Judge List
A viewset for viewing and editing Judges.
GET /api/sc/judges/?format=api
{ "count": 472, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/judges/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The Ulama were scholars of Islamic thought who also served as lawyers. §REF§Gommans, Jos JL. The Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire: C. 1710-1780. Vol. 8. Brill, 1995. pp. 54-55§REF§ Not a specialized function." }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": 1150, "year_to": 1215, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Government machinery in the earlier period was confined to the management of essential government functions, but when Ghazna came under Ghurid control, it was natural that the administrative institutions as developed by the Ghaznavids should be adopted. A certain number of features of the Seljuq administrative system were also taken over. […] The vizier was the head of the civil administration. The qa ̄d ̄ı al-quda ̄t (supreme judge) was the head of the judiciary, with numerous subordinate qa ̄d ̄ıs, including a qa ̄d ̄ı for the army.”§REF§(Nizami 1999, 194) K A Nizami. The Ghurids. M S Asimov. C E Bosworth. eds. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part One. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " present under Seleucids. may have been present at start then lost." }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There were such things as legal documents and land transfer deeds written in Kharoshthi.§REF§(Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§<br>\"The dandanayaka was presumably the wielder of the rod (dandayaka), acting both as commissioner of police to prevent crime and as a judge or criminal magistrate administering justice.\"\"§REF§(Puri 1994, 254) Puri, B. N. The Kushans. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred retention of institutions from Eastern Han.<br>What happened after Eastern Han?<br>Under the Eastern Han the magistrate of the county enforced law and order and judged civil and criminal cases.§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 508)§REF§ <i>-- Is this magistrate a specialist in judging law?</i><br>Under the Eastern Han there was an official at the district level responsible for law, tax and labour. At the commune level the chief maintained law and order. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 509)§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"In terms of legal systems, its implement and practical application in the dynasties of Xia, Shang and Zhou had all centered on the will of the monarchs. As a result, the law was overtopped by the imperial power, and both law and punishment were made by the rulers. For example, the law of the Xia Dynasty was generously referred to as Yu Xing (The Penal Code of Yu), which was named after the emperor.\"§REF§(Zhang 2014, 154) Zhang, Jinfan. 2014. The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law. Springer Science & Business Media.§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Specialist, full-time judge unlikely at this time. Before specialist judge we might expect a generalist or part-time judge would evolve, but we have no data. Due to central importance of religious ritual to this authoritarian society we could infer there was no secular sphere of law over which a non-religious specialist could adjudicate." }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Disputes between villagers were settled by respected elders rather than judges: 'In every Sheng Miao village there is a set of rules and regulations which are voluntarily observed. In case of violation the offense is quickly adjudged by the public and an elder is invited to execute the punishment. Before it is carried out, however, he would tell the accused in a solemn manner the myths of their ancestors. Also in the case of a serious dispute the elder would summon both parties together, and first tell them the story of their ancestors before settling the dispute. After a decision is rendered in this fashion both parties would show compliance and would not carry the case to the law courts. Although the mythology handed down from mouth to mouth does not have religious contents, it becomes a kind of prophecy to those people who hold everything pertaining to their ancestors in the highest respect. It is entirely due to this inherent respect for their ancestors that the ancestral myth is recounted before carrying out the punishment or at the time of settling a dispute. The idea is to employ the will of the ancestors to restrain the actions of their descendants. It is interesting to note that the mythology of the Sheng Miao, meant originally to inform posterity of the stories of their ancestors' life, has also assumed the corrective and preventive functions of law.' §REF§Che-lin, Wu, Chen Kuo-chün, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Studies Of Miao-I Societies In Kweichow\", 76§REF§ 'These, of course, were only a few of the disputes which arose in the village or among the whole group of Cowrie Shell Miao. Most small matters were settled among themselves. Much of the old man's time was taken up with such cases. Sometimes others of the village elders were called in for consultation. This was according to the Chinese Government system, though in effect this formed the village government, or council. If matters could not be settled by them, they were taken before the lien pao official, and, if necessary, to the hsien magistrate.' §REF§Mickey, Margaret Portia 1947. “Cowrie Shell Miao Of Kweichow”, 45a§REF§ Cases were occasionally decided by ordeal: 'The Miao are addicted to kuei and to litigation. Sometimes litigation may last a year, and the court, unable to decide the case, may ask both parties to eat blood. This serves as a deterrent. Yen Ju-yü in his Miao Fang-pei Lan says: “Those who enter the temple to drink blood move on their knees and bellies, not daring to look up; those who are in the wrong dare not drink it, but repent and yield.” In the course of our investigations in the Miao frontier area, the private secretary of the hsien government at Feng-huang, Mr. Wang Yüeh-yen told us: “The T 'ien Wang temple is the Supreme Court of the Miao area. When a Miao is not satisfied with the decision of the hsien government, then he is ordered to go to the T 'ien Wang temple to drink blood. Whatever the litigation, big or small, it receives immediate settlement.” It can be seen that the Miao's awe of kuei is greater than their awe of the law.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 228§REF§ Formal courts presided over by Chinese judges were located in towns and handled disputes that could not be settled on the local level: 'Like Kweiyang, the hsien city of Lung-li was in an open plain, but a narrow one. The space between the mountains was sufficient for a walled town of one long street between the east and west gates and one or two on either side. There were fields outside the city walls. Its normal population was between three and four thousand, augmented during the war by the coming of some “companies” for the installation and repair of charcoal burners in motor lorries and the distillation of grain alcohol for fuel, an Army officers' training school, and the engineers' corps of the railway being built through the town from Kwangsi to Kweiyang. To it the people of the surrounding contryside, including at least three groups of Miao and the Chung-chia, went to market. It was also the seat of the hsien government and contained a middle school, postal and telegraph offices, and a cooperative bank, with all of which the non-Chinese, as well as the Chinese, had some dealings. A few of the more well-to-do families sent one of their boys to the middle school. Cases which could not be settled in the village or by the lien pao official, who was also a Chinese, were of necessity brought to the hsien court, as well as cases which involved both Miao and Chinese.' §REF§Mickey, Margaret Portia 1947. “Cowrie Shell Miao Of Kweichow”, 40b§REF§ 'The Magpie Miao live in villages, occasionally compact but normally consisting of a cluster of separate hamlets. These are located on mountain slopes, usually far enough away from main transportation routes to be inaccessible and readily defensible. The Miao lack any political organization of their own, and are thoroughly integrated into the Chinese administrative system. The basic political, as well as economic and social unit, is the village. Villages are grouped into townships and divided into hamlets of about ten to twenty households each. The headmen of both the village and the hamlet are appointed by the chief of the township. The members of different villages or hamlets are bound principally by affinal ties. They may cooperate for the common good, but they lack any formal organization of an indigenous character. Disputes between members of the same hamlet are settled, if possible, within the hamlet. Those between members of different hamlets of the same village are adjudicated by a council composed of the village headman and the heads of the hamlets involved. If this council cannot effect a settlement, the litigants have a right to carry their dispute to the chief of the township or even to the Chinese court of the county.' §REF§Rui, Yifu 1960. “Magpie Miao Of Southern Szechuan”, 145§REF§ Given how Hmong villagers made use of the Chinese legal system, we have decided to code the variable 'present'." }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"In the late Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods, several inscriptions record decisions in legal cases, most commonly disputes over land.\"§REF§(Lewis 2009, 228) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2009. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Harvard University Press.§REF§ - who made the decisions in legal cases?" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "cn_longshan", "long_name": "Longshan", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Specialist judges require a culture of high degree of literacy not present at this time." }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Punishments proposed by a judge or judges had to be sent to the Ministry of Justice for deliberation and memorialized to the throne for final approval. Any judge who deliberately or negligently reduced or increased a punishment violated the law (Art. 46). §REF§(Jiang, 2011, p.45)§REF§ \"Judges were required to cite the relevant article of the code when setting a provisional sentence for a criminal...Thus, as far as Chinese judges were concerned, the doctrine of <i>nulla poena sine lege</i> or 'no punishment without a law' may be said to have been in force. The work of a judge often included investigation and fact finding, research into legal precedents and in some cases, forensic work. §REF§(Fairbank, 1978, p.178, 185)§REF§" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Throughout China's imperial history, local administrators exercised judicial as well as executive powers in their areas, and routine trial and punishment was, in Sui as in other dynasties, part of their regular duties.\" §REF§(Wright, Arthur. 1978. The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China, AD 581-617. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 117)§REF§ “[Emperor Xiaowen] promoted Confucian learning, modeled the Northern Wei bureaucratic system and legal system after the Han dynasty as protocol for court proceedings and rituals.” §REF§(Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History. Oxford: OUP, 303.)§REF§" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Qing territorial administration at both the provincial and county levels included functional specialists such as provincial judges and treasurers. In later years, regional satraps assumed unprecedented discretion over the appointments of provincial treasurers and judges, prefects and county magistrates. §REF§(Rowe 2010, p.38, 207)§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. provincial judges §REF§(Rowe 2010, 38)§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The fact that there were no full-time, professional judges is suggested by the following: \"In addition to the legislative power, the monarchs in ancient times were also endowed with the supreme judicial power.\" This is shown by readings of oracle bone text.§REF§(Zhang 2014, 155) Zhang, Jinfan. 2014. The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law. Springer Science & Business Media.§REF§<br>inferred present: precursor to Zhou development?<br>\"With the development of the state machine of the Zhou dynasty, under the leadership of the monarch, the central judicial organizations headed by \"Si Kou\" (the minister of justice) and \"Shi Shi\" (the official in charge of criminal affairs) were established, and the local judicial organizations, named \"Xiang Shi\", \"Sui Shi\", \"Xian Shi\", \"Fang Shi\", and \"Ya Shi\", had also been set up to deal with the judicial affairs.\"§REF§(Zhang 2014, 155) Zhang, Jinfan. 2014. The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law. Springer Science & Business Media.§REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Judges are not officials who are specialized in that role. \"local administrators had the judicial as well as the executive power in their areas, and routine trial and punishment were part of their regular duties.\"§REF§(Wright 1979, 104-105)§REF§ The chief of the Censorate \"was charged not only with the investigation and prosecution of very serious crimes but also with the general supervision of all officials in the empire.\"§REF§(Wright 1979, 105)§REF§ \"The Supreme Court of Justice (Ta-li ssu), including both high officials and legal experts, considered the written evidence regarding a serious crime, determined the character of the crime and recommended the final sentence, which was pronounced by the emperor.\"§REF§(Wright 1979, 105)§REF§<br>\"During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, China created the administrative positions of facao cajun (judge of criminal cases) and sihu cajun (judge of civil cases) in a zhou (equivalent to province). At the county level, the administrative positions sifa zuo and sifa li were established to assist the magistrate to judge cases. In the Song Dynasty, the administrative position tidian xing yusi in a lu (equivalent to province) and zhizhou (equivalent to Mayor) of a zhou (equivalent to city) were established, with the magistrate of a county still the chief judge in their governing regions. During the Yuan Dynasty, administrative organs in administrative divisions were judicial organs and judicial organs were also administrative organs. In the Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty, the tixing ancha shi si was a judicial organ specifically dealing with judicial cases. It was only set at a provincial level. ... in most fu (equivalent to city) and counties, the zhifu (equivalent to Mayor) and the magistrate still governed both administrative business and judged judicial cases. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, an administrative system with a judiciary was still maintained.\"§REF§(Li 2014, 103-104) Luo Li. 2014. Intellectual Property Protection of Traditional Cultural Expressions: Folklore in China. Springer Science & Business. Switzerland.§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Supreme Court of Justice \"reviewed the evidence relating to serious crimes and made recommendations to the emperor on the appropriate sentences.\" §REF§(Roberts 1996, 89)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Supreme Court of Justice \"reviewed the evidence relating to serious crimes and made recommendations to the emperor on the appropriate sentences.\" §REF§(Roberts 1996, 89)§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Legalists were the chief proponents of the use of a penal code to control the people. During the Warring States period, the sovereigns of the various states had little use for morals and rites. They were more concerned with building strong states, strengthening their armies, and enlarging their territories. This can only be realized by being able to keep a submissive people. The Legalists proved more useful for their political aspirations, as they exerted a major influence on Chinese traditional law and legal institutions, which were set up under their direction.\"§REF§(Fu 1993, 107) Fu, Zhengyuan. 1993. Autocratic Tradition and Chinese Politics. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Judges are not mentioned in Loewe's §REF§(Loewe 1968, 67-68)§REF§ detailed description of the legal process in Han times. However, their existence may be inferred from the existence of a Superintendent of trials§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§." }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Chief justice was the king.§REF§(Roberts 2003, 14)§REF§ \"During the period of Western Zhou Dynasty, the rulers were in fact also the supreme arbiters dealing with the legal disputes between the states.§REF§(Zhang 2014, 154) Zhang, Jinfan. 2014. The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law. Springer Science & Business Media.§REF§<br>\"With the development of the state machine of the Zhou dynasty, under the leadership of the monarch, the central judicial organizations headed by \"Si Kou\" (the minister of justice) and \"Shi Shi\" (the official in charge of criminal affairs) were established, and the local judicial organizations, named \"Xiang Shi\", \"Sui Shi\", \"Xian Shi\", \"Fang Shi\", and \"Ya Shi\", had also been set up to deal with the judicial affairs.\"§REF§(Zhang 2014, 155) Zhang, Jinfan. 2014. The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law. Springer Science & Business Media.§REF§<br>\"In the late Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods, several inscriptions record decisions in legal cases, most commonly disputes over land.\"§REF§(Lewis 2009, 228) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2009. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Harvard University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Ministry of Law handled administration of law. §REF§(Brook, 2010, p.83)§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Kinsmen of the dead, not judges, decided on the course of action taken: 'Feuding or warfare is endemic among the Jivaro. Because of the retaliatory nature of legal sanctions in the society, the application of avenging action frequently initiates long and drawn out hostilities between two groups of kinsmen. This pattern of repeated application of sanctions by two families against one another is a dominant preoccupation especially among the interior Jivaro. These feuds may be formally ended by payment to the deceased's relatives, or when one of the eldest men on one side is killed, or when each group of kinsmen has lost a man.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'After this idea took hold, they travelled upriver to the settlement of Bupátä's brother Ungúmï, a húndach, or old one (although he is only about 45 years old), to seek his counsel. Then, Santü journeyed further north into Ecuador to converse with Mukwíngü, the mother's brother of Bupátä and Ungúmï. Such counsel, as I have indicated, forms an important part of the protocol that characterizes the pattern of Achuarä hostilities. Not every death attributed to sorcery is avenged, especially in the case of young children. But, once a homicide is committed in retaliation for perceived sorcery-related deaths, it inevitably calls forth a revenge raid sometime in the future on the part of close relatives-brothers-in-law or sons-in-law, usually-of the victims. Should their retaliation prove successful, close relatives of the person whose death initiated the feud also become obligated to avenge the more recent killing. Each successive death draws greater numbers of relatives into the feud on each side, and more and more lives are placed in jeopardy.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 102§REF§" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " SCCS variable 89 'Judiciary' is coded as ‘1’ or 'absent'. Kinsmen of the dead, not judges, decided on the course of action taken: 'Feuding or warfare is endemic among the Jivaro. Because of the retaliatory nature of legal sanctions in the society, the application of avenging action frequently initiates long and drawn out hostilities between two groups of kinsmen. This pattern of repeated application of sanctions by two families against one another is a dominant preoccupation especially among the interior Jivaro. These feuds may be formally ended by payment to the deceased's relatives, or when one of the eldest men on one side is killed, or when each group of kinsmen has lost a man.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'After this idea took hold, they travelled upriver to the settlement of Bupátä's brother Ungúmï, a húndach, or old one (although he is only about 45 years old), to seek his counsel. Then, Santü journeyed further north into Ecuador to converse with Mukwíngü, the mother's brother of Bupátä and Ungúmï. Such counsel, as I have indicated, forms an important part of the protocol that characterizes the pattern of Achuarä hostilities. Not every death attributed to sorcery is avenged, especially in the case of young children. But, once a homicide is committed in retaliation for perceived sorcery-related deaths, it inevitably calls forth a revenge raid sometime in the future on the part of close relatives-brothers-in-law or sons-in-law, usually-of the victims. Should their retaliation prove successful, close relatives of the person whose death initiated the feud also become obligated to avenge the more recent killing. Each successive death draws greater numbers of relatives into the feud on each side, and more and more lives are placed in jeopardy.' §REF§Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 102§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Saladin appointed a chief judge (qadi) and a chief shaykh for the Sufis.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 249)§REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " unknown. pr.w nzw \"fulfilled a certain judicial function.\" §REF§(Engel 2013, 20-38)§REF§" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " unknown pr.w nzw \"fulfilled a certain judicial function.\" §REF§(Engel 2013, 20-38)§REF§ was this a specialised position?" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " During Saite Period judges were in temples. If priests were judges then this was not a specialised position." }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Chief judges. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 248)§REF§ \"Under the Mamluks the state appointed judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2002, 294)§REF§<br>\"In 1263, Sultan Baybars (1260-77) appointed a chief qadi for each of the four major schools of law, a chief shaykh (master, teacher) for the Sufis, and a syndic for the corporation of descendants of the Prophet (naqib al-ashraf). Under the Mamluks the state appointed judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders and other Muslim officials.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 249)§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Chief judges. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 248)§REF§ \"Under the Mamluks the state appointed judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2002, 294)§REF§<br>\"In 1263, Sultan Baybars (1260-77) appointed a chief qadi for each of the four major schools of law, a chief shaykh (master, teacher) for the Sufis, and a syndic for the corporation of descendants of the Prophet (naqib al-ashraf). Under the Mamluks the state appointed judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders and other Muslim officials.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 249)§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Chief judges. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 248)§REF§<br>\"In 1263, Sultan Baybars (1260-77) appointed a chief qadi for each of the four major schools of law, a chief shaykh (master, teacher) for the Sufis, and a syndic for the corporation of descendants of the Prophet (naqib al-ashraf). Under the Mamluks the state appointed judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders and other Muslim officials.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 249)§REF§<br>Judges. §REF§(Dols 1977, 153)§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "In the Story of Khuninpu (\"Tale of the Eloquent Peasant\") a victim of crime could petition a high official at his town house.§REF§(Quirke 2001)§REF§ -- may not be a specialist if the petitioner had to visit the official's house, rather than e.g. justice building<br>Also there is no evidence for the same system of law that existed in the Old Kingdom.§REF§(McDowell 2001)§REF§ All officials were responsible for reporting crime to the vizier's office, which either ratified decisions made by the lower officials or set up an investigation itself (and if necessary enacted a punishment).§REF§(McDowell 2001)§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " King highest judge, vizier second highest judge. However, law usually administered at local level. §REF§(Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73)§REF§<br>JGM: Note the important text: \"The Duties of the Vizier\" that lays out the chief judges responsibilities, and provides the formal organization of the legal system of the New Kingdom. See G.P.F. Van Den Boorn,The Duties of the Vizier:Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom. Kegan Paul, 1988." }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"There seems to have been no separate architectural or engineering division of the administration any more than there was a separate judiciary. The title sʒb is often translated “judge,” but it seems to be a generic term for “official” when applied to a named individual.\" §REF§(Quirke 2001)§REF§ -- no specialist judge<br>\"typical of the Egyptian system that the judicial function was not the prerogative of a professional, specialist body reflected in a clearly defined category of official titles. It is true that the titles of certain officers and bodies ... are suspected to relate entirely to the judiciary, but the basic capacity of making accepted judgements see also to have extended generally to men in a position of authority, even where their titles seem primarily administrative.\"§REF§(Kemp 1983, 83) Kemp, Barry. \"Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>There was \"a distinct layer of judicial administration that was in charge of investigating matters relating to discrepancies in the handling of grain resources.\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 67)§REF§ -- yes specialist judge" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"There seems to have been no separate architectural or engineering division of the administration any more than there was a separate judiciary. The title sʒb is often translated “judge,” but it seems to be a generic term for “official” when applied to a named individual.\" §REF§(Quirke 2001)§REF§ -- no specialist judge<br>\"typical of the Egyptian system that the judicial function was not the prerogative of a professional, specialist body reflected in a clearly defined category of official titles. It is true that the titles of certain officers and bodies ... are suspected to relate entirely to the judiciary, but the basic capacity of making accepted judgements see also to have extended generally to men in a position of authority, even where their titles seem primarily administrative.\"§REF§(Kemp 1983, 83) Kemp, Barry. \"Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>There was \"a distinct layer of judicial administration that was in charge of investigating matters relating to discrepancies in the handling of grain resources.\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 67)§REF§ -- yes specialist judge" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"There seems to have been no separate architectural or engineering division of the administration any more than there was a separate judiciary. The title sʒb is often translated “judge,” but it seems to be a generic term for “official” when applied to a named individual.\" §REF§(Quirke 2001)§REF§<br>\"typical of the Egyptian system that the judicial function was not the prerogative of a professional, specialist body reflected in a clearly defined category of official titles. It is true that the titles of certain officers and bodies ... are suspected to relate entirely to the judiciary, but the basic capacity of making accepted judgements see also to have extended generally to men in a position of authority, even where their titles seem primarily administrative.\"§REF§(Kemp 1983, 83) Kemp, Barry. \"Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>There was \"a distinct layer of judicial administration that was in charge of investigating matters relating to discrepancies in the handling of grain resources.\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 67)§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"There seems to have been no separate architectural or engineering division of the administration any more than there was a separate judiciary. The title sʒb is often translated “judge,” but it seems to be a generic term for “official” when applied to a named individual.\" §REF§(Quirke 2001)§REF§<br>\"typical of the Egyptian system that the judicial function was not the prerogative of a professional, specialist body reflected in a clearly defined category of official titles. It is true that the titles of certain officers and bodies ... are suspected to relate entirely to the judiciary, but the basic capacity of making accepted judgements see also to have extended generally to men in a position of authority, even where their titles seem primarily administrative.\"§REF§(Kemp 1983, 83) Kemp, Barry. \"Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>There was \"a distinct layer of judicial administration that was in charge of investigating matters relating to discrepancies in the handling of grain resources.\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 67)§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " inferred absent Middle Kingdom. disagreement Old Kingdom." }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " inferred absent or unknown. In temples. Were these judges priests? If so will need to code absent because we are coding judges as a specialized position." }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No specialised judges can be confirmed for the Middle Kingdom." }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In the Abbasid Caliphate formal the law was promulgated by a body known as the Fuqaha. The law code was heavily influenced by Sharia law. Sharia was based on the Sunna, which were teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, and the Quran, the holy book of Islam. Legal thought was also influenced by Ijma’, which were a body of rulings on legal issues based on the consensus of scholars who had met to discuss specific cases. Despite the Caliphate’s claims to religious authority based on their links to the Prophet Muhammed, it was rare for direct rulings on legal matters to originate from the caliphal authorities. Alongside a developing legal code was the development of the Qudis, who were full time judiciary officials.§REF§Zubaida, Sami, Law and power in the Islamic world. (Tauris & Company Limited, 2005) pp. 74-84§REF§ Judges were appointed and were called Qadi.§REF§Zubaida, Sami, Law and power in the Islamic world. (Tauris & Company Limited, 2005) p. 46§REF§<br>At least in the Umayyad period judges were \"multicompetent state officials dealing with justice, police, tax, and finance issues.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 96)§REF§<br>previous code: disputed_absent_present (refs below suggest presence, no clear indication of argument for absence) | Note: This is the code for Abbasid Caliphate. We code present for specialist judges. If judges were \"multicompetent state officials\" it does not appear they are specialists who only judge law. For similar case e.g. the Roman Principate. On the other hand, the source below suggests that qadis were \"full time judiciary officials'." }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Judges present in Europe and the colonies. “In 1511, a tribunal of independent royal judges was constituted in the colony of Espanola to try cases appealed from the town magistrates and the governor.” §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25.) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>)§REF§§REF§(Casey 2002, 88) Casey, James. 2002. <i>Early Modern Spain: A Social History</i>. New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT</a>§REF§" } ] }