Irrigation System List
A viewset for viewing and editing Irrigation Systems.
GET /api/sc/irrigation-systems/?format=api
{ "count": 468, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/irrigation-systems/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Taxes were used to maintain a vital irrigation network in the southern part of Afganistan. Furthermore, existing networks of irrigation were present in conquered areas.§REF§Noelle, Christine. State and Tribe in Nineteenth-Century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan, 1826-1863. Psychology Press, 1997.§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The wealth of the greeks and the number of cities were based on extensive irrigation and a wetter climate. These were based on the maintenance of Persian networks and expansion under the greeks. §REF§Tarn, William Woodthorpe. <i>The Greeks in Bactria and India</i>. Cambridge University Press, 2010. pp. 101-105§REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Hephthalites were nomadic but this did not preclude them from using specialized buildings of settled people such as mints. They may also have had some interest in the irrigation systems present in the regions they conquered, if only for purposes of tribute." }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " During the Kushan period irrigation canals were constructed on large scale: \"As a result of the extensive development of irrigation networks, practically all the main provinces of Central Asia were brought under cultivation during this period and the establishment of the major crop-growing oases was completed.\"§REF§(Mukhamedjanov 1994, 257) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.§REF§ At least some of the irrigation infrastructure would have been maintained into the Kidarite period." }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation canals were constructed on large scale. \"As a result of the extensive development of irrigation networks, practically all the main provinces of Central Asia were brought under cultivation during this period and the establishment of the major crop-growing oases was completed.\"§REF§(Mukhamedjanov 1994, 257) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.§REF§ \"In the K’ang-chü-Kushan period, when irrigation systems reached their highest level of development, the area under irrigation along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya totalled 35,000-38,000 km2 (13,000 km2 on the lower Amu Darya and 22,000-25,000 km2 on the lower Syr Darya). Thus, in antiquity, the land area under irrigation along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya was four times greater than it is today. ... not more than 10-15 per cent of the land area, the irrigation zone, was directly used for crop-raising, in spite of the substantial supply of water.\"§REF§(Mukhamedjanov 1994, 261) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.§REF§ \"The process of carrying water to the fields was improved and various water distribution devices were introduced. Irrigation was effected in accordance with a specific flow pattern: main river, head, main canal, distribution canal, irrigation canal and fields.\"§REF§(Mukhamedjanov 1994, 260-261) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.§REF§ \"The major achievements of Kushan irrigation engineering included the boring of tunnel-like water-intake channels at the heads of main canals that emerged from the sheer rock sides of a mountain river, and the construction of aqueducts across ravines or gaps in mountain ridges.\"§REF§(Mukhamedjanov 1994, 262-263) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In the Khwarazm region. §REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ \"In Sogdiana, as in Bactria, only irrigated oases were fertile, \"but a large part of this territory consists of uninhabited desert; owing to its aridity these cheerless regions are without inhabitants and produce nothing\".1 Large settlements provided with walls (the site at Afrasiyab = Maracanda, and the Kyuzeligyr site in Chorasmia), apparently lacked continuous built-up areas and were (like the \"cliffs\" mentioned in connection with Alexander's campaigns) places of refuge for the whole population of an oasis (comparable to the refugia of the European \"barbarians\") rather than towns. Only about the beginning of theChristian era and in the first centuries of it do archaeological data give evidence of the appearance of trunk-canals of great length for irrigation purposes, and the rise of urban life in the full sense of the word.\" §REF§(Zeimal 1983, 244)§REF§" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Extension of irrigation projects §REF§(Roberts 2003)§REF§ Comprised a yanzhu, a reservoir, and fang, a dike. Water was channelled a sui at top of the field while a gui drained it away. §REF§(Higham 2009, 160)§REF§" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"...well-known extensive irrigation works and man-made transport canals linking up the major rivers\" §REF§(Du and Koenig 2012, 169) Du, P and Koenig, A. in Angelakis, Andreas Niklaos. Mays, Larry W. Koutsoyiannis, Demetris. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 422, "name": "cn_erligang", "long_name": "Erligang", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " During the Shang (exact period not mentioned): \"Progress in hydraulic technology allowed the creation of great systems of irrigation, increasing the productivity of cultures along the Yellow river.\"§REF§(Lemoy 2011, 72) Lemoy, Christian. 2011. Across the Pacific: From Ancient Asia to Precolombian America. Universal Publishers. Florida.§REF§ Since the source did mention three periods just before this quote and no period is assigned to this data one may infer that it implies a development that encompassed all periods, including the Erligang." }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Unknown. During the Shang (exact period not mentioned): \"Progress in hydraulic technology allowed the creation of great systems of irrigation, increasing the productivity of cultures along the Yellow river.\"§REF§(Lemoy 2011, 72) Lemoy, Christian. 2011. Across the Pacific: From Ancient Asia to Precolombian America. Universal Publishers. Florida.§REF§ Any \"progress\" before the Shang?" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to Ethnographic Atlas variable 28 'Intensity of Agriculture', the Hmong practice 'Intensive irrigated agriculture (J.)' Agricultural technologies and practices varied depending on the prevalence of dry swidden versus wet rice cultivation: 'Economic strategies vary. The Hua Miao were shifting-swidden agriculturalists, growing buckwheat, oats, corn, potatoes, and hemp, and using a simple wooden hand plow or hoe. Sheep and goats were fed on nearby pasture land. Additionally the Hua Miao hunted with crossbow and poisoned arrows and gathered foodstuffs in the forests. In parts of Guizhou, the Miao more closely resembled their Han neighbors in their economic strategies as well as in their technology (the bullock-drawn plow, harrowing, use of animal and human wastes as fertilizer). The Cowrie Shell Miao in central Guizhou were settled farmers growing rice in flooded fields, and also raising millet, wheat, beans, vegetables, and tobacco. Their livestock was limited to barnyard pigs and poultry, with hunting and gathering playing a very minor role. Some of the Black Miao in southeast Guizhou combine intensive irrigated terrace farming of rice with dry-field upland cropping.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ Wet rice cultivators farmed irrigated fields: 'In the region where the rivers flow down, the hills are less steep than in the plateau area. Both sides of the rivers can be made into terraced fields, and the water from the rivers used for irrigation. Further, the rivers are navigable by small craft, thus making communication relatively easier, and the Chinese have migrated here.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 53§REF§ 'Besides the yü fields the Miao also plant plots of land which can be flooded for growing rice. Rice grown in flooded fields is transplanted in April and May and is harvested in August and September. The Miao area is very mountainous and there are very few level areas for rice fields. They are found in small number only in the small basins in the mountains and along the banks of streams and rivers (Illus. 27), the rest being terraced fields (Illus. 28, 29). The land of the basins in the mountains are mainly irrigated by leading water from springs fed by mountain streams. Water wheels (Illus. 30) are used for irrigation in the terraced fields along the streams.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 81§REF§ As indicated above, we have decided to code for the A-Hmao, who were swidden cultivators. We have assumed that swidden farming was practiced without irrigation systems." }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to Ethnographic Atlas variable 28 'Intensity of Agriculture', the Hmong practice 'Intensive irrigated agriculture (J.)' Agricultural technologies and practices varied depending on the prevalence of dry swidden versus wet rice cultivation: 'Economic strategies vary. The Hua Miao were shifting-swidden agriculturalists, growing buckwheat, oats, corn, potatoes, and hemp, and using a simple wooden hand plow or hoe. Sheep and goats were fed on nearby pasture land. Additionally the Hua Miao hunted with crossbow and poisoned arrows and gathered foodstuffs in the forests. In parts of Guizhou, the Miao more closely resembled their Han neighbors in their economic strategies as well as in their technology (the bullock-drawn plow, harrowing, use of animal and human wastes as fertilizer). The Cowrie Shell Miao in central Guizhou were settled farmers growing rice in flooded fields, and also raising millet, wheat, beans, vegetables, and tobacco. Their livestock was limited to barnyard pigs and poultry, with hunting and gathering playing a very minor role. Some of the Black Miao in southeast Guizhou combine intensive irrigated terrace farming of rice with dry-field upland cropping.' §REF§Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao§REF§ Many Hmong groups practice wet rice terrace irrigation and used the horse-driven wooden water-wheel. Others were swidden agriculturalists who did not have irrigation. §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 53, 81§REF§§REF§Nurettin Celmeoglu. 2011. The Historical Anthroscape of Adana and the Fertile Lands. Selim Kapur. Hari Eswaran. W.E.H. Blum eds. 2011. Sustainable Land Management. Learning from the Past for the Future. Springer-Verlag. Berlin. pp. 262-263.§REF§" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Developed in Yellow River basin after Shang. §REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1979, 172)§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§关树东《金代的水利与社会经济》§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. \"water gates\" for the manual transportation of water into the city §REF§(Yanxin, 2011, p.22)§REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Regulations on Land Reclamation and Water Conservancy (N'ung t'ien shui-li t'iao-yueh) (1069) encouraged the recovering of fallow land as well as irrigation and water control projects.\"§REF§(Golas 2015, 151)§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " polity owned? Presumably. Under \"equal fields\" system state owned all farmland. Equal fields system present 485-780 CE. §REF§(Holcombe 2011, 67)§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 543, "name": "cn_peiligang", "long_name": "Peiligang", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -5001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Yi 2011, 45-52)§REF§§REF§(Zhang 2011, 286-292)§REF§ the Qing regime extended irrigation infrastructure into new areas, and the long- or short-term community enterprises like irrigation systems and other various civil construction projects offered sources of income through their management. §REF§(Rowe 2010, p.55, 113)§REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Yi 2011, 45-52)§REF§§REF§(Zhang 2011, 286-292)§REF§ The Board of Works was responsible for maintaining all official buildings, granaries, official communication routes, dykes, dams, and irrigation systems. §REF§(Smith 2015, 103)§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " During the Shang: \"Progress in hydraulic technology allowed the creation of great systems of irrigation, increasing the productivity of cultures along the Yellow river.\"§REF§(Lemoy 2011, 72) Lemoy, Christian. 2011. Across the Pacific: From Ancient Asia to Precolombian America. Universal Publishers. Florida.§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Besides the more well-known extensive irrigation works and man-made transport canals linking up the major rivers, the provision of water supplies to its cities formed the third important element of China's ancient water civilization.\"§REF§(Du and Koenig 2012, 169) Du, P and Koenig, A. in Angelakis, Andreas Niklaos. Mays, Larry W. Koutsoyiannis, Demetris. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Besides the more well-known extensive irrigation works and man-made transport canals linking up the major rivers, the provision of water supplies to its cities formed the third important element of China's ancient water civilization.\"§REF§(Du and Koenig 2012, 169) Du, P and Koenig, A. in Angelakis, Andreas Niklaos. Mays, Larry W. Koutsoyiannis, Demetris. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation known in this period: \"The oldest known hydraulic engineers of China were Sunshu Ao (6th century BCE) of the Spring and Autumn Period and Ximen Bao (5th century BCE) of the Warring States period, both of whom worked on large irrigation projects.\"§REF§(Henkel 2015, 87) Henkel, Marlon. 2015. 21st Century Homestead: Sustainable Agriculture III: Agricultural Practices. Lulu.com.§REF§ \"Around 430 B.C., the first known large-scale irrigation project was built on the North China Plain (near present-day Hebei Province) to channel water from the Yellow River to nearby fields.\"§REF§(Karplus and Deng 2007, 10) Karplus, Valerie J. Deng, Xing Wang. 2007. Agricultural Biotechnology in China: Origins and Prospects. Springer Science & Business Media.§REF§" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Keay 2009, 146)§REF§ List of agricultural practices includes irrigation: \"intensive cultivation, field preparation, seed selection, irrigation, manuring, crop rotation, multicropping, animal power, specialised tools.\" §REF§(Roberts 2003, 43)§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Developed in Yellow River basin after Shang. §REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1979, 172)§REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Common feature of Chinese agriculture from the Shang Dynasty onwards." }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Langebaek 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The presence of irrigation canals along the coast and garden terraces in the mountain indicates that the Tairona cultivated the land intensively; areas beside the sea were exploited seasonally for salt, and in places where ecological factors dictated low yields of fish, agriculture could be intensified.\" §REF§(Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 423)§REF§ \"covered canals\" are mentioned in Pueblito. \"This situation changed dramatically at some point between A.D. 1100 and A.D. 1200 as terraces in the central area are raised rather rapidly, their areas extended by way of masonry retaining walls and stone foundation rings are set in place. It is also at this point in time that the Eastern Plaza is built and acquires the form we see today; the large ceremonial/feasting ring is set into place, the covered canal is built, and the residences located towards the eastern side of the plaza are dismantled and the level raised at least 1 meter.\"§REF§(Giraldo 2010, 207)§REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The Shuar did not practice irrigation, and instead relied on proximity to minor freshwater tributaries: 'The Indians like to dwell in the vicinity of rivers. Once they have found a suitable spot, they start by clearing out a lot. [51] Such clearing is necessary everywhere, for there is no territory without forest. On the clearing a temporary hut is built out of the timber which the clearing process had yielded. More trees are then cut down to obtain a larger area for the fields where they plant Yucca, corn, cotton, bananas, and maní. This field is as a rule somewhat removed from the house and in the middle of the forest. I have not been able to find out the reason for this. They do it perhaps because there is no suitable land close to the river, where the huts are set up, or for some other reason. As they go along, they collect the material for their permanent home. The erection of the permanent dwelling is a slow process, and occasionally it may take several years before it is ready since they work on it only seldom and with long interruptions.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 50p§REF§ '“In describing my journeys among the Jibaro Indians I had occasion to mention repeatedly that the savage Jibaros never settle on the banks of the main rivers, but prefer to make their houses beside small affluents in the interior of the country. The reason for this is obvious: it is due to their constant fear of hostile attacks. By hiding themselves in the forests in the way they do, they not only avoid the whites, who now and then travel along the main rivers, but they are also better protected against hostile Indian tribes. The Jibaro houses are also largely constructed with a view to keeping off uninvited guests; in fact, nearly every house is a sort of fortress, as will be shown in greater detail in the part dealing with the warfare of the Indians.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru\", 94§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The Shuar did not practice irrigation, and instead relied on proximity to minor freshwater tributaries: 'The Indians like to dwell in the vicinity of rivers. Once they have found a suitable spot, they start by clearing out a lot. [51] Such clearing is necessary everywhere, for there is no territory without forest. On the clearing a temporary hut is built out of the timber which the clearing process had yielded. More trees are then cut down to obtain a larger area for the fields where they plant Yucca, corn, cotton, bananas, and maní. This field is as a rule somewhat removed from the house and in the middle of the forest. I have not been able to find out the reason for this. They do it perhaps because there is no suitable land close to the river, where the huts are set up, or for some other reason. As they go along, they collect the material for their permanent home. The erection of the permanent dwelling is a slow process, and occasionally it may take several years before it is ready since they work on it only seldom and with long interruptions.' §REF§Brüning, Hans H. 1928. “Travelling In The Aguaruna Region”, 50p§REF§ '“In describing my journeys among the Jibaro Indians I had occasion to mention repeatedly that the savage Jibaros never settle on the banks of the main rivers, but prefer to make their houses beside small affluents in the interior of the country. The reason for this is obvious: it is due to their constant fear of hostile attacks. By hiding themselves in the forests in the way they do, they not only avoid the whites, who now and then travel along the main rivers, but they are also better protected against hostile Indian tribes. The Jibaro houses are also largely constructed with a view to keeping off uninvited guests; in fact, nearly every house is a sort of fortress, as will be shown in greater detail in the part dealing with the warfare of the Indians.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru\", 94§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation improved under al-Kamil.§REF§(Oliver 1977, 35)§REF§ A multitude of public works were carried out under the supervision of Saladin's eunuch Qaraqush, including a canal in Upper Egypt which is known Bahr Yusif, after Saladin's second name, even though it had originally been dug by the Pharaohs and had silted up. §REF§(Marsot 1985, 22)§REF§ По приказанию Салах ад-Дина всего было сооружено 40 с половиной плотин и один канал. §REF§(Семенова 1966, 87)§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Menes began construction of basins to retain flood waters, dug canals and irrigation ditches to reclaim marshland. §REF§(Angelakis et al. 2012, 128-130)§REF§ \"By the Early Dynastic Period, simple basin irrigation may have been practised, thus extending the amount of land under cultivation and producing increased yields.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 65)§REF§" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Menes began construction of basins to retain flood waters, dug canals and irrigation ditches to reclaim marshland. §REF§(Angelakis et al. 2012, 128-130)§REF§ \"By the Early Dynastic Period, simple basin irrigation may have been practised, thus extending the amount of land under cultivation and producing increased yields.\" §REF§(Bard 2000, 65)§REF§" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " New canals and dams opened up irrigated land. §REF§(Oliver 1977, 39-67)§REF§ Nasiri canal \"made it possible to install waterwheels for irrigating gardens.\" §REF§(Raymond 2000, 124)§REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Increasingly government could not afford upkeep of canals, dams and irrigation systems. §REF§(Oliver 1977, 39-67)§REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " New canals and dams opened up irrigated land. §REF§(Oliver 1977, 39-67)§REF§ Nasiri canal \"made it possible to install waterwheels for irrigating gardens.\" §REF§(Raymond 2000, 124)§REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Sesostris II (1897-1878 BCE) irrigation and land reclamation in Fayyum. Project completed under Amenemhet III (1842-1797 BCE). §REF§(Stearns 2001, 30)§REF§ Evidence of major public projects in Kush so Egyptians could colonise region.§REF§(Angelakis et al. 2012, 132)§REF§ Middle Kingdom irrigation systems were pre-shaduf. Shaduf introduced middle second millennium BCE §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García, Recent Developments in the Social and Economic History of Ancient Egypt, 14)§REF§, which would be around start of the New Kingdom. \"the irrigation regime, which lay at the root of the economy, was based on a system with basins or basin chains, i.e. smaller or larger areas within which collaboration is a precondition for successful agriculture.\"§REF§(Willems 2013, 352)§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "eg_naqada_1", "long_name": "Naqada I", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"There is no field evidence of irrigation during the Gerzean as suggested by Krzyzaniak (1977), but some of the design motifs on Gerzean pots may be interpreted as canals.\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 156)§REF§ The inhabitants of the Nile Valley were dependent on agriculture by c3800 BCE and \"It has been noticed that in the end of Naqada I period, the climate became drier and Nile floods were declining. The fields could not be longer irrigated naturally.§REF§Perez-Largacha, A. \"Chiefs and Protodynastic Egypt. A hydraulic relation ?\". <i>Archéo-Nil</i> 5 (1995): 80-81.§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " <i>irrigation canals or dams. a dam would also count as a water source infrastructure for agricultural use.</i> \"There is no field evidence of irrigation during the Gerzean as suggested by Krzyzaniak (1977), but some of the design motifs on Gerzean pots may be interpreted as canals.\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 156)§REF§ However, the inhabitants of the Nile Valley were dependent on agriculture by c3800 BCE and \"It has been noticed that in the end of Naqada I period, the climate became drier and Nile floods were declining. The fields could not be longer irrigated naturally§REF§Perez-Largacha, A. \"Chiefs and Protodynastic Egypt. A hydraulic relation ?\". <i>Archéo-Nil</i> 5 (1995): 80-81.§REF§ - does this suggest irrigation systems appear as a response to climate change, when the \"natural irrigation\" (known before the Naqada II period) no longer became as effective? The closest and earliest evidence we have for digging associated with irrigation is the ceremonial inauguration of a waterwork on the macehead of the Scorpion King, which shows two workmen with hoes excavating while the king wields a large hoe and a man holding a basket anticipates the king's action. The scene may represent not the digging of a canal but rather the ceremonial breaking of a dam to let floodwater flow into a natural irrigation basin, an act which was traditional in later times. §REF§(Hassan 1988, 156)§REF§ The iconographical interpretation of the mace-head of the Skorpion raises a lot of controversy and it is said that it could either be the canal building in a particular place (possibly Memphis), and not appearance of the irrigation system in general - or, there are also interpretations which are far from the canal digging. §REF§Ciałowicz, K. M. 1999. Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa-Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. pg: 338-339.§REF§" }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " <i>irrigation canals and/or dams</i> \"There is no field evidence of irrigation during the Gerzean as suggested by Krzyzaniak (1977), but some of the design motifs on Gerzean pots may be interpreted as canals.\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 156)§REF§ However, the inhabitants of the Nile Valley were dependent on agriculture by c3800 BCE and \"It has been noticed that in the end of Naqada I period, the climate became drier and Nile floods were declining. The fields could not be longer irrigated naturally§REF§Perez-Largacha, A. \"Chiefs and Protodynastic Egypt. A hydraulic relation ?\". <i>Archéo-Nil</i> 5 (1995): 80-81.§REF§ - does this suggest irrigation systems appear as a response to climate change, when the \"natural irrigation\" (known before the Naqada II period) no longer became as effective? The closest and earliest evidence we have for digging associated with irrigation is the ceremonial inauguration of a waterwork on the macehead of the Scorpion King, which shows two workmen with hoes excavating while the king wields a large hoe and a man holding a basket anticipates the king's action. The scene may represent not the digging of a canal but rather the ceremonial breaking of a dam to let floodwater flow into a natural irrigation basin, an act which was traditional in later times. §REF§(Hassan 1988, 156)§REF§ The iconographical interpretation of the mace-head of the Skorpion raises a lot of controversy and it is said that it could either be the canal building in a particular place (possibly Memphis), and not appearance of the irrigation system in general - or, there are also interpretations which are far from the canal digging. §REF§Ciałowicz, K. M. 1999. Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa-Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. pg: 338-339.§REF§" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation was a local responsibility throughout the Pharaonic period. Central authority primarily concerned with taxation. However, central government was responsible for national projects like land reclamation and irrigation of new areas in Fayyum and Delta. Techniques employed included extension of canal network for the control of flood waters, and the human powered shaduf system. §REF§(Nicholson and Shaw 2000, 515)§REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Irrigation was a local responsibility throughout the Pharaonic period. Central authority primarily concerned with taxation. However, central government was responsible for national projects like land reclamation and irrigation of new areas in Fayyum and Delta. Techniques employed included extension of canal network for the control of flood waters, and the human powered shaduf system. §REF§(Nicholson and Shaw 2000, 515)§REF§ Shaduf introduced middle second millennium BCE §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García, Recent Developments in the Social and Economic History of Ancient Egypt, 14)§REF§, which would be around start of the New Kingdom." }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Menes began construction of basins to retain flood waters, dug canals and irrigation ditches to reclaim marshland. By 2500 BCE, a system of dikes, canals and sluices had been constructed. Irrigation system was communal. §REF§(Angelakis et al. 2012, 128)§REF§§REF§(Angelakis et al. 2012, 130)§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Irrigation_system", "irrigation_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Menes began construction of basins to retain flood waters, dug canals and irrigation ditches to reclaim marshland. By 2500 BCE, a system of dikes, canals and sluices had been constructed. Irrigation system was communal.§REF§(Angelakis et al. 2012, 128)§REF§§REF§(Angelakis et al. 2012, 130)§REF§" } ] }