Irrigation System List
A viewset for viewing and editing Irrigation Systems.
GET /api/sc/irrigation-systems/?format=api&page=6
{ "count": 468, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/irrigation-systems/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/irrigation-systems/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There is some evidence for the use of irrigation systems during this period (for example, at Hierve el Agua), but the evidence suggests that the irrigation systems were constructed at a small scale, serving the land of only one or two communities.§REF§Kirkby (1973) The use of land and water resources in past and present Valley of Oaxaca. Muesum of Anthropology, Memoirs No.5. An Arbor, University of Michigan. p117§REF§§REF§Nicholas, L. M (1989) Land use in prehispanic Oaxaca. In, Kowalewski, S. A., Feiman, G.M., Finsten, L., Blanton, R. E. and Nicholas, L. M. Monte Albán’s Hinterland, Part II: the prehispanic settlement patterns in Tlacoula, Etla and Ocotlán, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Number 23. Ann Arbor: 449-505. p458§REF§§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p146§REF§ However, an irrigation system has been uncovered at La Coyotera in the Cuicatlan Canada during the Lomas phase (equivalent to MA Late I and II) which was likely constructed to fulfil Zapotec demands.§REF§Spencer, C. S. (1982) The Cuicatlán Cañada and Monte Albán: A study of primary state formation. Studies in Archaeology. Academic Press, New York. p224-6§REF§" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There is some evidence for the use of irrigation systems during this period, but the evidence suggests that the irrigation systems were constructed at a small scale.§REF§Kirkby (1973) The use of land and water resources in past and present Valley of Oaxaca. Muesum of Anthropology, Memoirs No.5. An Arbor, University of Michigan. p117§REF§§REF§Nicholas, L. M (1989) Land use in prehispanic Oaxaca. In, Kowalewski, S. A., Feiman, G.M., Finsten, L., Blanton, R. E. and Nicholas, L. M. Monte Albán’s Hinterland, Part II: the prehispanic settlement patterns in Tlacoula, Etla and Ocotlán, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Number 23. Ann Arbor: 449-505. p458§REF§ How much was polity owned is therefore difficult to determine. Gary Feinman (pers. comm.) writes that small-scale irrigation, such as check-dams and small canals were in use. §REF§(Feinman, Gary. Personal Communication with Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. Email. April 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Canals.§REF§Kirkby, A. (1973). \"The use of land and water resources in past and present Valley of Oaxaca. Museum of Anthropology, Memoirs No. 5.\" Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan.§REF§ Gary Feinman (pers. comm.) writes that small-scale irrigation, such as check-dams and small canals were in use. §REF§(Feinman, Gary. Personal Communication with Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. Email. April 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The following suggests that perhaps \"community-focus structures\" developed later. A Middle Archaic example of open-air site is Gheo-Shih [Oaxaca Valley], which is a field marked by boulders and kept clean. This is considered to be one of Mesoamerica's earliest example of a community-focus structure, such as the plaza, temple-pyramid, and palace, all of which developed in the Formative and later periods.§REF§(Evans 2004: 92) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "mx_aztec_emp", "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 256, "polity": { "id": 12, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_7", "long_name": "Classic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 13, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_8", "long_name": "Epiclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": -1200, "year_to": -901, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The irrigation canals excavated at Santa Clara Coatitlan, dating to approx. 900 BC is the earliest documented floodwater irrigation system in the Basin of Mexico NGA,§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1982) \"A Middle Formative Irrigation System near Santa Clara Coatitlan in the Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Antiquity</i>, 47(1): 133-144.§REF§§REF§Doolittle, William E. (1990) <i>Canal Irrigation in Prehistoric Mexico: The Sequence of Technological Change.</i> Austin: University of Texas Press, p.22-5.§REF§§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1987). \"Risk and Agricultural Intensification during the Formative Period in the Northern Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i> 89(3): 596-616.§REF§§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (2015). \"Intensive Agriculture and Early Complex Societies of the Basin of Mexico: The Formative Period.\" <i>Ancient Mesoamerica</i> 26(2): 407-21.§REF§ although admittedly there were likely earlier systems that have not yet been discovered. They were discovered during a salvage excavation just north of Mexico City, with only several cuts of them being exposed, so their full extent is poorly understood. These channels run from a former incised seasonal torrent (<i>barranca</i>, which may itself have been modified) at approx 90 degrees, fanning out into to individual fields. It is unclear whether these are smaller channels that emanate from a larger canal, or whether each of them directly directly siphoned the barranca. Prior to construction, the area may have been exposed to erosive sheet flow from the barranca during heavy rain, which may suggest that the system was primarily aimed at mitigating the damaging effects of natural inundation. Since the ancient barranca was not excavated, it is unclear whether dams were used to control/manage flow, or whether they only funneled excess runoff.§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1982) \"A Middle Formative Irrigation System near Santa Clara Coatitlan in the Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Antiquity</i>, 47(1): 133-144.§REF§§REF§Doolittle, William E. (1990) <i>Canal Irrigation in Prehistoric Mexico: The Sequence of Technological Change.</i> Austin: University of Texas Press, p.22-5.§REF§" }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": -900, "year_to": -801, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The irrigation canals excavated at Santa Clara Coatitlan, dating to approx. 900 BC is the earliest documented floodwater irrigation system in the Basin of Mexico NGA,§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1982) \"A Middle Formative Irrigation System near Santa Clara Coatitlan in the Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Antiquity</i>, 47(1): 133-144.§REF§§REF§Doolittle, William E. (1990) <i>Canal Irrigation in Prehistoric Mexico: The Sequence of Technological Change.</i> Austin: University of Texas Press, p.22-5.§REF§§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1987). \"Risk and Agricultural Intensification during the Formative Period in the Northern Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i> 89(3): 596-616.§REF§§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (2015). \"Intensive Agriculture and Early Complex Societies of the Basin of Mexico: The Formative Period.\" <i>Ancient Mesoamerica</i> 26(2): 407-21.§REF§ although admittedly there were likely earlier systems that have not yet been discovered. They were discovered during a salvage excavation just north of Mexico City, with only several cuts of them being exposed, so their full extent is poorly understood. These channels run from a former incised seasonal torrent (<i>barranca</i>, which may itself have been modified) at approx 90 degrees, fanning out into to individual fields. It is unclear whether these are smaller channels that emanate from a larger canal, or whether each of them directly directly siphoned the barranca. Prior to construction, the area may have been exposed to erosive sheet flow from the barranca during heavy rain, which may suggest that the system was primarily aimed at mitigating the damaging effects of natural inundation. Since the ancient barranca was not excavated, it is unclear whether dams were used to control/manage flow, or whether they only funneled excess runoff.§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1982) \"A Middle Formative Irrigation System near Santa Clara Coatitlan in the Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Antiquity</i>, 47(1): 133-144.§REF§§REF§Doolittle, William E. (1990) <i>Canal Irrigation in Prehistoric Mexico: The Sequence of Technological Change.</i> Austin: University of Texas Press, p.22-5.§REF§" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation systems were present in the Cuautitlan region, as well as at early Teotihuacan, Cuicuilco, and numerous other sites across the Basin of Mexico.§REF§Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>, 20(1), 1-51.§REF§§REF§Carballo, David M. (2016). <i>Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-84, 125-134.§REF§§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1987). \"Risk and Agricultural Intensification during the Formative Period in the Northern Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i> 89(3): 596-616.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 96-7.§REF§§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (2015). \"Intensive Agriculture and Early Complex Societies of the Basin of Mexico: The Formative Period.\" <i>Ancient Mesoamerica</i> 26(2): 407-21.§REF§" }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The irrigation canals excavated at Santa Clara Coatitlan, dating to approx. 900 BC is the earliest documented floodwater irrigation system in the Basin of Mexico NGA,§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1982) \"A Middle Formative Irrigation System near Santa Clara Coatitlan in the Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Antiquity</i>, 47(1): 133-144.§REF§§REF§Doolittle, William E. (1990) <i>Canal Irrigation in Prehistoric Mexico: The Sequence of Technological Change.</i> Austin: University of Texas Press, p.22-5.§REF§§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1987). \"Risk and Agricultural Intensification during the Formative Period in the Northern Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i> 89(3): 596-616.§REF§§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (2015). \"Intensive Agriculture and Early Complex Societies of the Basin of Mexico: The Formative Period.\" <i>Ancient Mesoamerica</i> 26(2): 407-21.§REF§ although admittedly there were likely earlier systems that have not yet been discovered. They were discovered during a salvage excavation just north of Mexico City, with only several cuts of them being exposed, so their full extent is poorly understood. These channels run from a former incised seasonal torrent (<i>barranca</i>, which may itself have been modified) at approx 90 degrees, fanning out into to individual fields. It is unclear whether these are smaller channels that emanate from a larger canal, or whether each of them directly directly siphoned the barranca. Prior to construction, the area may have been exposed to erosive sheet flow from the barranca during heavy rain, which may suggest that the system was primarily aimed at mitigating the damaging effects of natural inundation. Since the ancient barranca was not excavated, it is unclear whether dams were used to control/manage flow, or whether they only funneled excess runoff.§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1982) \"A Middle Formative Irrigation System near Santa Clara Coatitlan in the Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Antiquity</i>, 47(1): 133-144.§REF§§REF§Doolittle, William E. (1990) <i>Canal Irrigation in Prehistoric Mexico: The Sequence of Technological Change.</i> Austin: University of Texas Press, p.22-5.§REF§" }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation systems were present in the Cuautitlan region, as well as at early Teotihuacan, Cuicuilco, and numerous other sites across the Basin of Mexico.§REF§Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>, 20(1), 1-51.§REF§§REF§Carballo, David M. (2016). <i>Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-84, 125-134.§REF§§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (1987). \"Risk and Agricultural Intensification during the Formative Period in the Northern Basin of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i> 89(3): 596-616.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 96-7.§REF§§REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (2015). \"Intensive Agriculture and Early Complex Societies of the Basin of Mexico: The Formative Period.\" <i>Ancient Mesoamerica</i> 26(2): 407-21.§REF§" }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information found in relevant literature." }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There is very little evidence for irrigation systems during this period. Most settlements were located on the high alluvium and so would not have needed irrigation to supply the crops (only in later periods, when settlements were established on the piedmont, did irrigation become more prevalent).§REF§Kirkby (1973) The use of land and water resources in past and present Valley of Oaxaca. Muesum of Anthropology, Memoirs No.5. An Arbor, University of Michigan. p117§REF§§REF§Nicholas, L. M (1989) Land use in prehispanic Oaxaca. In, Kowalewski, S. A., Feiman, G.M., Finsten, L., Blanton, R. E. and Nicholas, L. M. Monte Albán’s Hinterland, Part II: the prehispanic settlement patterns in Tlacoula, Etla and Ocotlán, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Number 23. Ann Arbor: 449-505. p458§REF§§REF§Coe, M. D., Koontz, R. (2013) Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs (7th ed.) Thames and Hudson, London, p93§REF§" }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There is very little evidence for irrigation systems during this period. Most settlements were located on the high alluvium and so would not have needed irrigation to supply the crops (only in later periods, when settlements were established on the piedmont, did irrigation become more prevalent).§REF§Kirkby (1973) The use of land and water resources in past and present Valley of Oaxaca. Muesum of Anthropology, Memoirs No.5. An Arbor, University of Michigan. p117§REF§§REF§Nicholas, L. M (1989) Land use in prehispanic Oaxaca. In, Kowalewski, S. A., Feiman, G.M., Finsten, L., Blanton, R. E. and Nicholas, L. M. Monte Albán’s Hinterland, Part II: the prehispanic settlement patterns in Tlacoula, Etla and Ocotlán, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Number 23. Ann Arbor: 449-505. p458§REF§§REF§Coe, M. D., Koontz, R. (2013) Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs (7th ed.) Thames and Hudson, London, p93§REF§" }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Sources do not suggest there is evidence of either canal or pot irrigation in the Valley of Oaxaca before 1000 BCE.§REF§Kirkby (1973) The use of land and water resources in past and present Valley of Oaxaca. Muesum of Anthropology, Memoirs No.5. An Arbor, University of Michigan. p127§REF§" }, { "id": 267, "polity": { "id": 14, "name": "mx_toltec", "long_name": "Toltecs", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " It is assumed here that relevant structures continued to be privately managed." }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"... distribution of Qotakalli Period villages closely reflects the areas of prime, easily irrigable agricultural land in the Cuzco Basin.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 52)§REF§" }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"... distribution of Qotakalli Period villages closely reflects the areas of prime, easily irrigable agricultural land in the Cuzco Basin.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 52)§REF§" }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation canals constructed. §REF§(Covey 2006, 91)§REF§ \"It is likely that the Lucre Basin polities continued to use irrigation canals and improved lands developed by Wari colonists, although this inference remains speculative in the absence of systematic survey data.\" §REF§(Covey 2006b, 118)§REF§ Canals are documented amongst other hydraulic works (fountains) in the architecture at Choquepukio. \"Por último, varios de ellos presentan obras hidráulicas elaboradas que consisten en canales y fuentes, en algunos casos con agua que es canalizada sobre afloramientos rocosos que, probablemente, eran piedras-huaca.\" §REF§(McEwan et al 2005, 263)§REF§" }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Huatranay River was \"probably\" canalised. Inca Roq'a* used labour tribute to build agricultural terraces and irrigation canals in the Cuzco Basin. He also did this at Larapa, which became his personal estate. §REF§(Covey 2006a, 116)§REF§ *(c1350 CE)." }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The maize fields near Marcavalle and elsewhere across the lower elevations of the Cuzco Valley would have been supported by seasonal rains and perhaps by small irrigation ditches that were constructed to bring water from adjacent springs or streams.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 44)§REF§" }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigated lands created by the Chacan canal system. Inka Roq'a improved irrigation and these resources \"were passed down to his descendants, an innovation linked to the establishment of a royal estate system and the reorganization of Cusco's moieties in the new state.\" §REF§(Covey 2003, 351)§REF§ \"The incorporation of some groups to the north of the Vilcanota River occurred around A.D. 1300, allowing the state to begin the development of hundreds of hectares of irrigated maize lands in the Vilcanota Valley.\" §REF§(Covey 2003, 353)§REF§" }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation canals and agricultural terraces. §REF§(Covey 2006, 73)§REF§ Wari were \"the first to transform the highland Andean landscapes of the Pacific watersheds through terraced irrigation agriculture.\" §REF§(McEwan and Williams in Bergh 2012, 74)§REF§ Wari constructed at least 7 irrigation canals in the Lucre Basin with total length of 48 km. The final 5 km of Canal A averaged 0.07 percent grade - \"a true feat of engineering skill\" since most ancient societies could manage only 0.5-1.5 percent grade. Also aqueducts at Cambayoq and Rumicolca. §REF§(McEwan and Williams in Bergh 2012, 74)§REF§" }, { "id": 276, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The Orokaiva practiced no irrigation: 'Very full data on the size of these gardens have been provided by Crocombe and Hogbin (1963) and Rimoldi (1966). A household tends to establish something like one and a half to two acres of garden per year. A garden is never used for more than one taro season, but as planting and consumption of the taro each tend to be stretched over most of a year, almost two years elapse between the clearing and final abandonment. This gives time for the bananas and sugar-cane to reach maturity too. Once a garden is abandoned, it is not used again for at least eight years or so. The usual swidden agriculture techniques are used, burning, clearing, careful removal of ‘rubbish’ remaining after the burning process, planting with a digging stick, periodic attention to weeding and heaping up of earth around growing taro, removal of corm-bearing bases of petioles of mature taro for removal and planting in a new garden. The Orokaiva practise no irrigation, no form of terracing or drainage, no manuring, no measures against parasites. Sometimes a fence is made out of tree trunks to keep pigs from breaking in. This is usually done only after a pig has made its first expedition, and only on the side where the pig entered.' §REF§Schwimmer, Eric G. 1973. “Exchange In The Social Structure Of The Orokaiva: Traditional And Emergent Ideologies In The Northern District Of Papua”, 20§REF§" }, { "id": 277, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The Orokaiva practiced no irrigation: 'Very full data on the size of these gardens have been provided by Crocombe and Hogbin (1963) and Rimoldi (1966). A household tends to establish something like one and a half to two acres of garden per year. A garden is never used for more than one taro season, but as planting and consumption of the taro each tend to be stretched over most of a year, almost two years elapse between the clearing and final abandonment. This gives time for the bananas and sugar-cane to reach maturity too. Once a garden is abandoned, it is not used again for at least eight years or so. The usual swidden agriculture techniques are used, burning, clearing, careful removal of ‘rubbish’ remaining after the burning process, planting with a digging stick, periodic attention to weeding and heaping up of earth around growing taro, removal of corm-bearing bases of petioles of mature taro for removal and planting in a new garden. The Orokaiva practise no irrigation, no form of terracing or drainage, no manuring, no measures against parasites. Sometimes a fence is made out of tree trunks to keep pigs from breaking in. This is usually done only after a pig has made its first expedition, and only on the side where the pig entered.' §REF§Schwimmer, Eric G. 1973. “Exchange In The Social Structure Of The Orokaiva: Traditional And Emergent Ideologies In The Northern District Of Papua”, 20§REF§ [Even in colonial settlements, services were of a makeshift character.]" }, { "id": 278, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Evidence for irrigation technology does not appear to predate the Chalcolithic §REF§(Akhund and Haroon 1995: XII) Hameed Akhun and Hameed Haroon. 1995. 'Preface' in <i>Mehrgarh</i>, edited by Catherine Jarrige, Jean-Francois Jarrige, Richard H. Meadow, and Gonzague Quivron. Karachi: Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh ; in collaboration with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.§REF§" }, { "id": 279, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to Ahmed, the variety of barley used \"could be grown only in the irrigated fields, it implies and improved method of farming in the Kachi plains.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2014, 321)§REF§ However, according to Akhund and Haroon, evidence for irrigation does not precede the Chalcolithic§REF§(Akhund and Haroon 1995: XII) Hameed Akhun and Hameed Haroon. 1995. 'Preface' in <i>Mehrgarh</i>, edited by Catherine Jarrige, Jean-Francois Jarrige, Richard H. Meadow, and Gonzague Quivron. Karachi: Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh ; in collaboration with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.§REF§." }, { "id": 280, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to Ahmed, the variety of barley used \"could be grown only in the irrigated fields, it implies and improved method of farming in the Kachi plains.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2014, 321)§REF§ However, according to Akhund and Haroon, evidence for irrigation does not precede the Chalcolithic§REF§(Akhund and Haroon 1995: XII) Hameed Akhun and Hameed Haroon. 1995. 'Preface' in <i>Mehrgarh</i>, edited by Catherine Jarrige, Jean-Francois Jarrige, Richard H. Meadow, and Gonzague Quivron. Karachi: Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh ; in collaboration with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.§REF§." }, { "id": 281, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Period II: variety of barley used \"could be grown only in the irrigated fields, it implies and improved method of farming in the Kachi plains.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2014, 321)§REF§ In the broader Harappan context, water control technology began during the Amri-Nal period. This included the use of small shallow ditches to guide water onto a flat area, and investment in some kind of bunding - a low earthen wall or a gabarband.§REF§Gregory L. Possehl. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi, 1999, p.619§REF§" }, { "id": 282, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The wealth of the Greeks and the number of cities were based on extensive irrigation and a wetter climate. These were based on the maintenance of Persian networks and expansion under the Greeks. §REF§Tarn, William Woodthorpe. <i>The Greeks in Bactria and India</i>. Cambridge University Press, 2010. pp. 101-105§REF§" }, { "id": 283, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation systems were present, but were not state owned. “…the main economic activity of the site was the cultivation of rice, Oryza sativa. There is evidence of rice-growing right from the beginning of the occupation and impressions of rice have been found in all the excavated areas… Only by the use of a system of dams… could it have been possible to fill the channels that were necessary to water the paddy-fields. We cannot doubt the ability of the inhabitants of Pirak to build such structures; since we have reported the discovery of a large channel running along the western side of the site, at the beginning of period IA.”§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard. p402§REF§§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (2000) Continuity and Change in the North Kachi Plain (Baluchistan, Pakistan) at the beginning of the Second Millennium BC. In, Lahiri, N. The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilization. Permanent Black, Delhi., pp345-362. p347§REF§" }, { "id": 284, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Period II: variety of barley used \"could be grown only in the irrigated fields, it implies and improved method of farming in the Kachi plains.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2014, 321)§REF§ In the broader Harappan context, water control technology began during the Amri-Nal period. This included the use of small shallow ditches to guide water onto a flat area, and investment in some kind of bunding - a low earthen wall or a gabarband.§REF§Gregory L. Possehl. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi, 1999, p.619§REF§" }, { "id": 285, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Based on plant remains, including rice suggests a certain degree of control over water to produce food. Also reported discovery of large channel running along western side of Pirak during Pirak IA§REF§Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Feb 2017)§REF§." }, { "id": 286, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The river Indus shifted its course three times during the period, substantially altering the areas irrigated for cultivation. This is detailed in a ground water map. Irrigation was the primary responsibility of the state §REF§Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh pp.121-134§REF§" }, { "id": 287, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The river Indus remained stable for the majority of the period. Irrigation was the primary responsibility of the state §REF§Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh pp.121-134; Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp.183§REF§" }, { "id": 288, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"[T]here is no evidence from the Indus period either of large-scale irrigation or of salinization there: The annual river floods and limited rainfall seem to have been adequate to support agriculture in the plains.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2008, 24) Jane McIntosh. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i>. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO.§REF§" }, { "id": 289, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"[T]here is no evidence from the Indus period either of large-scale irrigation or of salinization there: The annual river floods and limited rainfall seem to have been adequate to support agriculture in the plains.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2008, 24) Jane McIntosh. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i>. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO.§REF§" }, { "id": 290, "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "ru_sakha_early", "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In the pre-Russian period, the Sakha were transhumant pastoralists rather than farmers. Even in the early Russian period, settlements were built in close proximity to freshwater streams and lakes: 'It is watered [Page 327] from an ice-hole at the nearest river or lake. In spring it is often necessary to cut deep pathways in the ice, towards the old, exhausted ice-holes in order to secure the cattle access to the water. The cattle frequently kneel as they drink, while calves and horses drink out of buckets filled with water. The water in such old ice holes is nauseatingk putrid, and smells of hydrogen sulfide and of swamp. In order to diminish the freezing of the ice-holes during the night, the Yakut frequently cover them with straw covers and with snow. In this connection I may note that the ice on the lakes with ice-holes freezes apparently in a thicker layer than on the lakes on which no ice-holes are cut. In spring, [Page 328] when the nearest watering places are exhausted or have been frozen up, it becomes necessary on occasions to drive the cattle to a watering place about two viersts away, which is very inconvenient. That is why the selection of a place of settlement is strongly influenced by the nearness of the winter watering place. In hard frost, the watered cattle, shaking from cold, is driven into [Page 329] the warm cattle sheds where some feed is prepared for them in the mangers. In spring they have a little hay of a worse sort right in the enclosures. The calves, which all through the winter are kept in human dwellings, are fed and watered there, with the water on many occasions warmed up before the calves receive it. The cows that have just given birth to calves are also fed in the cattle sheds. Such cows are not taken 158 to water for 3-4 days and are instead given warm water to drink.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 326pp§REF§ Tokarev's material suggests that irrigation systems did not become common prior to the Soviet period: 'Many farms use water wheels and pumps to water their gardens. In 1952, more than 300,000 hectares of land, chiefly green meadows and pastureland, were irrigated by means of both permanent and temporary installations. The first specialized meadow-reclamation station had been set up in the Gorniy Rayon.' §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts”, 291§REF§" }, { "id": 291, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Settlements were built in close proximity to freshwater streams and lakes: 'It is watered [Page 327] from an ice-hole at the nearest river or lake. In spring it is often necessary to cut deep pathways in the ice, towards the old, exhausted ice-holes in order to secure the cattle access to the water. The cattle frequently kneel as they drink, while calves and horses drink out of buckets filled with water. The water in such old ice holes is nauseatingk putrid, and smells of hydrogen sulfide and of swamp. In order to diminish the freezing of the ice-holes during the night, the Yakut frequently cover them with straw covers and with snow. In this connection I may note that the ice on the lakes with ice-holes freezes apparently in a thicker layer than on the lakes on which no ice-holes are cut. In spring, [Page 328] when the nearest watering places are exhausted or have been frozen up, it becomes necessary on occasions to drive the cattle to a watering place about two viersts away, which is very inconvenient. That is why the selection of a place of settlement is strongly influenced by the nearness of the winter watering place. In hard frost, the watered cattle, shaking from cold, is driven into [Page 329] the warm cattle sheds where some feed is prepared for them in the mangers. In spring they have a little hay of a worse sort right in the enclosures. The calves, which all through the winter are kept in human dwellings, are fed and watered there, with the water on many occasions warmed up before the calves receive it. The cows that have just given birth to calves are also fed in the cattle sheds. Such cows are not taken 158 to water for 3-4 days and are instead given warm water to drink.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 326pp§REF§ Tokarev's material suggests that irrigation systems did not become common prior to the Soviet period: 'Many farms use water wheels and pumps to water their gardens. In 1952, more than 300,000 hectares of land, chiefly green meadows and pastureland, were irrigated by means of both permanent and temporary installations. The first specialized meadow-reclamation station had been set up in the Gorniy Rayon.' §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts”, 291§REF§" }, { "id": 292, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Ancient irrigation works on Kerma plateau date from c1500 BCE. First shaduf human-powered system, then the saqiya animal-powered water-wheel. However, latter probably appeared in Lower Nubia only in Meroitic times, after 300 BCE. §REF§(Mokhtar ed. 1981, 309)§REF§" }, { "id": 293, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Bennison ????, 88)§REF§ Existing networks were present in conquered areas in Egypt, Iraq and Syria. The Ummayyad's also created new networks for palaces and the imperial capital at Damascus." }, { "id": 294, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The <i>muang fai</i> irrigation system was used on fast flowing streams up to twenty metres in width, across which weirs elevated water by up to two or more metres. The <i>fai</i> held back water which was directed to major and minor canals known as <i>muang</i> in which gates, <i>tang</i>, controlled flow rates. Where a <i>muang</i> could be constructed by diverting water from a river, no <i>fai</i> was needed. Constructed from bamboo and woodern stakes driven into the river bed against which rocks, poles and sand were placed, the <i>fai</i> allowed water to pass through and over the barrier while restricting the rate of flow and thus raising the water level.\" §REF§(Falvey 2000, p. 113)§REF§" }, { "id": 295, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The <i>muang fai</i> irrigation system was used on fast flowing streams up to twenty metres in width, across which weirs elevated water by up to two or more metres. The <i>fai</i> held back water which was directed to major and minor canals known as <i>muang</i> in which gates, <i>tang</i>, controlled flow rates. Where a <i>muang</i> could be constructed by diverting water from a river, no <i>fai</i> was needed. Constructed from bamboo and woodern stakes driven into the river bed against which rocks, poles and sand were placed, the <i>fai</i> allowed water to pass through and over the barrier while restricting the rate of flow and thus raising the water level.\" §REF§(Falvey 2000, p. 113)§REF§" }, { "id": 296, "polity": { "id": 462, "name": "tj_sarasm", "long_name": "Sarazm", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"This centre of settlement, one of the oldest in Central Asia, is situated between a mountainous region suitable for cattle rearing by nomadic pastoralists, and a large valley conducive to the development of agriculture and irrigation by the first settled populations in the region.\"§REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1141\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1141</a>§REF§ \"perhaps at other settlements, eating bread made from wheat grown in irrigated fields (Isakov 1994, Isakov et al. 1987, Lyonnet 1996).\"§REF§(Anthony and Brown 2014, 63) Anthony, David W. Brown, Dorcas R. Horseback Riding and Bronze Age Pastoralism in the Eurasian Steppes. in Mair, Victor H. Hickman, Jane. eds. 2014. Reconfiguring the Silk Road: New Research on East-West Exchange in Antiquity. University of Pennsylvanian Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 297, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Large-scale plantations §REF§(Oliver 1977, 12)§REF§ (would have required irrigation)." }, { "id": 298, "polity": { "id": 163, "name": "tr_konya_lba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation canals §REF§(Bryce 2002, 16)§REF§" }, { "id": 299, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " System is known from cuneiform texts, but has not been yet unearthened during excavations." }, { "id": 300, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Preiser-Kapeller says present.§REF§(Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§ According to Haussig (1971) \"a highly developed use of land, particularly by means of irrigation, as in Egypt and Syria, was unknown to the Byzantine economy, where no progress had been made in working and cultivating the soil\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 175-176) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ Territory of Egypt and Syria not held in this period. However Harvey (2008): \"Landowners had the resources to make improvements to their properties, in particular the construction of irrigation systems, and to specialize in cash crops like vines and olives.\"§REF§(Harvey 2008, 634) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Vines and olives are typically grown in Greece and Turkey." } ] }