Judge List
A viewset for viewing and editing Judges.
GET /api/sc/judges/?format=api&page=9
{ "count": 472, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/judges/?format=api&page=10", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/judges/?format=api&page=8", "results": [ { "id": 402, "polity": { "id": 314, "name": "ua_kievan_rus", "long_name": "Kievan Rus", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1242 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"Another basic function of the prince was the provision of judicial services through his officials; the Russkaia Pravda indicates that this function arose already at an early stage, i.e. under the first Kievan grand princes.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 426-427) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Court Charter of Pskov c1462-1475 CE \"is very much a practical guide to the Pskov judges\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 448-449) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 403, "polity": { "id": 774, "name": "mw_early_maravi", "long_name": "Early Maravi", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 404, "polity": { "id": 775, "name": "mw_northern_maravi_k", "long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1621 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 406, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 407, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 408, "polity": { "id": 223, "name": "ma_almoravid_dyn", "long_name": "Almoravids", "start_year": 1035, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Judiciary controlled by the fuqaha (legal scholars) §REF§(Messier 2013, 65-66)§REF§" }, { "id": 409, "polity": { "id": 284, "name": "hu_avar_khaganate", "long_name": "Avar Khaganate", "start_year": 586, "end_year": 822 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "According to the Lexicon of Suidas, a 10th CE Byzantine encyclopedia, the Bulgarian king Krum asked a captured Avar 'What caused the ruin of your leader and your entire nation?':<br>\"It is all because mutual accusations multiplied and the bold and the clever perished; because the violent and the thieves became cronies with the judges; and because of drunkenness for, as there was more wine, everyone took to drinking; and because of corruption, and because of trade. All and sundry became merchants and began swindling each other. This is the cause of our ruin.\"§REF§(Petkov 2008, 23-24) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 410, "polity": { "id": 210, "name": "et_aksum_emp_2", "long_name": "Axum II", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 599 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": "\"The common norms of law that prevailed in the kingdom may be studied in the first juridicial records of Aksum: in the four laws from the Safra (Drewes, p. 73).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 386]</a> Suspected unknown<br> \"Later Ethiopian law followed the Fetha Nagast, 'The Law of the Kings' written in Arabic by a Copt in the mid-thirteenth century, and translated into Ge'ez perhaps in the middle of the fifteenth century (Tzadua 1968), but inscriptions like that of Safra show that there were earlier legal codes in use (Drewes 1962).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F97WR7LV\">[Munro-Hay 1991, p. 252]</a> \"high-quality grave goods, have been interpreted as those of 'middle-class' Aksumites ... It might be expected that such a class would include government officials, scribes, priests of temple or church, middle-ranking members of the army, merchants, and perhaps some of the more skilled craftsmen. Amongst such a class there would probably be some foreigners, permitted to live in Ethiopia because of their special skills.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 411, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": "\"The common norms of law that prevailed in the kingdom may be studied in the first juridicial records of Aksum: in the four laws from the Safra (Drewes, p. 73).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 386]</a> Suspected unknown<br> \"Later Ethiopian law followed the Fetha Nagast, 'The Law of the Kings' written in Arabic by a Copt in the mid-thirteenth century, and translated into Ge'ez perhaps in the middle of the fifteenth century (Tzadua 1968), but inscriptions like that of Safra show that there were earlier legal codes in use (Drewes 1962).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F97WR7LV\">[Munro-Hay 1991, p. 252]</a> \"high-quality grave goods, have been interpreted as those of 'middle-class' Aksumites ... It might be expected that such a class would include government officials, scribes, priests of temple or church, middle-ranking members of the army, merchants, and perhaps some of the more skilled craftsmen. Amongst such a class there would probably be some foreigners, permitted to live in Ethiopia because of their special skills.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 412, "polity": { "id": 379, "name": "mm_bagan", "long_name": "Bagan", "start_year": 1044, "end_year": 1287 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "\"An inscription of 1272 ... records an investigation into tax-exempted lands because 'the judges did not believe that the property was actually donated to the Buddha.'\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 151) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 413, "polity": { "id": 226, "name": "ib_banu_ghaniya", "long_name": "Banu Ghaniya", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Qadis? This is a quote for the ancestral polity, the Almoravids: To administer the urban Almoravid Empire \"Yusuf had to rely on administrators outside of his Sanhaja entourage. He surrounded himself with religious scholars, Malikite fuqaha from Andalusia from whom he sought legal advice. ... They offered a ready-made system of law to the Almoravids who were already pre-disposed to a rudimentary, even arbitrary understanding of Islam.\"§REF§(Messier 2013, 66)§REF§'" }, { "id": 415, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": 804, "year_to": 863, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Judges but not sure if specialized. The Vatican replied to a letter from Boris I \"You state that if a thief or a bandit gets caught and denies the charges, your judge beats him over the head with a whip and another pierces his ribs with iron spikes until the truth is discovered.\"§REF§(Petkov 2008, 29) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Omurtag \"continued Krum's work in introducing a proper legal system into Bulgaria\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 11) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"Although the evidence eludes us, there can be no doubt that he also acquired the role of the supreme lawgiver. Omurtag could then convincingly present himself as the ultimate source of authority - political, religious and judicial - in the realm. None of his nobles held a position that even approached his\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 292) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 417, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": 681, "year_to": 803, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Judges but not sure if specialized. The Vatican replied to a letter from Boris I \"You state that if a thief or a bandit gets caught and denies the charges, your judge beats him over the head with a whip and another pierces his ribs with iron spikes until the truth is discovered.\"§REF§(Petkov 2008, 29) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Omurtag \"continued Krum's work in introducing a proper legal system into Bulgaria\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 11) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"Although the evidence eludes us, there can be no doubt that he also acquired the role of the supreme lawgiver. Omurtag could then convincingly present himself as the ultimate source of authority - political, religious and judicial - in the realm. None of his nobles held a position that even approached his\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 292) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 419, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": 804, "year_to": 863, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Judges but not sure if specialized. The Vatican replied to a letter from Boris I \"You state that if a thief or a bandit gets caught and denies the charges, your judge beats him over the head with a whip and another pierces his ribs with iron spikes until the truth is discovered.\"§REF§(Petkov 2008, 29) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Omurtag \"continued Krum's work in introducing a proper legal system into Bulgaria\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 11) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"Although the evidence eludes us, there can be no doubt that he also acquired the role of the supreme lawgiver. Omurtag could then convincingly present himself as the ultimate source of authority - political, religious and judicial - in the realm. None of his nobles held a position that even approached his\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 292) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 420, "polity": { "id": 312, "name": "bg_bulgaria_medieval", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Middle", "start_year": 865, "end_year": 1018 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Judges but not sure if specialized. <br>The Vatican replied to a letter from Boris I \"You state that if a thief or a bandit gets caught and denies the charges, your judge beats him over the head with a whip and another pierces his ribs with iron spikes until the truth is discovered.\"§REF§(Petkov 2008, 29) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Omurtag \"continued Krum's work in introducing a proper legal system into Bulgaria\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 11) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"Although the evidence eludes us, there can be no doubt that he also acquired the role of the supreme lawgiver. Omurtag could then convincingly present himself as the ultimate source of authority - political, religious and judicial - in the realm. None of his nobles held a position that even approached his\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 292) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 424, "polity": { "id": 400, "name": "in_chandela_k", "long_name": "Chandela Kingdom", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1308 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "\"The Dharmadhikarin was no doubt a judge, but it is difficult to say whether he was the Chief Justice, since it is not clear that his post was a unique one.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 148]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 425, "polity": { "id": 401, "name": "in_chauhana_dyn", "long_name": "Chauhana Dynasty", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1192 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "Officials in the Village Councils and king. \"As regards the Chauhan judiciary, again, the details from our sources are meagre in the extreme. In the first instance the cases probably went to the Village Councils, which are probably the popular courts mentioned by the Arab traveller, Sulaiman. The highest tribunal of justice, however, was the ruler who heard plaints of every type, original as well as appellate. [...] The ruler gave no arbitrary judgement. He generally referred the matter to the Panditas in the Dharmadhikarana, who then called for documentary evidence and witnessed and, in the absence of these two, perhaps resorted also to ordeals.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SI5HWMDE\">[Sharma 1959, pp. 240-241]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 426, "polity": { "id": 246, "name": "cn_chu_dyn_spring_autumn", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Spring and Autumn Period", "start_year": -740, "end_year": -489 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "\"In the late Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods, several inscriptions record decisions in legal cases, most commonly disputes over land.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B77BWQPC\">[Lewis 2007, p. 228]</a> - who made the decisions in legal cases?", "description": null }, { "id": 427, "polity": { "id": 249, "name": "cn_chu_k_warring_states", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Warring States Period", "start_year": -488, "end_year": -223 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "\"The Legalists were the chief proponents of the use of a penal code to control the people. During the Warring States period, the sovereigns of the various states had little use for morals and rites. They were more concerned with building strong states, strengthening their armies, and enlarging their territories. This can only be realized by being able to keep a submissive people. The Legalists proved more useful for their political aspirations, as they exerted a major influence on Chinese traditional law and legal institutions, which were set up under their direction.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MHIPQV93\">[Fu 1993, p. 107]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 428, "polity": { "id": 299, "name": "ru_crimean_khanate", "long_name": "Crimean Khanate", "start_year": 1440, "end_year": 1783 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"the khanate's governmental structures and institutions often followed the Ottoman model.§REF§(Klein 2012, 3) Denise Klein. Introduction. Denise Klein. ed. 2012. The Crimean Khanate between East and West. (15th-18th Century). Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§ Ottomans had Islamic judges called Kadis." }, { "id": 429, "polity": { "id": 774, "name": "mw_early_maravi", "long_name": "Early Maravi", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "Inferred continuity with succeeding polities. \"That dispensing justice may have been not only an important but also a time-consuming task is suggested by a passage about a Maravi king (probably Kalonga) by a mid-seventeenth century Jesuit missionary: 'That King continuously receives his people in audience and adjudges civil and criminal cases with incredible brevity. Even when he is ill he is still expected to judge cases. If he has been absent for two or three days, they go to his successor.'\" (Schoffeleers 1992: 42-43)", "description": null }, { "id": 430, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": "The following quote suggests that little is known about both Islamic and customary law after the advent of Islam in the 8th century CE, which itself suggests that little is also known about the law before that century. \"With the Islamisation of the East African coast, a process that started at least in the eighth century, shariʿa gradually came to be applied alongside customary law and practices. Through travellers’ records, such as Ibn Battuta’s of the early fourteenth century, we know that Islamic courts have existed for many centuries on the Swahili coast. Due to the dearth of sources, however, it is difficult to picture the workings of these legal institutions. Our understanding of the application of shariʿa, pertaining to questions such as who acted as kadhi [judge], who litigated, and where and how court sessions were held, remains very fragmentary prior to British colonial rule, and BuSa'idi rule in particular. As Michael Peletz cautions in his study on shariʿa courts in Malaysia, references attesting to the existence of these courts tell us little about the extent of the kadhi’s interaction with the local population and ruler or the extent to which shariʿa was applied. When we visualise the kadhis in the precolonial period, we should imagine them working outdoors as well as at their homes rather than in an actual court building, with their main role being that of a mediator; only if all mediation efforts failed, would they issue a judgement. We also have to bear in mind that Islamic courts were part of a legal system in which tribunals applied customary law on a parallel level. Not surprisingly, there is no precise information available on how these tribunals functioned and interacted with the kadhi’s courts.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IR3JV8PD\">[Stockreiter 2015]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 431, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "\"With the Islamisation of the East African coast, a process that started at least in the eighth century, shariʿa gradually came to be applied alongside customary law and practices. Through travellers’ records, such as Ibn Battuta’s of the early fourteenth century, we know that Islamic courts have existed for many centuries on the Swahili coast. Due to the dearth of sources, however, it is difficult to picture the workings of these legal institutions. Our understanding of the application of shariʿa, pertaining to questions such as who acted as kadhi [judge], who litigated, and where and how court sessions were held, remains very fragmentary prior to British colonial rule, and BuSa'idi rule in particular. As Michael Peletz cautions in his study on shariʿa courts in Malaysia, references attesting to the existence of these courts tell us little about the extent of the kadhi’s interaction with the local population and ruler or the extent to which shariʿa was applied. When we visualise the kadhis in the precolonial period, we should imagine them working outdoors as well as at their homes rather than in an actual court building, with their main role being that of a mediator; only if all mediation efforts failed, would they issue a judgement. We also have to bear in mind that Islamic courts were part of a legal system in which tribunals applied customary law on a parallel level. Not surprisingly, there is no precise information available on how these tribunals functioned and interacted with the kadhi’s courts.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IR3JV8PD\">[Stockreiter 2015]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 432, "polity": { "id": 218, "name": "ma_idrisid_dyn", "long_name": "Idrisids", "start_year": 789, "end_year": 917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Qadis (Sunnis of the Maliki school) \"administered commercial law and taught in the mosques and schools.\"§REF§(Pennell 2013) C R Pennell. 2013. Morocco: From Empire to Independence. Oneworld Publications. London.§REF§ These qadis do not appear to be specialist judges." }, { "id": 433, "polity": { "id": 407, "name": "in_kakatiya_dyn", "long_name": "Kakatiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1175, "end_year": 1324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "With regards to the legal system: \"The maximum staff the king had to employ were the Pradvivakas or the authorities of law and dharmasastras, who were permanently stationed in the capital to assist the king.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJ8CF927\">[Sastry 1978, p. 191]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 434, "polity": { "id": 389, "name": "in_kamarupa_k", "long_name": "Kamarupa Kingdom", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 1130 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "\"When and how the judiciary was organised in Assam is not known. [...] Hindu texts mention a pradvivaka or Chief judge and other judges called dharmadhikarins.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 141]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 435, "polity": { "id": 273, "name": "uz_kangju", "long_name": "Kangju", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Kangju further developed a partly urban civilization with clay houses, palaces, and fortified walls. The semisedentary tribal aristocracy lived in the centers of the towns and settlements.\"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 37) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer International Publishing.§REF§ Kangju civilization was not developed enough." }, { "id": 436, "polity": { "id": 395, "name": "in_karkota_dyn", "long_name": "Karkota Dynasty", "start_year": 625, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "\"All Hindu theory lays the greatest stress on the administration of justice as an essential part of the protection to which the people are entitled from the government. According to Manu, the king should normally preside over the law-courts and be assisted by Brahmans and experienced councillors. The king is to hold court in a separate building in his own palace. The delegation of this regal duty to a chief justice is equally well known to Indian tradition. [...] Below the chief-justice there were other subordinate judges who were designated as Tantrapati and Rajasthanamantrinah. Judicial powers seem to have been exercised by other civil officers too: for instance the accounts-office called Seda is described as a Rajasthana in one of the passages of the Chronicle.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, pp. 207-208]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 437, "polity": { "id": 298, "name": "ru_kazan_khanate", "long_name": "Kazan Khanate", "start_year": 1438, "end_year": 1552 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"Kazan, the sizeable capital, which had a population of about 20,000, was the centre of the Volga trade, and was inhabited by Tatar merchants, craftsmen, clergymen and scholars. The literature, historiography and architecture of the Kazan Tatars formed an outpost of Islamic civilization on the eastern fringe of Europe.\"§REF§(Kappeler 2014, 25) Andreas Kappeler. Alfred Clayton trans. 2014. The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 438, "polity": { "id": 241, "name": "ao_kongo_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Congo", "start_year": 1491, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"the governors' duties ranged from dispensing justice to providing a court of appeal for the king's subjects to maintaining the roads.\"§REF§(Gondola 2002, 28) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§" }, { "id": 439, "polity": { "id": 290, "name": "ge_georgia_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Georgia II", "start_year": 975, "end_year": 1243 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "In 1103 CE \"The new chancellor-procurator also was given judicial powers and influence in both domestic and foreign affairs; he soon came to be called vaziri (vizier) in imitation of that powerful office in Islamic countries.\"§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§ The highest judge is not a specialist. Were there lower judges who were specialists?" }, { "id": 440, "polity": { "id": 326, "name": "it_sicily_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties", "start_year": 1194, "end_year": 1281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Allshorn 1912, 108)§REF§ 1231 CE Constitutions of Melfi prohibited Norman custom for senior clergy and nobles to intervene in judicial matters. §REF§(Abulafia 2004, 74)§REF§ Lord Chief Justice, and lower justices in the provinces. §REF§(Giannone 1729, 550<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/civilhistoryofki01gian#page/550/mode/2up\">[4]</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 441, "polity": { "id": 56, "name": "pa_cocle_3", "long_name": "Late Greater Coclé", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1515 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "'We are told [...] that quevis [high chiefs] were responsible for settling quarrels and disputes, and could administer capital punishment for perjury'. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 56]</a> If these judicial responsibilities were assumed by high chiefs themselves, it seems unlikely that professional judges also existed.", "description": null }, { "id": 442, "polity": { "id": 257, "name": "cn_later_qin_dyn", "long_name": "Later Qin Kingdom", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 417 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Under the Eastern Han the magistrate of the county enforced law and order and judged civil and criminal cases§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 509) RA or expert did not provided exact reference. It is either: [ Bielenstein, H. The Institutions of Later Han. ] or [ Bielenstein, H. Wang Mang, The Restoration of the Han Dynasty, and Later Han. ] in Twitchett, D and Loewe, M eds. 1986. The Cambridge History of China Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ but it is not yet known to us for certain whether the individual was a specialist at judging law.<br>Yao Xing (394-416 CE) of the Later Qin focused on \"the rule of law\" and \"brought a sense of order.\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, 14) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth.§REF§ He possibly did this through institutions as complex as those that existed under the Eastern Han." }, { "id": 443, "polity": { "id": 815, "name": "es_castile_crown", "long_name": "Crown of Castile", "start_year": 1231, "end_year": 1515 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": "" }, { "id": 444, "polity": { "id": 212, "name": "sd_makuria_k_1", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom I", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 445, "polity": { "id": 215, "name": "sd_makuria_k_2", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom II", "start_year": 619, "end_year": 849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "Clergy would be non-specialist judges.<br>\"There is a suggestion that monastic institutions were directly involved in manufacturing, especially of pottery but also possibly of other goods, and, along with members of the clergy, in the provision of services, legal, medical and secretarial.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 103]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 446, "polity": { "id": 219, "name": "sd_makuria_k_3", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom III", "start_year": 850, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "Clergy would be non-specialist judges.<br>\"There is a suggestion that monastic institutions were directly involved in manufacturing, especially of pottery but also possibly of other goods, and, along with members of the clergy, in the provision of services, legal, medical and secretarial.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 103]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 447, "polity": { "id": 235, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate_22222", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1415 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The third war was the result of the preaching of the QadiSalih, a violent propagator of Islam, who gathered a large army of Moslem chieftains and their troops.\"§REF§?. 1967. The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East, Part 2. Greystone press.§REF§ Qadis - Islamic judges. As a Muslim sultanate, Sharia courts would have likely been used to regulate society.§REF§“Since law can only be the pre-ordained system of God’s commands of Sharī’a, jurisprudence is the science of fiqh, or ‘understanding’ and ascertaining that; and the classical legal theory consists of the formulation and analysis of the principles by which such comprehension is to be achieved. Four such basic principles, which represent distinct but correlated manifestations of God’s will and which are known as the ‘roots of jurisprudence’ (usūl al-fiqh), are recognized by the classical theory: the word of God himself in the Qur’ān, the divinely inspired conduct or sunna of the Prophet, reasoning by analogy or qiyās and consensus of opinion or ijmā.” (Coulson 1964, 75-76) Coulson, Noel. 1964. A History of Islamic Law. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 448, "polity": { "id": 776, "name": "mw_maravi_emp", "long_name": "Maravi Empire", "start_year": 1622, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "Ruler and his heir in charge of judging. \"That dispensing justice may have been not only an important but also a time-consuming task is suggested by a passage about a Maravi king (probably Kalonga) by a mid-seventeenth century Jesuit missionary: 'That King continuously receives his people in audience and adjudges civil and criminal cases with incredible brevity. Even when he is ill he is still expected to judge cases. If he has been absent for two or three days, they go to his successor.'\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/A88E23E4\">[Schoeffeleers 1992]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 449, "polity": { "id": 393, "name": "in_maukhari_dyn", "long_name": "Maukhari Dynasty", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 605 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "\"As regards the system of justice we know next to nothing[...]. The judiciary must have been well-graded, as the Deo-Baranark inscription speaks of a chief magistrate.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EVTVIVQ\">[Pires 1934, p. 171]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 450, "polity": { "id": 209, "name": "ma_mauretania", "long_name": "Mauretania", "start_year": -125, "end_year": 44 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "\"In general, the period of the independent Numidian and Mauretanian kingdoms saw the evolution and entrenchment of a culture of mixed Libyan and Phoenician character, the latter element being culturally dominant though naturally representing only a minority of the population as a whole.\"§REF§(Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 462-463) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 451, "polity": { "id": 530, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Early Postclassic", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "Sources do not suggest there is evidence for a formal legal system during this period. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SHF4S8D7\">[Flannery_Marcus 1996]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 452, "polity": { "id": 531, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_b", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Late Postclassic", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "Sources do not suggest there is evidence for a formal legal system during this period. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SHF4S8D7\">[Flannery_Marcus 1996]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 453, "polity": { "id": 775, "name": "mw_northern_maravi_k", "long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1621 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "Inferred continuity with the following polity, which is this same polity, but territorially expansive . \"That dispensing justice may have been not only an important but also a time-consuming task is suggested by a passage about a Maravi king (probably Kalonga) by a mid-seventeenth century Jesuit missionary: 'That King continuously receives his people in audience and adjudges civil and criminal cases with incredible brevity. Even when he is ill he is still expected to judge cases. If he has been absent for two or three days, they go to his successor.'\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/A88E23E4\">[Schoeffeleers 1992]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 454, "polity": { "id": 313, "name": "ru_novgorod_land", "long_name": "Novgorod Land", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "tysiatskii: \"In Novgorod and Pskov the office (which also included judicial responsibilities) had become elective at an early stage, while in other places it only tended to be elective. ... it often ran ... in particular families (from which either the prince or the veche had to select their candidate). In the principality of Moscow the office disappeared after the death of the last tysiatski ... in 1374.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 431) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 455, "polity": { "id": 206, "name": "dz_numidia", "long_name": "Numidia", "start_year": -220, "end_year": -46 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The top official received the job for hereditary reasons. Town officials are referred to as magistrates but they may have had responsibilities other than judging, if they judged at all.<br>\"Numidia was beyond question, next to Egypt, the most considerable of all the Roman client-states. After the death of Massinissa ..., Scipio had divided the sovereign functions of that prince among his three sons, Micipsa, Gulussa, and Mastanabal in such a way that the firstborn obtained the residency and the state chest, the second the charge of war, and the third the administration of justice\".§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The towns of Cirta and Capsa ... had municipal institutions modelled on those of the Phoenicians, their chief magistrates bearing the Phoenician title sufet.\"§REF§(Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 456, "polity": { "id": 542, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy", "long_name": "Yemen - Ottoman period", "start_year": 1873, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Islamic legal scholarship has a long history in Yemen: 'Yemeni society is hierarchically organized on the basis of birth status and occupation. Until relative political stability was achieved in the late 1970s, birth and occupational statuses were legitimized as ascribed social categories. The elimination of practical barriers that restrict power and privilege?especially through marriage and education?to certain members of the society has only just begun. Under the system of ranked social categories, members of respectable groupings recognized their own noble descent and considered themselves the protectors of servants, former slaves, artisans, and certain farmers, all of whom were thought of as ?deficient,? either because they provided a service or craft?such as bloodletting, butchery, or barbering?that involved contact with polluting substances, or because their origins were discredited as ignoble. The tribal code of protection was also extended to elites at the top of the social scale, especially to sayyids, the reputed descendants of the Prophet, who originally came to Yemen to serve as mediators between tribes and who are respected for their religious expertise. Another social category, that of legal scholars, also inherits high status in the ranking order. Scholars, along with shuyukh (sing. shaykh ), who are tribal leaders, typically serve as village administrators. The majority of Yemenis use various equivalent or substitute terms to identify themselves within the social hierarchy, including qaba\\??\\il in the northern highlands to connote tribal membership, ra\\??\\iyah in the south to mean ?cultivators,? and \\??\\arab along the coast to signify respectable ancestry. Former slaves continue to act as agents and domestics in the households of former masters, but the most menial jobs (e.g., removing human waste from the street) are reserved for Yemenis who are alleged descendants of Ethiopians of the pre-Islamic era. In addition, Yemen relies on a range of foreigners from the East and West for professional, technical, and custodial services.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ The Ottoman administrators introduced reforms of the judicial system, although many of them were undone during the Imamic period: 'The twentieth century opened in Yemen with a judgeship recently modified in accord with Ottoman reforms. Behind the simple character of the 1916 Ottoman personnel list lies a template for a new way of thinking about the nature of the shariʽa court. Although the more sweeping changes represented by the new Nizamiyya courts established in the central provinces of the empire were not instituted in the highlands, there were some significant innovations. A modicum of “order” (nizam), on a scale reduced and adapted for the special circumstances of Ottoman rule in Yemen, was introduced into local judicial affairs, as it had been in the closely associated sphere ofinstruction. Like Ottoman schools, much of this new system would apparently be undone by Imam Yahya, only to reappear in the institutional reforms of the republic. Undramatic though they may now appear, the innovations signaled in the personnel list were elements of a comprehensive reformulation of the judicial process, and beyond, as in the case of instruction, of the state itself. The list embodies selected bits and pieces of a much larger Ottoman bureacratic scheme for a justice system, one roughly analogous (p.188) In scope and detail to the legislation for judicial organization enacted in Yemen in 1979. The 1916 Ibb court staff were implementing a style of bureaucratic behavior radically different from that of the patrimonial imamic state, one that would only begin to be fully elaborated conceptually and enacted in practice with the wave of legislation and accompanying generation of complex new state organs in the 1970s.' §REF§Messick, Brinkley 2012. \"The Calligraphic State\", 187p§REF§ The British in Aden promoted the formalization of Islamic judicial authority: 'In the Yemeni sultanates known collectively as the Aden Protectorate, the British were instrumental in the institutionalization of formal shariʽa courts and in the consequent decline of customary law. “shariʽa law appears in South Arabia largely as the tool of the centralized government, whether indigenous or foreign,” Anderson writes (1970 [1955]: 11). For the “Protecting Power,” he continues, “there is … a natural tendency to champion the shariʽa, for it is ‘tidier’ than the vagaries of local custom from the administrative point of view and provides better political propaganda.” Promotion of the shariʽa enabled (p.66) the British to “pose as in some degree the champion of Islam, in partial imitation of the Governments of the Yemen and of Saudi Arabia” (1970: 12n).' §REF§Messick, Brinkley 2012. \"The Calligraphic State\", 65p§REF§" }, { "id": 457, "polity": { "id": 293, "name": "ua_russian_principate", "long_name": "Russian Principate", "start_year": 1133, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "\"Another basic function of the prince was the provision of judicial services through his officials; the Russkaia Pravda indicates that this function arose already at an early stage, i.e. under the first Kievan grand princes.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 426-427) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 458, "polity": { "id": 412, "name": "in_sharqi_dyn", "long_name": "Sharqi", "start_year": 1394, "end_year": 1479 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "Qadis.", "description": null } ] }