Judge List
A viewset for viewing and editing Judges.
GET /api/sc/judges/?format=api&page=8
{ "count": 472, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/judges/?format=api&page=9", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/judges/?format=api&page=7", "results": [ { "id": 351, "polity": { "id": 677, "name": "se_sine_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sine", "start_year": 1350, "end_year": 1887 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The following quote notes the existence of officials with judicial functions in the Kingdom of Sine, but they were clearly non-specialists, as they also collected taxes. “Locally, the king was represented by the saaxsaax who exerted judicial functions and received taxes in each village, and the jaraaf, who were generally chosen from the lineage of the village founder and acted essentially as village heads.” §REF§ (Richard 2018, 107) Richard, Francois G. 2018. Reluctant Landscapes: Historical Anthropologies of Political Experience in Siin, Senegal. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZNV5RKBU/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 352, "polity": { "id": 695, "name": "ug_nkore_k_2", "long_name": "Nkore", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1901 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The following quote suggests that judicial fucntions were the prerogative of members of the pastoral aristocracy. \"The royal court served as a judicial and political center, but not as a bureaucratic focal point. The Mugabe's chief minister, the Enganzi, was not a prime minister in the usual sense of leader of government business. He was merely the King's favorite. Neither was there a cabinet nor governmental bureaux, although the colonial era saw the formation of a council of chiefs (Eishengyero) claiming traditional status. In fact, the only governmental business conducted at court was the hearing of cases, often involving the disputed possession of cattle or women by the Hima. The appointment and dismissal of military and administrative functionaries from among those aristocratic Hima and Hinda princes who regularly attended court was the Mugabe's sole administrative function.\"§REF§(Steinhart 1978: 144) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/D3FV7SKV/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 353, "polity": { "id": 622, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_6", "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow II", "start_year": 501, "end_year": 700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The following quote suggests the emergence of social differentiation in this period, but little appears to be understood about this phenomenon apart from the appearance of specialised smiths and the formation of senior and cadet social segments. \"During Yellow II, the inhabitants of Mound 4 began a process that eventually led to centralization of iron production, as described in detail above. Iron ore extraction involves profound digging in the earth, the realm of spirits, and historically in Bwa society the practice is reserved solely for specialized smiths, who also excavate burials (see discussions below). The mid first millennium A.D. therefore witnessed a transformation from redundant social and economic roles for houses to specialization in at least one craft activity. While houses were still highly independent, even producing their own pottery, a formalized village structure was likely present with both cadet and senior social segments, founded upon common descent with a common ancestor.\"§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 28)§REF§ " }, { "id": 354, "polity": { "id": 663, "name": "ni_oyo_emp_1", "long_name": "Oyo", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1535 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977).\"§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 151-152)§REF§ Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: \"Of the earliestperiod of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known.\"§REF§(Law 1977: 33)§REF§ Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable." }, { "id": 355, "polity": { "id": 570, "name": "es_spanish_emp_2", "long_name": "Spanish Empire II", "start_year": 1716, "end_year": 1814 }, "year_from": 1716, "year_to": 1814, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Also in 1717, the crown established the Real Factoría de Indias, an institution controlled by the intendente general of the navy on behalf of the king… The Factoría would also generate sufficient funds for paying the return voyages of its own ships without having to wait endlessly in the Indies, to pay the salaries of the judges of the Casa de Contratación and to constitute a source of loans for the crown in emergencies.”<ref>(Eissa-Barroso 2017: 136-137) Eissa-Barroso, Francisco A. 2017. The Spanish Monarchy and the Creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1739). Leiden: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XNET89MW</ref>" }, { "id": 356, "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "long_name": "Mossi", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1750, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "No distinction between executive and judicial branch (though the following information applies to the 19th centuries, it seems reasonable to infer continuity with previous centuries). \"Tribunals were graded according to the political divisions within the kingdom. The lowest court was that of the ward head, who dealt with all cases concerning the lineage segment under his authority. The village head, with his ‘ministers’ and ward heads, constituted the next grade and also heard appeals from the courts of ward heads. The court of the ‘canton’ chief dealt with intervillage disputes. The court of a ‘provincial’ chief (palace minister) was concerned with disputes between the Fulbe, Yarse, Dioula, and others (see p. 160), and between these and the Mossi proper. He also examined appeals from the lower courts. Supreme judicial authority was vested in the king, although in practice he only gave judgement in criminal cases, such as homicide, and cases which proved too difficult for subordinate tribunals. He also constituted the only court qualified to try nakombse.//\"These five types of tribunals were constituted on the same hierarchical pattern as the administration of the kingdom, with no distinction between the judiciary and the executive.\"§REF§(Zahan 1960: 170-171) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 357, "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "long_name": "Mossi", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1751, "year_to": 1897, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No distinction between executive and judicial branch (though the following information applies to the 19th centuries, it seems reasonable to infer continuity with previous centuries). \"Tribunals were graded according to the political divisions within the kingdom. The lowest court was that of the ward head, who dealt with all cases concerning the lineage segment under his authority. The village head, with his ‘ministers’ and ward heads, constituted the next grade and also heard appeals from the courts of ward heads. The court of the ‘canton’ chief dealt with intervillage disputes. The court of a ‘provincial’ chief (palace minister) was concerned with disputes between the Fulbe, Yarse, Dioula, and others (see p. 160), and between these and the Mossi proper. He also examined appeals from the lower courts. Supreme judicial authority was vested in the king, although in practice he only gave judgement in criminal cases, such as homicide, and cases which proved too difficult for subordinate tribunals. He also constituted the only court qualified to try nakombse.//\"These five types of tribunals were constituted on the same hierarchical pattern as the administration of the kingdom, with no distinction between the judiciary and the executive.\"§REF§(Zahan 1960: 170-171) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 358, "polity": { "id": 569, "name": "mx_mexico_1", "long_name": "Early United Mexican States", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “The Supreme Court is composed of eleven Judges and one Fiscal, or Attorney General.”§REF§(Ward 1827: 220) Ward, Henry George. 1900. Mexico in 1827. London : H. Colburn. http://archive.org/details/mexicoin04wardgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IY7FJEM7§REF§ " }, { "id": 359, "polity": { "id": 579, "name": "gb_england_plantagenet", "long_name": "Plantagenet England", "start_year": 1154, "end_year": 1485 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Judges were present from the beginning of the period.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 61) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§" }, { "id": 360, "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “In accordance with the agreement with the constituency of Czech nobles from 1310, King John named his most important Land officials – i.e., the Supreme Burgrave, Supreme Chamberlains and the Land Judges – from the ranks of the noble lines. The first of these took executive power as the ruler’s deputy; the others looked after finances of the country and ran the Land court, generally considered the foundation of legal order in the country.”§REF§(Pánek and Oldřich 2009: 142) Pánek, Jaroslav and Oldřich, Tůma. 2009. A History of the Czech Lands. University of Chicago Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4NAX9KBJ§REF§ “Clergymen were subject almost exclusively to ecclesiastical law and their local highest-ranking judge was either the bishop or archbishop of their diocese. Before the Hussite Revolution, the seats of the dioceses in and around the Bohemian lands were: Prague (the only archbishopric before the Hussite Revolution), Litomyšl, Olomouc, Wrocław (Breslau), Meissen, Naumburg, and Passau.”§REF§(Grant 2014: 32) Grant, Jeanne E. 2014. For the Common Good: The Bohemian Land Law and the Beginning of the Hussite Revolution, East Central and Eastern in the Middle Ages, 450–1450. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCJGUZZZ§REF§ “Ondřej’s tenure as the highest judge on the land court spanned most of Charles iv’s and Vaclav iv’s reigns. Because his father was a member of Charles iv’s court, Ondřej had early and frequent access to the royal court, and may explain why he was appointed highest land judge at the young age of approximately twenty-five. Charles iv appointed him land judge on June 6, 1343, to replace Oldřich Pluh.”§REF§(Grant 2014: 52) Grant, Jeanne E. 2014. For the Common Good: The Bohemian Land Law and the Beginning of the Hussite Revolution, East Central and Eastern in the Middle Ages, 450–1450. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCJGUZZZ§REF§ " }, { "id": 361, "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "it_lombard_k", "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There were judges who oversaw the justices and punishments of the law. §REF§Christie 1998: 115, 124. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§" }, { "id": 362, "polity": { "id": 575, "name": "us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction", "long_name": "Us Reconstruction-Progressive", "start_year": 1866, "end_year": 1933 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There were judges at federal and local level." }, { "id": 363, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There were judges at federal and local level." }, { "id": 364, "polity": { "id": 302, "name": "gb_tudor_stuart", "long_name": "England Tudor-Stuart", "start_year": 1486, "end_year": 1689 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “Once passed, a law had to be administered and enforced. In the country at large, the king employed up to 40 administrators of Crown lands (who supervised an army of stewards, bailiffs, keepers, and wardens) and up to 90 Customs officials to collect his revenues. He also appointed traveling assize judges to provide royal justice in major felony cases, biannually, to the shire court of each county.”§REF§(Bucholz et al 2013: 51) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§ “That is, the king could once again conduct foreign policy as he saw fit. According to the Militia Acts of 1661 and 1662, he, and only he, could call out that body – an issue that had been disputed on the eve of the Civil War. He could appoint what ministers he wanted and he could remove judges at will.”§REF§(Bucholz et al 2013: 278) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§ “Proceedings for distraint, threats of imprisonment in the house of correction and arbitration by assize judges are all symptomatic of the birthpangs of a system of transfer payments. These were the parameters of tolerance within which social policy was implemented. This explains both the repetitive nature of judges’ orders and the moral outrage of grand juries.”§REF§(Hindle 2002: 157) Hindle, Steve. 2002. The State and Social Change in Early Modern England, 1550–1640 (London: Palgrave https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GVIZDIC9§REF§" }, { "id": 365, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “As emperor, Friedrich formally recognized the Privilegium maius and made it a part of imperial law. Thereby all Rudolf IV’s imagined privileges and prerogatives of the dynasty became reality. Making the Privilegium maius official meant that the Austrian archdukes now had a more solid legal basis to raise new taxes, tolls and fines, to grant titles of nobility, and to name officers such as judges and notaries.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 68) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§ " }, { "id": 366, "polity": { "id": 578, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "long_name": "Alaouite Dynasty I", "start_year": 1631, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “Moroccan chronicler Muhammad al-Kardudi (d. 1851) commented that when Mawlay Isma‘il was in the process of organizing his army, initially recruiting Arabs from the Udaya tribe, he consulted with an influential Muslim scholar, Muhammad b. al-‘Ayyashi, one of his loyalists, asking which tribe would be best suited to provide recruits. Al-‘Ayyashi suggested that the slaves who came (through saby) from West Africa after the 1591 Sa‘di invasion of Songhay and who formerly had been in service to the Makhzan might serve well as they were still slaves belonging to the state. The sultan regarded the idea so highly that he made al-‘Ayyashi a supreme judge (qadi al-qudat) acting on his behalf in all the legal matters related to their collection.”§REF§(El Hamel 2014: 160) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§" }, { "id": 367, "polity": { "id": 797, "name": "de_empire_1", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty", "start_year": 919, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Judges were present throughout the period, and from the eleventh century their role changed from one of arbiter to one of deciding guilt and punishment. §REF§Wilson 2016: 607. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N5M9R9XA§REF§" }, { "id": 368, "polity": { "id": 565, "name": "at_habsburg_1", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Curtis 2013: 101) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§" }, { "id": 369, "polity": { "id": 573, "name": "ru_golden_horde", "long_name": "Golden Horde", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1440 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Judges were elected and appointed to decide the outcome of criminal case based on imperial law and their own knowledge. However Kkans were considered the supreme judge.§REF§Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 176-177, 185-189. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8§REF§" }, { "id": 370, "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "long_name": "British Empire I", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Judges were well established in England and then through the Empire.§REF§(Chambers and Chambers 1847: 275) Chambers, Robert and Chambers, William. eds. 1847. History and Present State the British Empire. London: W.R.Chambers. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K77JRGEL§REF§" }, { "id": 371, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “One of the speakers at the first meeting of the Royal Hawaiian Agricultural Society in April 1850 was Judge William Lee, formerly of New York. He reported on a bill before the legislature (which he himself had probably authored) which would provide the solution to both Hawaiian idleness and the quantities of labor needed for land development.”§REF§(Beechert 1985: 41) Beechert, Edward D. 1985. Working in Hawaii: A Labour History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/338XH58H§REF§" }, { "id": 372, "polity": { "id": 566, "name": "fr_france_napoleonic", "long_name": "Napoleonic France", "start_year": 1816, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Judges were present throughout the period.§REF§Crook 2002: 31, 89. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/29D9EQQE§REF§" }, { "id": 373, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": 1867, "year_to": 1918, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Among the most decisive changes implemented in 1867 was a new judicial system, which was the first piece of constitutional legislation that the parliament considered in October 1867. This bill provided for the strict separation of justice and administration on all levels of government and for the development of professional norms that would protect the independence of the judiciary. The law stipulated jury trials for all particularly serious crimes, and for all offenses against the press laws. All judicial officers were required to take an oath of allegiance to uphold the constitutional system. The law also guaranteed life tenure to judges and sought to protect them against political interference and harassment.”§REF§(Boyer 2022: 99) Boyer, John W. 2022. Austria, 1867–1955. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG3P4KKD§REF§" }, { "id": 374, "polity": { "id": 606, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_2", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England II", "start_year": 927, "end_year": 1065 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No reference to judge-type positions in the sources consulted. Rather, ealdormen, port-reeves or sheriffs presided over court matters.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 31) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§" }, { "id": 375, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No reference to judge-type positions in the sources consulted. Rather, ealdormen, port-reeves or sheriffs presided over court matters.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 31) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ " }, { "id": 376, "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Highly likely given that they had a formal legal code, law schools and lawyers but this has not been mentioned in the sources consulted." }, { "id": 377, "polity": { "id": 561, "name": "us_hohokam_culture", "long_name": "Hohokam Culture", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 378, "polity": { "id": 360, "name": "ir_saffarid_emp", "long_name": "Saffarid Caliphate", "start_year": 861, "end_year": 1003 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 379, "polity": { "id": 786, "name": "gb_british_emp_2", "long_name": "British Empire II", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1968 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 380, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917 }, "year_from": 1776, "year_to": 1864, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "The Russian judicial system until 1864 was based on \"Estates-of-the-realm\" courts serving different social estates.\r\nThis system, largely intact since Catherine II's reign, lacked modern professional judges.\r\n\r\n\r\nJudicial reforms started on November 20, 1864, under Tsar Alexander II, introducing a unified judicial system.\r\nProfessional judges were nominated by the Minister of Justice and appointed by the Tsar, with specific qualifications required.\r\nIntroduction of jury trials with professional judges in the judicial system marked a significant change.§REF§Peter H. Solomon, ed., Reforming Justice in Russia, 1864-1996: Power, Culture, and the Limits of Legal Order (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, 2015).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6F93JTAI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6F93JTAI</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 381, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917 }, "year_from": 1864, "year_to": 1917, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 383, "polity": { "id": 600, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I", "start_year": 1614, "end_year": 1775 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "The Russian judicial system until 1864 was based on \"Estates-of-the-realm\" courts serving different social estates.\r\nThis system, largely intact since Catherine II's reign, lacked modern professional judges.§REF§Peter H. Solomon, ed., Reforming Justice in Russia, 1864-1996: Power, Culture, and the Limits of Legal Order (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, 2015).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6F93JTAI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6F93JTAI</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 384, "polity": { "id": 539, "name": "ye_qatabanian_commonwealth", "long_name": "Qatabanian Commonwealth", "start_year": -450, "end_year": -111 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"Almost all the inhabitants of pre-Islamic Arabia were members of a tribe, that is, a mutual aid group bound together by a notion of kinship. As one pre-Islamic poet astutely observed (‘Amr ibn Qami‘a 8), ‘a man’s tribe are his claws [with which he fends off enemies] and his props [which support him]’. Unlike a state, tribes have no specialised institutions of law and order, so a person’s life, honour and goods were protected by his relatives, who were obliged to assist him in trouble and to avenge or seek compensation for him if he was wronged. ‘When fighting comes, your kinsman alone is near; your true friend your kinsman is, who answers your call for aid with good will, when deeply drenched in bloodshed are sword and spear’ (H. am. 225).\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 113) Hoyland, R. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hoylan/titleCreatorYear/items/AUHRSTGG/item-list§REF§\r\n\r\n\"So tribal law was customary law, deter- mined by ancient practice. It is therefore inherently conservative; ‘We found our fathers on a path and we follow in their footsteps’ was the reply of most Meccans to the Prophet Muhammad’s new message (Quran 43.22, 24). And it is echoed by pre-Islamic Arab poets: ‘We follow the ways of our forefathers, those who kindled wars and were faithful to the ties of kinship’ (‘Abid 20). It could only be updated either by such aforementioned paragons of tribal virtue, who won the approval of all, or by the consensus of all full members of the community meeting together.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 121-122) Hoyland, R. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hoylan/titleCreatorYear/items/AUHRSTGG/item-list§REF§\r\n\r\n\"Among the wealthier sedentary polities of Arabia there existed a more elaborate legal system with more of an institutional framework. A number of the cities of south Arabia had a council (mswd), and at each of the capital cities there was a supreme council where the king sat along with delegates from a certain number of tribal groups, representing the whole nation and issuing edicts on its behalf. Such an edict might begin as follows: ‘Thus have ordered and directed and decreed Shahr Yagill Yuhargib, the son of Hawfa‘amm, the king of the Qatabanians, and the Qatabanians, the council, having its full complement. . . . ’ (RES 3566). In this particular text it would appear that Shahr Yagill had to fight to maintain his position, for he goes on to complain that ‘some people from the council and community of landowners determined and enforced their decisions by swearing oaths between themselves in that temple in their very self-willed and loutish manner without the sanction of [me] their lord’.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 124) Hoyland, R. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hoylan/titleCreatorYear/items/AUHRSTGG/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 385, "polity": { "id": 405, "name": "in_gahadavala_dyn", "long_name": "Gahadavala Dynasty", "start_year": 1085, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": "From an essay on \"The Rajput Administration\". The Gahadavala dynasty are sometimes considered Rajputs or perhaps proto-Rajputs as strictly speaking the Rajputs date from a later time in this location: \"The talara, dandapasika or araksika, as a policeman was called, looked to the security of life and property and carried out preliminary investigation in criminal cases.\" talaraksa. class of officers called Sadhanikas \"whose duty was almost that of the modern Prosecuting Police Inspectors.\" Vyavaharin was a type of officer. \"In small principalities the chief himself must have presided over his court. But in coming to a decision about the case before him and the punishment that was to be given to the accused he was assisted not only by experts in dharmasastra but also Karanikas. If Karanika be regarded as an abbreviated form of dharmadhikaranika, he could have been a judicial officer.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5CEUP25X\">[Bakshi_Gajrani_Singh 2005, p. 402]</a>", "description": "The following quote suggests that judicial functions were the province of the Brahmanic caste more broadly, rather than professional specialists. \"This inscription is significant as it shows the judicial powers enjoyed by the brahmanas. The inscript assembled to fix a decision (sthiti) for a crime committed in the village. Sircar suggest that the term Sthiti meant 'a fixed decision, ordnance or a decree'\". §REF§(Yadav 2011: 365) Yadav, D. 2011. ASPECTS OF RURAL SETTLEMENT UNDER THE GAHAAVALA DYNASTY: C. 11 TH CENTURY CE TO 13 TH CENTURY CE (AN INSCRIPTIONAL ANALYSIS). Proceedings of the Indian History Congress , 2011, Vol. 72, PART-I (2011), pp. 360-367. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F8STV588/library§REF§" }, { "id": 386, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 387, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": 1025, "year_to": 1149, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "“Government machinery in the earlier period was confined to the management of essential government functions, but when Ghazna came under Ghurid control, it was natural that the administrative institutions as developed by the Ghaznavids should be adopted. A certain number of features of the Seljuq administrative system were also taken over. […] The vizier was the head of the civil administration. The qa ̄d ̄ı al-quda ̄t (supreme judge) was the head of the judiciary, with numerous subordinate qa ̄d ̄ıs, including a qa ̄d ̄ı for the army.”§REF§(Nizami 1999, 194) K A Nizami. The Ghurids. M S Asimov. C E Bosworth. eds. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part One. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 388, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": 1590, "year_to": 1690, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": "Existence of judges (though unclear how professional they may have been): \"During this period the adminstration was centered in the headquarters of the appanage or Hoshun (Ulus) prince, where there were special officials concerned with the conduct of military, administrative, and judicial functions.\"\"§REF§(Riasananovsky 1948: 172) Riasanovsky, V. A. 1948. Mongol Law—A Concise Historical Survey. Wash. L. Rev. & St. B.J. 166: 160-178. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9JCNB66X/library§REF§\r\n\r\nHowever, may not have existed before establishment of legal codes starting in late 16th century.\r\n\r\nLate 16th century: “Tümen Jasaghtu Khan tried to unify the country administratively and so included in his government not only Abtai, Altan and Khutughtai Sechen, but also other influential nobles from all the tümens and from the Oirat regions. He compiled a new code that was supposed to be based on Chinggis Khan’s Great Ya ̄sa ̄ or Jasaq (see Volume IV, Part One). Subsequently, Altan Khan, Abtai Khan and, most likely, several others followed his example and adopted their own laws and codes in their respective tümens. But only some of these have been preserved, whether wholly or partially. They were written in the old Mongol script, which had been borrowed from the Uighur, and adopted under Chinggis Khan as the official script of the Mongols. » §REF§(Ishjamts 2003, 214)§REF§\r\n\r\n\"Records of Law: The basic records of the law of this period were the Ancient Tsaadjin Bichik, the Mongol-Oirat Regulations of 1640, the Great Code of the Seven Khoshuns, and the Khalkha-Djirom of 1709. Of these records, the Mongot-Oirat Regulations of 1640 were the most important, being, for a time, the effective code in both Northern and Western Mongolia (Khalkha and Djungaria) After the disintegration of the alliance of the \"Forty and Four,\" this code remained effective in Djungaria until the promulgation of the Chinese Code or Regulations of 1789 and among the Rusian Kalmucks until 1917 In Northern Mongolia the Mongol-Oirat Regulations of 1640 were replaced by the Great Code of the Seven Hoshuns and later by the Khalkha-Djirom, which also retained its effectiveness until 1789. The Khalkha-Djirom also continued to function among the herdsmen Shabinars of the Urga Gegen until superseded in 1925.\"§REF§(Riasananovsky 1948: 170) Riasanovsky, V. A. 1948. Mongol Law—A Concise Historical Survey. Wash. L. Rev. & St. B.J. 166: 160-178. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9JCNB66X/library§REF§" }, { "id": 389, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": 1368, "year_to": 1589, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": "present in Mongol Empire and Yuan but that is because they conquered territories where they would have been present. Difficult to infer that the Khalkhas also had full-time judges.", "description": "Existence of judges (though unclear how professional they may have been): \"During this period the adminstration was centered in the headquarters of the appanage or Hoshun (Ulus) prince, where there were special officials concerned with the conduct of military, administrative, and judicial functions.\"\"§REF§(Riasananovsky 1948: 172) Riasanovsky, V. A. 1948. Mongol Law—A Concise Historical Survey. Wash. L. Rev. & St. B.J. 166: 160-178. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9JCNB66X/library§REF§\r\n\r\nHowever, may not have existed before establishment of legal codes starting in late 16th century.\r\n\r\nLate 16th century: “Tümen Jasaghtu Khan tried to unify the country administratively and so included in his government not only Abtai, Altan and Khutughtai Sechen, but also other influential nobles from all the tümens and from the Oirat regions. He compiled a new code that was supposed to be based on Chinggis Khan’s Great Ya ̄sa ̄ or Jasaq (see Volume IV, Part One). Subsequently, Altan Khan, Abtai Khan and, most likely, several others followed his example and adopted their own laws and codes in their respective tümens. But only some of these have been preserved, whether wholly or partially. They were written in the old Mongol script, which had been borrowed from the Uighur, and adopted under Chinggis Khan as the official script of the Mongols. » §REF§(Ishjamts 2003, 214)§REF§\r\n\r\n\"Records of Law: The basic records of the law of this period were the Ancient Tsaadjin Bichik, the Mongol-Oirat Regulations of 1640, the Great Code of the Seven Khoshuns, and the Khalkha-Djirom of 1709. Of these records, the Mongot-Oirat Regulations of 1640 were the most important, being, for a time, the effective code in both Northern and Western Mongolia (Khalkha and Djungaria) After the disintegration of the alliance of the \"Forty and Four,\" this code remained effective in Djungaria until the promulgation of the Chinese Code or Regulations of 1789 and among the Rusian Kalmucks until 1917 In Northern Mongolia the Mongol-Oirat Regulations of 1640 were replaced by the Great Code of the Seven Hoshuns and later by the Khalkha-Djirom, which also retained its effectiveness until 1789. The Khalkha-Djirom also continued to function among the herdsmen Shabinars of the Urga Gegen until superseded in 1925.\"§REF§(Riasananovsky 1948: 170) Riasanovsky, V. A. 1948. Mongol Law—A Concise Historical Survey. Wash. L. Rev. & St. B.J. 166: 160-178. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9JCNB66X/library§REF§" }, { "id": 390, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred from the following quotes, which broadly refer to Indian polities under early Muslim rule.\r\n\r\nThe king was the highest judge, although other judges and magistrates also operated in the state. There were different courts of law (primarily for Muslim and non-Muslim law codes) which needed separate judges. §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 271-4.§REF§ \"the sultan appointed judges to dispense justice and also acted as a court of appeal to hear cases against the decisions taken by judges.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 97) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§\r\n\r\nreference of the Chief Qazi of Mansura in the writing of the contemporaneous Abdul Hassan. §REF§Panhwar, M. H. \"Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 192§REF§" }, { "id": 391, "polity": { "id": 548, "name": "it_italy_k", "long_name": "Italian Kingdom Late Antiquity", "start_year": 476, "end_year": 489 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"As in the later Roman Empire, officers of the royal bureaucracy were expected to fulfil any number of functions on behalf of the king. Under this administrative prerogative a judge was any officer who possessed executive authority, such as a count, duke, governor, or prefect. In other words, there was no branch of government dedicated exclusively to the maintenance of the law. This lack of a professional judiciary meant that the majority of judges performed their duties without the benefit of significant legal training or expertize.\" §REF§(Lafferty 2016: 162) Lafferty, S. The Law. In Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa (eds) A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy pp. 147-172. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VQ8MC72F/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 392, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"While the necessary reliance on archaeological evidence has ensured that many aspects of Harappan civilization, such as economic activities, settlements, industry, and biological anthropology, have been investigated as well as or better than those of literate civilizations, the absence of intelligible documentary material is a major handicap to understanding Harappan social and political organization and has put some aspects of Harappan life, such as the law, quite beyond cognizance.\" §REF§(McIntosh 2008: 245) Jane McIntosh. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i>. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO.§REF§" }, { "id": 393, "polity": { "id": 409, "name": "bd_bengal_sultanate", "long_name": "Bengal Sultanate", "start_year": 1338, "end_year": 1538 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "Qadis.", "description": null }, { "id": 394, "polity": { "id": 778, "name": "in_east_india_co", "long_name": "British East India Company", "start_year": 1757, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "Judges worked at the Supreme Court in Calcutta. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/83IG9AXH\">[Sreemani_Bhattacharya 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 395, "polity": { "id": 250, "name": "cn_qin_emp", "long_name": "Qin Empire", "start_year": -338, "end_year": -207 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"First, Ancient China adopted an administrative system with a judiciary. In Ancient China, the administrative chief at each level of the administrative divisions was both administrative chief and chief judge. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, the taishou (equivalent of Mayor) of a jun (equivalent to city) and the magistrate of a county were required to deal with both administrative business and judicial cases in their regions. ... For a long time, China did not establish judicial organs. Judicial organs were always only ever a part of administrative organs. Administrative officials were judicial officials. The judgement of cases was more like a part-time job for administrative officials.\"§REF§(Li 2014, 103-104)§REF§" }, { "id": 396, "polity": { "id": 426, "name": "cn_southern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Southern Song", "start_year": 1127, "end_year": 1279 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 397, "polity": { "id": 423, "name": "cn_eastern_zhou_warring_states", "long_name": "Eastern Zhou", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -256 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "\"The Legalists were the chief proponents of the use of a penal code to control the people. During the Warring States period, the sovereigns of the various states had little use for morals and rites. They were more concerned with building strong states, strengthening their armies, and enlarging their territories. This can only be realized by being able to keep a submissive people. The Legalists proved more useful for their political aspirations, as they exerted a major influence on Chinese traditional law and legal institutions, which were set up under their direction.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MHIPQV93\">[Fu 1993, p. 107]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 398, "polity": { "id": 709, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1806 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "\"Nobility of the blood was much prized but social mobility was possible and judges, generals and men of letters could acquire noble status.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NNKB4C26\">[Birmingham 2003]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 399, "polity": { "id": 337, "name": "ru_moskva_rurik_dyn", "long_name": "Grand Principality of Moscow, Rurikid Dynasty", "start_year": 1480, "end_year": 1613 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "Though full-time judges did not exists, officials would act as judges. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJ8JF4TU\">[Perrie 2006, p. 363]</a>", "description": "Though full-time judges did not exists, officials would act as judges. §REF§Perrie 2006: 363§REF§♠ Courts ♣ Present" }, { "id": 400, "polity": { "id": 710, "name": "tz_tana", "long_name": "Classic Tana", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1498 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": "\"With the Islamisation of the East African coast, a process that started at least in the eighth century, shariʿa gradually came to be applied alongside customary law and practices. Through travellers’ records, such as Ibn Battuta’s of the early fourteenth century, we know that Islamic courts have existed for many centuries on the Swahili coast. Due to the dearth of sources, however, it is difficult to picture the workings of these legal institutions. Our understanding of the application of shariʿa, pertaining to questions such as who acted as kadhi [judge], who litigated, and where and how court sessions were held, remains very fragmentary prior to British colonial rule, and BuSa'idi rule in particular. As Michael Peletz cautions in his study on shariʿa courts in Malaysia, references attesting to the existence of these courts tell us little about the extent of the kadhi’s interaction with the local population and ruler or the extent to which shariʿa was applied. When we visualise the kadhis in the precolonial period, we should imagine them working outdoors as well as at their homes rather than in an actual court building, with their main role being that of a mediator; only if all mediation efforts failed, would they issue a judgement. We also have to bear in mind that Islamic courts were part of a legal system in which tribunals applied customary law on a parallel level. Not surprisingly, there is no precise information available on how these tribunals functioned and interacted with the kadhi’s courts.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IR3JV8PD\">[Stockreiter 2015]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 401, "polity": { "id": 314, "name": "ua_kievan_rus", "long_name": "Kievan Rus", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1242 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Judge", "judge": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Another basic function of the prince was the provision of judicial services through his officials; the Russkaia Pravda indicates that this function arose already at an early stage, i.e. under the first Kievan grand princes.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 426-427) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Court Charter of Pskov c1462-1475 CE \"is very much a practical guide to the Pskov judges\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 448-449) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" } ] }