, claims to ownership of land, which defined the class system as well as the forms of appropriation, had no force. Farmers had to rely on some chieftain to be able to defend their claims to property, though, as we have seen, this might often lead to the loss of the property. Chieftains had to rely on farmers to enforce their followers' claims and their own, as well as to expand their territories into others'.' §REF§Durrenberger, E. Paul 1988. “Stratification Without A State: The Collapse Of The Icelandic Commonwealth\", 256§REF§ Armed supporters were required to enforce legal and political claims: 'Claims of inheritance were only worth as much as the armed support behind them. This follows from the fact that claims to ownership, property, were only worth as much as the armed support behind them. This meant that to assert any claim to ownership, whether by inheritance or any other means, one had to back the claim with armed force. Chieftains were focal points for concentrating force to protect and to forward claims to property.' §REF§Durrenberger, Paul E. 1988. “Stratification Without A State: The Collapse Of The Icelandic Commonwealth\", 258§REF§ 'In Commonwealth Iceland there was a system of extraction based on claims to ownership of property, on concepts of the unproblematic [Page 161] differential access to resources in favour of a chieftainly class. The chieftains were unwilling to subordinate themselves to state institutions to protect their privileged positions. The consequence was stratification without a state, the contradiction of an economic system based on property relationships without a congruent institutional system to enforce them. Ownership was as sound as the force one could muster to defend it. There was a complex system of law, but it was all just so much labyrinthine rhetoric in the face of the stark reality that power decided. As slavery diminished, claimants to land enlarged their holdings by using wage labour and tenancy arrangements to work them. To support their claims, they had to increase their power by enlarging their entourages.' §REF§Durrenberger, E. Paul, Dorothy Durrenberger, and Ástráður Eysteinsson 1988. “Economic Representation And Narrative Structure In Hœnsa-Þóris Saga”, 160§REF§ Chieftains also relied on farmers willing to support them economically and militarily: 'Relations between chieftains and farmers were not, however, smooth. Chieftains had their “own” estates to support their establishments, and some maintained followings of armed men, but this was a difficult proposition, since it added consumers to the household without adding production. The chieftains had to rely on their following of farmers to support them with both arms and supplies. This was one component of any farmer's household fund, his “rent” so to speak, his expenditures for travel and support for his chieftain, without which his chieftain or another would take his land and livestock. In addition, expeditions took labor from the farm and put the farmer's life at risk. Even so, a farmer's claims to land were not secure, since his chieftain might abandon him, another more powerful chieftain might claim his land, or simply take it, or a farmer might lose his land in a re-alignment of alliances among chieftains, which were frequent.' §REF§Durrenberger, Paul E. 1988. “Stratification Without A State: The Collapse Of The Icelandic Commonwealth\", 258§REF§ The interests of chieftains and farmers were often in conflict: 'There was a basic conflict between chieftains' increasing demands for demonstrations of force in support of claims to ownership and the subsistence demands, the economic roles, of farmers. Chieftains were not beyond using coercion to insure support as the following incident relates. [...] In spite of this contradiction, farmers had to rely on some chieftain in order to maintain their claims to land. While the inheritance customs codified in Grágás seem quite orderly in Hastrup's (1985) analysis, inheritance of land is often hotly disputed in the Saga of the Icelanders. One who wanted another's land could often find a third party with some inheritance claim, and acquire the claim on which to base a legitimation for taking the land.' §REF§Durrenberger, E. Paul 1988. “Stratification Without A State: The Collapse Of The Icelandic Commonwealth”, 256§REF§ Competition between chieftains was a major source of internal strife before the onset of the Norwegian period: 'It may be tempting to regard the Icelandic Commonwealth as a permanent structure, for, after all, it seems to be sealed in the poorly-dated or undated ‘ethnographic present’ of the sagas. But any social system is necessarily a product of history, representing a particular moment in time. We know for sure that the Commonwealth underwent important changes before it eventually ‘collapsed.’ Not only was there important ecological and demographic change and, as a result, mounting pressure on land (Gelsinger 1981; McGovern et al. 1988), access to resources was increasingly determined by the political manoeuvres and battles of competing goðar. According to the near contemporary Sturlunga saga, the battles between contesting leaders involved an ever larger number of men-no less than two thousand fought in the biggest one, at Örlygsstaðir in year 1238. To increase the number of followers, each goði had to maximize his fund of power at the cost of competitors. Feasts and gifts, a measure of the generosity of the goði, and the display of imported luxury goods, must have been an additional burden to the household, at a time of economic decline. One saga describes a large wedding feast extending through a whole week (SS 3, ch. 17:22). The only way to meet the costs involved was to collect taxes, hire additional labor, and seek further support from followers. With the Tithe Law, the tax law enacted in 1096, the ownership of churches became an important source of wealth and power. Furthermore, slavery seems to have disappeared early (see Karras, ch. 17), probably because recruiting freemen who had insufficient land was less costly than maintaining slaves. This meant that soon there was a reserve of labor; on one occasion, in 1208, a group of more than 300 unemployed people, many of whom were strong and healthy, followed a travelling bishop in the hope of some sustenance (see G. Karlsson 1975:27).' §REF§Pálsson, Gísli 1992. “Introduction: Text, Life, And Saga”, 15§REF§" }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": 1201, "year_to": 1262, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(3) Chieftains; (2) Lieutenants; (1) Freemen and Armed Followers of Chiefs<br>'As there was no central government there was also no central army during the Icelandic Commonwealth. The chieftains (and sometimes the greater farmers) called up the free population on an ad hoc basis. Three levels are attested for the late Commonwealth. We have clear evidence of 13th century warlords commissioning lieutenants that commanded groups of retainers or units of conscripted warrior-farmers.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ Some Icelanders joined foreign armies abroad: 'Isolated in the North Atlantic, Iceland had few external conflicts. Individual Icelanders were occasionally involved in conflict when outside the country and also sometimes served in foreign militaries. During the late tenth century, the Norwegian king was a champion of the Christian movement in Iceland and often attempted to assert his influence, although this was largely limited to Icelanders in Norway. Likewise, the ultimately successful attempts to incorporate Iceland under the Norwegian monarchy were mostly played out through alliances with individual Icelanders.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ Chieftains relied on an entourage of armed followers: 'Those who had access to sufficient resources to support a household were the tax paying farmers. Each of them had to be a follower of a chieftain from his own quarter, and only the tax paying farmers could make the decision as to which he would follow. All of his dependents - tenants and renters - went with him. However they got it, chieftains were dependent on farmers for support - to feed their increasingly large personal followings or armies, to support them at assemblies, and to accompany them on raids on other chieftains or their followers. As we have seen, without such support, without the ability to mass force, claims to ownership of land, which defined the class system as well as the forms of appropriation, had no force. Farmers had to rely on some chieftain to be able to defend their claims to property, though, as we have seen, this might often lead to the loss of the property. Chieftains had to rely on farmers to enforce their followers' claims and their own, as well as to expand their territories into others'.' §REF§Durrenberger, E. Paul 1988. “Stratification Without A State: The Collapse Of The Icelandic Commonwealth\", 256§REF§ Armed supporters were required to enforce legal and political claims: 'Claims of inheritance were only worth as much as the armed support behind them. This follows from the fact that claims to ownership, property, were only worth as much as the armed support behind them. This meant that to assert any claim to ownership, whether by inheritance or any other means, one had to back the claim with armed force. Chieftains were focal points for concentrating force to protect and to forward claims to property.' §REF§Durrenberger, Paul E. 1988. “Stratification Without A State: The Collapse Of The Icelandic Commonwealth\", 258§REF§ 'In Commonwealth Iceland there was a system of extraction based on claims to ownership of property, on concepts of the unproblematic [Page 161] differential access to resources in favour of a chieftainly class. The chieftains were unwilling to subordinate themselves to state institutions to protect their privileged positions. The consequence was stratification without a state, the contradiction of an economic system based on property relationships without a congruent institutional system to enforce them. Ownership was as sound as the force one could muster to defend it. There was a complex system of law, but it was all just so much labyrinthine rhetoric in the face of the stark reality that power decided. As slavery diminished, claimants to land enlarged their holdings by using wage labour and tenancy arrangements to work them. To support their claims, they had to increase their power by enlarging their entourages.' §REF§Durrenberger, E. Paul, Dorothy Durrenberger, and Ástráður Eysteinsson 1988. “Economic Representation And Narrative Structure In Hœnsa-Þóris Saga”, 160§REF§ Chieftains also relied on farmers willing to support them economically and militarily: 'Relations between chieftains and farmers were not, however, smooth. Chieftains had their “own” estates to support their establishments, and some maintained followings of armed men, but this was a difficult proposition, since it added consumers to the household without adding production. The chieftains had to rely on their following of farmers to support them with both arms and supplies. This was one component of any farmer's household fund, his “rent” so to speak, his expenditures for travel and support for his chieftain, without which his chieftain or another would take his land and livestock. In addition, expeditions took labor from the farm and put the farmer's life at risk. Even so, a farmer's claims to land were not secure, since his chieftain might abandon him, another more powerful chieftain might claim his land, or simply take it, or a farmer might lose his land in a re-alignment of alliances among chieftains, which were frequent.' §REF§Durrenberger, Paul E. 1988. “Stratification Without A State: The Collapse Of The Icelandic Commonwealth\", 258§REF§ The interests of chieftains and farmers were often in conflict: 'There was a basic conflict between chieftains' increasing demands for demonstrations of force in support of claims to ownership and the subsistence demands, the economic roles, of farmers. Chieftains were not beyond using coercion to insure support as the following incident relates. [...] In spite of this contradiction, farmers had to rely on some chieftain in order to maintain their claims to land. While the inheritance customs codified in Grágás seem quite orderly in Hastrup's (1985) analysis, inheritance of land is often hotly disputed in the Saga of the Icelanders. One who wanted another's land could often find a third party with some inheritance claim, and acquire the claim on which to base a legitimation for taking the land.' §REF§Durrenberger, E. Paul 1988. “Stratification Without A State: The Collapse Of The Icelandic Commonwealth”, 256§REF§ Competition between chieftains was a major source of internal strife before the onset of the Norwegian period: 'It may be tempting to regard the Icelandic Commonwealth as a permanent structure, for, after all, it seems to be sealed in the poorly-dated or undated ‘ethnographic present’ of the sagas. But any social system is necessarily a product of history, representing a particular moment in time. We know for sure that the Commonwealth underwent important changes before it eventually ‘collapsed.’ Not only was there important ecological and demographic change and, as a result, mounting pressure on land (Gelsinger 1981; McGovern et al. 1988), access to resources was increasingly determined by the political manoeuvres and battles of competing goðar. According to the near contemporary Sturlunga saga, the battles between contesting leaders involved an ever larger number of men-no less than two thousand fought in the biggest one, at Örlygsstaðir in year 1238. To increase the number of followers, each goði had to maximize his fund of power at the cost of competitors. Feasts and gifts, a measure of the generosity of the goði, and the display of imported luxury goods, must have been an additional burden to the household, at a time of economic decline. One saga describes a large wedding feast extending through a whole week (SS 3, ch. 17:22). The only way to meet the costs involved was to collect taxes, hire additional labor, and seek further support from followers. With the Tithe Law, the tax law enacted in 1096, the ownership of churches became an important source of wealth and power. Furthermore, slavery seems to have disappeared early (see Karras, ch. 17), probably because recruiting freemen who had insufficient land was less costly than maintaining slaves. This meant that soon there was a reserve of labor; on one occasion, in 1208, a group of more than 300 unemployed people, many of whom were strong and healthy, followed a travelling bishop in the hope of some sustenance (see G. Karlsson 1975:27).' §REF§Pálsson, Gísli 1992. “Introduction: Text, Life, And Saga”, 15§REF§" }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 179, "name": "it_latium_ba", "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"There are very few signs of status differentiation amongst the few burials known. Most settlements were simple collections of huts with no evidence for internal differentiation in architecture or material culture than might suggest clear-cut divisions in society.\" §REF§G. Barker, Mediterranean Valley (1995), p. 156§REF§" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 178, "name": "it_latium_ca", "long_name": "Latium - Copper Age", "start_year": -3600, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. probably unknown<br>Some evidence for incipient emergence of hierarchy, suggested by burials rich in weapons, but the sources do not attempt to sketch a possible military hierarchy §REF§R. Whitehouse, Underground Religion (1992), p. 21§REF§, probably because the evidence is insufficient." }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 180, "name": "it_latium_ia", "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>A restricted group of individuals were cremated, instead of inhumed, and their urns were accompanied by vessels containing, among other things, weapons, suggesting that these males were warriors of some kind §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), pp. 51-53§REF§. However, there is no indication of differences, among these warriors, in terms of rank." }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "\"The population of Italy was divided into two societies with distinct public functions: the Goths served the state as its soldiers; the Romans, as taxpayers. In essence, in Theodoric's Italy the Roman regular army had been completely replaced by a Gothic federate force. The Goths, moreover, was not 'professional' soldiers in the sense that Roman legionaries had been. Most Goths were farmers who fought when called upon to do so.\" §REF§Abels <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://usna.edu/Users/history/abels/hh381/late_roman_barbarian_militaries.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§<br>\"The strengths and weaknesses of barbarian armies were well known already to Tacitus and had become common fare in Byzantine military manuals by A.D. 600. In essence, the barbarians were seen to lack cohesive command, technological elements such as effective siege craft, and the patience required for utilizing a tactical reserve. The German \"plan of attack\" usually consisted of a human-wave assault with much yelling and throwing of stones, spears, and arrows. ... After all, since manliness was synonymous with military prowess as proven on the battlefield, who wanted to wait in reserve and perhaps miss priceless opportunities? Obviously, no one. Nor did any leader have the power so to order another free man, even in his warband. Thus it is hardly surprising that Germanic tactics varied so little regardless of the particular tribe or location.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 185-187)§REF§<br>\"The Ostrogothic military achieved a reputation of strength against other barbarians primarily though building upon their own traditions, but they also accepted certain Roman organizational and support systems. The Gothic offices of comes and dux were tied more closely to the central authority, which at least under Theodoric appointed them, and evolved in conjunction with the surviving aspects of Roman government.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 200)§REF§<br>1. King<br>\"Theoderic, like earlier generalissimos (e.g. Aetius or Ricimer), independently controlled his army, comprised mainly of non-Roman troops personally loyal to him, and delegated significant non-military administrative posts to local Roman elites.\"§REF§(Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 6-7) Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>2. DucesGothic Generals §REF§(Bradley 2005, 158)§REF§<br>\"The duces were the highest military leaders in Ostrogothic society, and their very presence in a frontier zone attested to the gravity of the situation. Their functions were primarily but not exclusively military.\" \"The duces' power over their men was virtually unchallengeable and the subject of abuse.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 199)§REF§<br>2. comes Gothorum\"The cases of appeal from the general settlement areas in which there were large numbers of Gothic communities required the regionalized comes Gothorum, i.e., one of provincial scope, comites provinciarum. Along the frontiers and outlying provinces they also commanded the Gothic troops. The government at Ravenna extended this structure to include the frontier areas as well. Everywhere the provincial comites were the supreme governmental officials whenever present. In the frontier areas, the comes had legal jurisdiction and probably held overall command unless, as was sometimes the case, a dux was present specifically as commander.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 174)§REF§<br>3. Count of the GothsGoths of each province had a military chief \"Count of the Goths\" §REF§(Bradley 2005, 169 )§REF§<br>\"Gothic nobility with their loyal bands of warriors\" §REF§(Burns 1991, 174)§REF§<br>4.\"Garrisons were probably comprised largely of warrior groups personally tied to their commanders.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 176)§REF§<br>5. Gothic soldierNo soldiers except Goths - native Italians not allowed into army. §REF§(Bradley 2005, 169)§REF§" }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "1. Pope.<br>Armies were small-scale, when forces directly responsible to the Pope (rather than the Pope's allies who were fighting for the Papacy) the Papal State employed mercenary officers. Provincial Rectors were able to call up troops and could do this without authorisation from the Pope. Cavalry troops were lead by a Marshal.§REF§(Waley 1957)§REF§<br>2. General?<br>3. Provincial Rector.Accounts for Tuscan Patrimony 1304-2306 CE: Provincial Rector at HQ has 4-10 cavalry at any time, under the command of a marshal. Permanent garrisons in two fortresses each contained about 12 troops (mostly infantry). §REF§(Waley 1957)§REF§<br>4. Marshal.<br>5. Mercenary soldier or individual soldier." }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Pope; cardinals and other officials appointed by the popes to command armies; unit commanders; rank and file troops<br>1. Pope: The pope was still the overall commander of papal armies, and Julius II (1503-1513) was notorious for taking the field with his troops like a secular military leader.<br>2. Cardinals and other appointees: Papal troops were often part of wider coalitions during this period (such as the Holy League of 1570-71), and so were under the command of Spanish or Austrian Habsburg commanders.<br>3. Mercenary commanders: The great age of the <i>condottieri</i> was over, and so this level should, perhaps, be bracketed as equivalent to \"other appointees.\"<br>4. Unit commanders: commanders of infantry regiments, artillery units, and so fort.<br>5. Rank and file troops: The papacy maintained garrisons in the Papal State, especially in fortress towns such as Loreto (a fortified shrine on the Adriatic, and often threatened by Turkish squadrons). In addition, Spanish troops often supported the Papacy or did the fighting for the popes." }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " Pope; cardinals and other ecclesiastical officials appointed to command armies; mercenary commanders and corps commander; unit commanders; rank and file troops<br>1. Pope<br>2. Cardinals and other ecclesiastical officials appointed to command armies<br>3. mercenary commanders and corps commander<br>4. Unit commanders<br>5. Rank and file troops." }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " Pope; legates and rectors; counts and <i>signori</i>; mercenary leaders; rank and file.<br>1. Pope. The pope was the nominally supreme leader of all military efforts in the Papal States. Usually military campaigns were carried out by papally-appointed vicars or rectors such as Cardinal Albornoz, who was brutally effective in subduing le Marche and the Romagna in the 1350s and 1360s.§REF§On Albornoz's reign of terror in the Patrimony, see Partner, [CITATION PAGES], and Najemy, 194-95§REF§<br>2. Legates, rectors:: These were usually the leaders of papal levies and conducted sieges, planned battles, and so forth. Functionally there was little difference between them and mercenary leaders employed by the papacy, although the legates were usually more loyal to the Church.<br>3. counts, <i>signori</i>: There's a bit of fuzziness between this level and the \"mercenary leader\" level, since many ex-mercenaries set themselves up as petty lords within the Papal State.§REF§Partner, 393§REF§<br>4. Mercenary leaders: The <i>condottieri</i>-men such as John Hawkwood-were notoriously unreliable. The Florentines were able to buy Hawkwood away from the Papacy in 1375 for 130,000 florins.§REF§Najemy, 199§REF§ Although standing armies were emerging by the mid-15th century,§REF§Najemy, 200§REF§ mercenary bands were the most frequent military units in Italian warfare. The papacy, in fact, was the main employer of these mercenaries.§REF§Caferro, 30§REF§<br>5. Individual soldiers. Rank and file: These usually consisted of mercenaries with, perhaps, additions from local levies such as the Roman militia." } ] }